LESSON ONE

ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE

Primitive Architecture (7000 BC–2500 BC)

architecture followed endless centuries of
Paleolithic Age
primitive development.
Neolithic Age
Megalithic Structures
Paleolithic Age
Egyptian Architecture (5000 BC–100 AD) As long ago as 25,000 years, during the
Introduction Paleolithic or Old Stone Age, mankind’s energy
Influences was concentrated on survival—the search for
The Nile River food. Man was a consumer, a nomad, a
Egyptian Religion homeless and solitary hunter of wild game
Characteristics animals and a gatherer of wild plants. He took
Tomb Architecture what the land offered and then moved on, as did
Temple Architecture the herds he followed. Primitive man lived and
Examples slept outside in the open air. His only shelter
Middle Eastern Architecture might have been the bough of a tree or a natural
(2500 BC–500 BC) cave, but it is clear that the earliest humans
Introduction created almost nothing.
Influences
Early Settlement Neolithic Age
Characteristics
Examples Only when man was able to free himself from
this perpetual struggle for survival was
civilization able to develop. During the
Neolithic or New Stone Age, some 10,000 years
ago, primitive men and women learned to
PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE domesticate animals and cultivate crops. This
liberation was the first revolution in the story of
Somewhere, many thousands of years ago, humanity. Man now became a producer,
someone built the first structure. But who this learning to produce and store food. Thereafter,
person was or how the structure was built he was comparatively freed from his previous
remains a mystery. Archeologists have never nomadic existence. With fields and herds to
been able to determine the precise origins of provide a fairly reliable source of food, and with
construction any more than they have learned neighbors to share the work, primitive man
exactly how language began. The emergence of learned to live in a permanent village as part of

1
2 Architectural History

a tribe. He invented many tools that made life

easier—spears, fish hooks, baskets, pots,
canoes—and, once settled, primitive man
invented the town.

The revolutionary change from nomadic con-

sumer to settled producer took thousands of
years, as, similarly, did the development of archi-
tecture. The primitive people who plowed the soil
took shelter under trees, which inspired huts that
were made from branches, reeds, and mud.

impressive structures is Stonehenge on the

Salisbury Plains in England. Here, the open
ground was ringed with a series of upright stone
monoliths, topped by stone lintels. Stonehenge
was a highly symbolic place that was probably
used for ancient worship or other mystical rites.

Primitive architectural developments are

something of a dead end. There has yet to be
found a direct connection between these earliest
manifestations and subsequent activities that
took place in the eastern Mediterranean area
many years later. In a sense, there is an
Shepherds who lived with their flocks would lie
down under the shelter of animal skins. These,
when raised on branches, became the first tents.
Huts, natural caves, and tents were the three
primitive types of human dwellings that inspired
all later architectural development.

Megalithic Structures
The Neolithic Age was also the period of
megalithic (meaning: great + stone) structures
that were usually erected for religious or
mystical purposes. A foremost example of these
 Lesson One: Ancient Architecture 3

architectural missing link. Therefore, we call To live in the Nile Valley was to be surrounded,
these first tentative developments prehistoric. from birth to death, by a geography and way of
life of extraordinary simplicity. Under 30
The history of civilization—and of dynasties of pharaohs, the political, social, and
architecture—did not evolve at any one specific economic structure of Egypt developed into an
center. Rather, it emerged simultaneously at impressive culture within a highly stable
several areas of cultural development: the river civilization. Through most of nearly 3,000
valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates in years, the way of life continued relatively
Mesopotamia, the valley of the Nile in Egypt, unchanged. The basic architectural forms, as
the Indus Valley in northwest India, and the well, remained constant.
Valley of the Yangtse in China. Each of these
fertile valleys provided the means by which food The ancient Egyptian culture may be viewed
could be produced easily and abundantly. Which as one of the most successful adaptations to
civilization came first, nobody knows for environment in the history of the world. Were
certain. We do know, however, that wherever this not so, the same expression of power and
people gathered in groups, some sort of stability could not have endured for 30 centuries.
architecture resulted. For our purposes, we shall
pick up the thread of Western architectural Influences
development in the valley of the Nile.
Few countries began with a natural geography
as simple and regular as that of Egypt. On each
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE side of the Nile River was a fertile valley
bordered by desert. Toward the south, the desert
Introduction was flanked by mountains on each side that
clearly defined the limits of human activity. The
Egypt, mysterious land of the pharaohs, was entire area resembled a great longitudinal oasis
ancient even to the ancients. It was a great nation whose character was relatively uniform
almost 1,000 years before Moses led the Israel- throughout.
ites out of bondage, and it was viewed by the
Greeks and Romans of 2,000 years ago in much The Nile River
the same way as we view the ruins of Greece The axis of this composition was the Nile River.
and Rome today. To the ancient Egyptians, the Nile was the
absolute source of all life. Each summer the
The building forms that took shape in ancient Nile would swell with the torrential rains and
Egypt were the forerunners of what the Western melted snows from the south, rush north,
world calls its architectural heritage. The mighty and overflow its banks on the way to the
Egyptian monuments are still considered to be Mediterranean. As the waters receded, a layer
among the most impressive structures in the of fertile silt, called black land by the Egyptians,
history of architecture. They were the product was deposited along the adjacent desert lands.
of a well-organized, dominant, and enduring The resulting fertility of the soil produced
civilization whose people lived in relative agricultural wealth, which provided security
security and contentment. and independence.
4 Architectural History

The Nile River additionally served as an avenue therefore became one of the important principles
of transportation and communication. The ease of Egyptian architecture. The preservation of the
and freedom of water travel to all parts of the soul involved several other common practices.
kingdom helped to maintain a closely bound Placed within the several chambers of the tomb
country. It was, therefore, on the banks of the were sculptured effigies and an entire household
Nile that the Egyptians founded their cities—for of familiar possessions—furniture, utensils,
both the living and the dead. On the east bank jewelry, etc. Carved or painted on the tomb
were the temples, while on the west bank were walls were pictures of the family and servants
the tombs and the royal pyramids. of the deceased, while scenes of food and drink
were included to nourish the soul.
The cliffs flanking the Nile Valley provided the
stone that became the primary building material In these various ways, the noble soul was kept
of the Egyptians. These quarries yielded alive for an eternity with everything necessary
enormous stone blocks that were ferried along for a good life. The tomb, therefore, was not
the river to where they were needed. The Nile only a monument, but also a storehouse, a
also provided mud, which the Egyptians used chapel, and a work of art. We have learned so
to produce sun-dried bricks. These were used to much about the ancient Egyptian civilization
construct houses and other utilitarian structures because of the wealth of artifacts and
that did not require the permanence of tombs information that has been discovered in
and temples. Timber was scarce and therefore excavated tombs. To know them in death is to
rarely used in permanent construction. How- know them as they once lived.
ever, wood was used sparingly in dwelling con-
struction and more commonly for boats and Characteristics
mummy cases.
In their desire to demonstrate the continuation
of life after death, the ancient Egyptians sought
In all this, we can see how the Nile River exerted
to develop an eternal order in symbolic form.
a profound influence on Egyptian life and the
Thus, Egyptian architecture showed a greater
character of Egyptian buildings.
adherence to established form—that is, a greater
uniformity—than did the architecture of any
Egyptian Religion
other area. Early in their history, the
Another force that had a powerful influence on
Egyptians found a symbolic expression so
the development of Egyptian architecture was
satisfying to them that they believed that any
the religious belief of life after death. This con-
change could only be detrimental. Originality
cept of everlasting life pervaded all manners and
was suppressed, deviation was discouraged, and
customs. To achieve the immortality of the soul,
in the course of thousands of years, very little
it was essential to preserve in death all that had
changed.
existed in life. Thus, we find bodies kept from
decay through highly skillful methods of
The head of Egypt, both in politics and religion,
embalming and mummification.
was the pharaoh. He was considered divine, and
therefore was the figurehead of the priest class.
It followed logically, once the corpse was
However, he was controlled by the priesthood,
preserved, that it also had to be protected by an
which became a powerful group embodying the
impregnable tomb. This was more difficult, and
authority, wisdom, and mystery of the age.
 Lesson One: Ancient Architecture 5

The great temples, built to honor the numerous was a stone fragment that carried the same mes-
gods, were solely for the use of this priest class. sage in three languages, one of which was
The sacred mysteries within were never hieroglyphics.
revealed to the people.
Temple Architecture
The great monuments of Egypt were built Egyptian temple architecture was essentially an
primarily by prisoners of war and vast armies expression in stone, and therefore, in the
of slaves. At one time, the slave class far trabeated style, that is, post-and-beam.
outnumbered the free population. Columns were generously proportioned and
closely spaced because the stone lintels had
Tomb Architecture limited spanning capability. Continuous flat
The tombs of the ancient pharaohs took the form slabs of stone formed the roofs of the temples.
of the pyramid. These colossal mounds of
masonry served to protect and express the Basically, the temple plan was axially organized
perpetuity of the soul within. With the possible and consisted of three parts: a colonnaded
exception of the cone, the pyramid is the most courtyard, a hypostyle hall, and a sanctuary. The
stable of all geometric forms. Its great mass is entrance pylon was formed by two massive
the essence of permanence, and it is likely that towers, with battered, or inclined, walls, which
this form was a conscious and logical selection. were united by a tall door. As one penetrated
the building, the spaces became gradually
smaller and darker until one reached the dark
and relatively tiny sanctuary. From the open
courtyard, one entered the hypostyle hall which
was lit from above by clerestory openings.

The walls of Egyptian tombs were generally

covered with paintings or low-carved reliefs.
The hieroglyphics, or symbol writing, which
surrounded these pictures were usually
descriptions of the person and prayers that
would be helpful in the afterlife. Around 1800,
the key to this symbol language was discovered
by Champollion. After several years of work,
he broke the code of the Rosetta Stone, which
6 Architectural History

faced with limestone blocks and appeared

solidly permanent.

The first pyramid-shaped tomb was built around

2700 BC at Saqqara. It was the stepped
Pyramid of King Zoser that was, strictly speak-
ing, not a pyramid at all, but rather a series of
mastabas placed one upon another. It was built
by Imhotep, who is considered to be the first
At the same time, the floor rose as the ceiling
architect in history.
became lower.
The most famous royal tombs are those at Giza
Windows were virtually nonexistent for several
from about 2600 BC. The three great pyramids
reasons. First, the activities within the temples
of Cheops, Chephren, and Mykerinus were
were mysterious and secret, not for the eyes
constructed in the conventional pyramid shape.
of the average citizen. In addition, the strong
The great pyramid of Cheops was the largest
light reflecting off the desert made windows
mass of stone ever erected by man. It covered
unnecessary, while the desert heat and
13 acres, was about 50 stories high, and its sides
occasional sandstorms made them undesirable.
were oriented to the cardinal points. The
Column capitals were derived from indigenous
plants, such as the lotus, papyrus, and palm.
The two principal capital types were the bud and
the inverted bell. Incised hieroglyphics were
used over all building surfaces with almost wild
abandon. It had the same effect that wallpaper
has today.

Examples
The earliest historic tombs were the mastabas,
generally constructed for the noblemen and the
middle class. Small and rectangular, with
battered walls and flat roofs, mastabas were
 Lesson One: Ancient Architecture 7

Egypt abounded with great temples of the

exclusive priest class. The largest of these was
the Great Temple of Amon (Karnak), which
was begun around 2000 BC. For several hun-
dred years, it was added to by many pharaohs
until it appeared as a group of temples. The
mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut (Deir
el-Bahari) was a departure in style. It consisted
of three terraced courts cut into the rock and
situated at the foot of dramatically vertical cliffs.

The great Pharaoh Rameses II, who was said to

have fathered some 200 children, was also the
most prolific of builders. Among his projects
were the Rock-Cut Temples at Abu Simbel,
before which stood enormous statues of its
founder. The temple was relocated as a result of
the Aswan Dam project in the 1970s.

essential pyramidal form was overpowering and Among the many temples constructed during the
clearly conveyed the message of authority Ptolemaic (Greek) period, the best preserved
and eternity. was the Temple of Horus at Edfu. It was
actually built about 150 years after the
The final type of Egyptian tomb was the
rock-hewn type, which was carved out of solid
or “living” rock. An example of this was at Beni
Hasan, where there is a fluted column believed
to be the forerunner of the Greek Doric order.
8 Architectural History

Parthenon, yet it adhered as rigidly to the classic shapeless mounds where towers and palaces had
Egyptian style as if it were built 1,000 years once stood.
earlier.
During the middle of the 19th century,
Standing before the temples were a great variety archeologists revealed to the world that the
of sphinxes, which were figures with the body people who settled in this area were the very
of a lion and the head of a man, ram, or hawk. first to live in cities. Other remarkable
There were also obelisks, or stone monoliths, discoveries confirmed that they were the first
which were generally placed in pairs. Many of people to use the arch in construction, study the
these were removed by the Romans to Italy, stars, use wheeled vehicles, evolve a practical
where they may be seen today. system of writing, and compile a legal code. In
short, it was in this Middle Eastern area that
man first became civilized: where industry,
MIDDLE EASTERN ARCHITECTURE commerce, technology, and art found room to
grow and expand. It is evident that, more than
Introduction any other region, this area merits being called
Before archeologists began to dig in what are the cradle of civilization.
now Iraq and Iran, almost nothing was known
of the empires that flourished there 4,500 years Influences
ago. The Bible and ancient historical writings The ancient civilizations of the Middle East,
briefly mention the Babylonians and Assyrians, sometimes referred to as Western Asia, began
but the information is vague and contradictory. to develop in the valley between the Tigris
Of a still older people, the Sumerians, nothing and Euphrates Rivers. This area, referred to as
at all was known until recently—not even that Mesopotamia (meaning: land between the rivers),
they had existed. is the one to which tradition has assigned the
location of the Garden of Eden. Whether or not
Unlike the early Egyptians, the people of these civilized life actually began there, this area did
civilizations built with mud brick, not stone. give birth to three of the world’s great faiths:
Thus, the rain and shifting sands left only Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. We can also
 Lesson One: Ancient Architecture 9

trace our system of chronology and astronomy East of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, on land that
to Mesopotamia, as well as the cuneiform writ- was higher and therefore drier, the ancient
ing that evolved into an alphabet that served as Persians settled. In this area timber was
the origin of all Western written languages. available, as was limestone and, of course, an
abundance of mud and clay for brickmaking.
Early Settlement
In general, all of the Middle Eastern civiliza-
The earliest civilization of the Mesopotamian
tions were polytheistic, believing in many
area differed in many ways from that of Egypt.
gods. They also believed in an afterlife, but
The ancient Egyptian tribes came together out
unlike the Egyptians, there was no cult of
of mutual need and remained united for their
the dead. Consequently, there was no
common benefit. They lived in relative security,
development of monumental tombs or funerary
protected on all sides by great stretches of barren
temples as in Egypt. The temples of this
desert. This was not the case in Mesopotamia.
area were built solely for the worship of the
In that arid and inhospitable region, various
gods by the living.
tribes settled on the open plains, covering as
much area as they could protect. A great deal
A powerful priestly class existed whose
of their vitality was spent defending themselves
activities included astrology. Through their
against hostile tribes.
study of the heavenly bodies, they interpreted
the will of the gods. It was for these astrologer-
The area of Lower Mesopotamia, where the
priests that the monumental stepped ziggurats
Babylonians, and later the Assyrians, settled,
were erected.
was not a land “flowing with milk and honey.”
It was a difficult environment that was
alternately parched and flooded, depending on
the season. In this alluvial district of thick mud
and clay deposits, no stone was found and no
trees would grow. The mode of construction that
developed, therefore, was an architecture based
upon the brick, since that was the unit of
construction most easily formed from the raw
materials available.

Walls were constructed of sun-dried brick and

often faced with colored glazed brick. In some
cases, the facing material consisted of alabaster
or limestone slabs, which were generally carved
with low reliefs and inscriptions. The valleys of
Mesopotamia were often inundated by
destructive floods. Because of this danger, and
also the annoying insects that prevailed
throughout the long, hot summers, towns and
palaces were constructed upon enormous
elevated platforms.
10 Architectural History

The ancient Babylonians were principally architecture was substantially and artfully
traders and merchants, in contrast to the constructed. Records have been unearthed that
Assyrians and Persians, who were far more attest to the care, skill, and even daring that was
warlike. The history of the Middle East employed by the master builders of that time.
comprises an endless succession of bloody More emphatic evidence of their competence
battles and wars. Prisoners from these wars may be assumed by a law contained in
became the slaves who constructed the great Hammurabi’s code that provided that if a builder
architectural monuments. constructed a house for a man, but did not make
his work strong, with the result that the house
Characteristics which he built collapsed and caused the death
of the owner of the house, that builder shall be
The availability of clay—and little else in the
put to death.
way of construction materials—led to the
production of sun-dried bricks, which formed
Examples
the mass of walls and palace platforms in this
area. Walls were faced with colorfully glazed A dramatic and characteristic structure of
bricks and tiles, as well as delicately carved Babylonia was the ziggurat. It was a prominent
alabaster slabs. tower consisting of seven layers, each of which
represented a heavenly planet. Quite often, each
The Babylonians and Assyrians both employed layer was faced with glazed brick of different
arches and vaulted roofs. These were developed colors. The basic form of the ziggurat took on
because of the need to span wide openings with great meaning. Its considerable height not only
brick, a very small constructive unit. There is made it visible for miles around, but also
even evidence to suggest that the Assyrians may brought it closer to heaven.
have developed the dome. Brick construction,
therefore, is a prominent feature of Middle The Palace of Sargon (Khorsabad)
Eastern architecture. Columns were rarely used, This was an enormous palace complex that
since neither stone nor timber was readily covered almost 25 acres. The entire structure
available. was built upon an elevated platform that was
connected to the ground by means of broad
The architectural characteristics found in Persia stairways and ramps. Most of the rooms were
are somewhat different. Persia inherited many narrow, windowless, and roofed by brick vaults.
established forms from the Assyrians, to which At the entrance gates were found sculpted
they added some features borrowed from Egypt. winged bulls or lions with human heads.
In this area, stone and some timber were avail-
able. Thus, Persian palace architecture employed Palace Group (Persepolis)
a columnar expression. Wall construction, These famous Persian structures were a strange
however, still utilized the conventional brick conglomeration of ancient Eastern and Egyptian
methods developed earlier. Persian roofs were ideas. Several of the impressive structures were
probably supported by large timbers. built by the Emperors Darius and Xerxes.

Even though little remains from these early It is clear that the mighty monuments of ancient
periods, we can assume that Middle Eastern architecture can be as instructive today as they
 Lesson One: Ancient Architecture 11

were in the past. Although the efforts of these

earliest civilizations have impressed new
generations for thousands of years, it may be
difficult to feel a spiritual relationship with these
ancient cultures that disappeared so long ago. It
should be remembered, however, that valuable
legacies from the Middle East and Egypt have
survived for over 5,000 years, and in this
respect, ancient architecture represents concepts
as enduring as anything that has ever existed.
 LESSON 1 QUIZ
1. The earliest human tribes were nomadic 4. Which of the following statements
because concerning the ziggurat is INCORRECT?
A. they depended on mobility to escape the A. It consisted of seven stepped layers,
ever-present danger of wild animals. each representing a planet.
B. they had not yet conceived of baskets, B. It was erected for divine worship by the
pots, and other storage receptacles. Babylonians.
C. they were obliged to follow their C. It was of towering height in order to be
domesticated flocks in search of grazing closer to heaven.
land. D. It was commonly used by Middle
D. they were perpetually hunting and Eastern astrologers.
gathering food in new areas.
5. Which of the following architectural
2. Among the following descriptive terms, features were applicable to the Egyptian
which would NOT apply to Egyptian temple?
architecture? I. Plan arranged about an axis
I. Enduring IV. Symbolic II. Wall generally battered
II. Imaginative V. Uniform III. Widely spaced massive columns
III. Simple VI. Delicate IV. Clerestory light in the hypostyle hall
A. I, III, IV, and V C. II and VI V. Regularly spaced wall openings
B. II, IV, and VI D. II only A. I, II, and IV C. II, III, and V
B. I, III, and IV D. II, IV, and V
3. The temple at Abu Simbel is generally
recognized for its
6. Which of the following statements about
A. importance as a Ptolemaic temple. megalithic structures is correct?
B. unusual placement at the foot of steep A. It is likely that we will never know
stone cliffs. anything factual about them.
C. extraordinary stone carving and B. The individual parts were arranged with
monumental statues. no semblance of geometry.
D. valuable funerary treasures of C. It is reasonable to assume that they could
Rameses II. only have been erected by vast armies
of slaves.
D. They were probably erected for some
significant symbolic purpose.

12
 Lesson One: Ancient Architecture 13

7. The belief in an everlasting life pervaded all 9. All of the following terms refer to Egyptian
areas of Egyptian society. Which of the architecture, EXCEPT
following was NOT a direct consequence of A. ziggurat. C. mastaba.
this powerful force?
B. obelisk. D. pylon.
A. Bodies were kept from decay through
mummification. 10. Egyptian temple architecture was in the
B. Tombs and pyramids were located on the trabeated style because
east bank of the Nile. A. it was the only system of construction
C. Tomb walls were generally covered by known to the Egyptians.
paintings and hieroglyphics. B. it was a logical expression of stone
D. The principal characteristic of all tombs construction.
was their impregnability. C. an arcuated expression was not suited to
the Egyptian climate.
8. A prominent feature of Middle Eastern
D. a flat-roofed expression was appropriate
architecture was
to the desert.
A. the dome. C. stone arches.
B. trabeation. D. brick construction.