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WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

UNIT 1V:

IRRIGATION

CONTENTS:

Aims / objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Definitions of Irrigation

1.3 Necessity and Importance of Irrigation

1.4 Advantages of Irrigation

1.5 Ill effects of Irrigation

1.6 Types of Irrigation systems

1.6.1.a Flow Irrigation system

1.b Lift Irrigation System

1.6.2.a Perennial Irrigation system

2.b Inundation Irrigation system

1.7 Methods of Application of water to crops.

1.7.1 Surface irrigation methods.

1.1 Flooding Method (a) Wild flooding

1.7.1.1.(b) Controlled flooding method

i. Free flooding method

ii. contour laterals method

iii. Border strip method

iv. Check flooding

v. Basin flooding

vi. Zig - zag method

1.7.1.2 Furrow method, corrugation method and contour farming.

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1.7.1.3 Sprinkler irrigation method

1.7.2 Subsurface Irrigation methods.

1.7.2.1 Natural sub irrigation.

1.7.2.2 Artificial sub irrigation

1.7.2.3 Drip or trickle irrigation

1.7.2.4 Crop water requirements

1.7.2.5 Soil moisture constants

1.7.2.6 Duty, Delta and Base period

1.7.2.7 Relation between duty of water in hectare/ cumec and Delta in metres

1.7.2.8 Factors affecting duty of water

AIM/OBJECTIVES:

The aims of the unit are

i. To define irrigation and explain the necessity of irrigation, advantages and ill effects
associated with irrigation.

ii. To explain the types of irrigation system - Flow, lift, perennial and inundation.

iii. The methods of application of water for irrigation - surface irrigation, subsurface
irrigation of different types and sprinkler irrigation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The objective of irrigation is to supplement the natural supply of water to land so as to

obtain an optimum yield from the crops grown on the land. Efficient methods of irrigation
enable the application of the right amount of water to the crops at the right time with uniform
distribution to the field. Irrigation water may be applied to the crops by spreading it in sheets
or in small streams on the soil surface; by spraying over the crops through pipes and nozzles
and by applying it in drops to wet the crop root zone. The factors influencing the selection of
irrigation methods are the characteristics of the soil, crop, topography of the land and quantity
and quality of irrigation water available.

1.2 DEFINITION OF IRRIGATION:

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Irrigation may be defined as the process of supplying water to land by artificial means
for the cultivation of crops. The function of irrigation is to supplement the supplies of water
falling on the land in the form of rain, which normally is not sufficient to the extent required
for the successful cultivation of the crops.

Irrigation engineering involves the development of an irrigation system which

includes planning, designing, construction, operation and maintenance of various works like
dams, reservoirs, canals, head works, distribution works and other associated works to carry
the water form a source to the agricultural land. An irrigation Engineer is associated with
every phase of an irrigation system right from its inception and is responsible for the
development of an efficient and economic irrigation system to suit the natural conditions and
potential of the region.

1.3 NECESSITY AND IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION:

When the natural rainfall on the area is suitable for the cultivation in respect of both
the quantity and seasonal incidence of rainfall, no irrigation is required. In countries like
England where the normal rainfall is sufficient for the watering of the crops grown, irrigation
is not practiced. Such ideal condition exists only for some small regions of the world. For
most of the regions of the world, including India, crop production is not possible without
irrigation. The factors that necessitate irrigation are as follows.

1. Inadequate rain fall: When the rain fall in a region is not adequate to meet the crop
requirement, water has to be conveyed from a place where it is available in plenty to
the place of deficiency by artificial means . Rajasthan canal is one such example in
which water is conveyed from the river Sutleg to Thar desert.

2. Uneven distribution of rainfall: Even though the total rainfall in a region may be
sufficient to meet the total water requirement of the crops grown, the distribution of rainfall
with respect to time and place may not suit the crop water requirement and requires irrigation.
.The rainfall distribution may be uneven not only within an year but also from year to year.
The rainfall in India has such characteristic. The average annual rainfall in the country varies
from 100mm in Thar desert to more than 3000 mm in Chirapunji. The rainfall in most of the
country is during the months of June to September due to S.W. mansoon, while the south
eastern part of the country receives rainfall from N.E. mansoon during October to December
also. Hence water has to be collected during the periods of rainfall and utilised by irrigation
as per the crop requirements.
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3. Growing a number of crops during a year: The rainfall in a region may be

sufficient to grow one crop without irrigation. However, with irrigation, it will be possible to
grow two or three crops. Crops like sugarcane having a longer period for maturity invariably
needs irrigation.

4. Growing commercial crops: Irrigation felicitates the growth of commercial crops

which require frequent application of large quantities of water for their growth and fetches
more money from unit area.

The provision of irrigation facilities leads to an overall development of the country.

The supply of water by irrigation leads to improved agricultural pattern, increased crop yield
and increased employment and thus brings about significant changes in the social and
economic pattern of the society.

1.4 Advantages of Irrigation:

The advantages associated with irrigation can be listed as follows.

i Increase in crop yield: Provision of controlled supply of water by irrigation increases

the yield of all the crops. This is of special significance for an agricultural country like India
to achieve self sufficiency in the production of food grains.

ii. Protection from famine: In regions where no irrigation facilities exist, failure of
rains may result in famine. On the other hand irrigation ensures protection against failure of
crops and famine.

iii. Cultivation of superior crops: With assured supply of water by irrigation, the
farmers can grow superior crops like rice, wheat, sugarcane and tobacco instead of low priced
crops like Bajra and Ragi and get better profits.

iv. Elimination of mixed crops: In the absence of irrigation, mixed cropping is adopted
by farmers. Mixed cropping means sowing two or more crops together in the same field so
that if one crop fails due to unfavourable weather conditions, the farmer may get some yield
from the other crop. Thus mixed cropping is a sort of insurance for the farmer against weather
. But with irrigation facilities, the necessity of mixed cropping disappears.

v. Increase in prosperity of the people: Due to irrigation facility , the yield of the crop
increases and in turn the value of the land increases. The farmers become prosperous and
their living standard increases.
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vi. Increase in the wealth of the country: The irrigation projects bring revenue to the
state. This may be utilized for new irrigation projects and other development works. This
leads to increase in the wealth of the country. The country also achieves self-sufficiency in
food grain production and would save lot of foreign exchange otherwise required for
importing food grains.

vii. Generation of hydroelectric power: Major irrigation projects are usually planned to
provide hydroelectric power along with irrigation. Hydro power may also be generated even
from small projects from the falls on the irrigation channels .Generation of hydal power leads
to industrialization of the rural areas and increase the prosperity of the nation.

viii. Domestic and industrial water supply: The irrigation canals may also be utilized for
domestic and industrial water supply , thus solving the water supply problem of the region.

ix. Inland navigation: The network of irrigation canals can be utilized for inland
navigation to transport people and goods economically.

x. Improvement of communication: Since all the irrigation canals are provided with
roads for the purpose of inspection and maintenance of canals the road net work of the region
also increases.

xi. Canal plantation: Different types of trees are usually planted along the canal banks .
They check the soil erosion and increase the timber wealth of the region.

xii. Improvement in the ground water storage: With percolation and seepage taking
place from the canal net work, the ground water table of the region rises and the ground water
storage increases. This is beneficial to the crops as long as the ground water table is below the
root zone of the crops.

xiii. General development of the country: The most important benefit derived from
irrigation is the general development of the country. As a result of the increase in yield of the
crops, means of communications, the living standards of the people rises.

1.5 Ill effects of irrigation:

Excess irrigation and unscientific use of irrigation water may give rise to the
following ill effects.

i. Water logging : Abundant supply of irrigation water tempts the farmers to use more
water than required by the crops . This leads to percolation of water into the soil and rise of
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ground water table. As a result the soil in the root zone of the crops gets saturated and the
whole area becomes waterlogged. The fertility of the waterlogged soil is lost resulting in the
reduction of crop yield. In course of time the land turns saline or alkaline and ultimately
becomes unfit for cultivation .

ii. Breeding places for mosquitoes: Over irrigation may lead to formation of stagnant
pools of water in the pits and depressions existing in the area. These stagnant pools of water
become breeding places for mosquitoes, which may result in the out break of Malaria in the
area.

iii. Unhealthy climate: With intense irrigation, the area becomes damp and cold and
leads to unhealthy climate for the people of the land.

The ill effects of irrigation may be altogether eliminated or effectively controlled by

economic use of water for the crops. This can be achieved by proper education of the farmers.

1.6 Types of irrigation systems:

On the basis of the available source of irrigation water the irrigation systems may be
classified as

(i) Flow irrigation system and

(ii ) Lift irrigation system.

1.6.1.(a) In Flow irrigation system, the water is available at such a level that it can be
conveyed to the land to be irrigated by gravity flow. The flow irrigation system can further be
classified as

(a) Direct irrigation system and

(b ) Reservoir or tank or storage irrigation system.

(c) Combined system ( storage cum diversion system)

In direct irrigation system, the water is diverted into the canal with the construction of
a weir or barrage across the river. The weir or barrage raises the level of water in the river and
facilitates the diversion of water into the canal. Fig 1.1 shows a direct irrigation scheme. In
Reservoir or tank or storage irrigation system, a storage reservoir or the tank is created by
constructing a dam or bund across the river and water is drawn from the storage into the canal
through control structures like sluices. Fig. 1.2 shows a storage irrigation scheme.
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Fig. 1.1. Direct irrigation scheme

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Fig. 1.2. Storage irrigation scheme

In the combined irrigation system, water is used for hydro power generation and then
discharged into the river on the downstream side of the dam. At a suitable location a pick up
weir is constructed and water is diverted into the irrigation canal. Fig 1.3 shows a storage
cum diversion scheme. A typical example of such a scheme is the Kota barrage on Chambal
river in Rajasthan.

1.6.1.(b) Lift irrigation system: When the water is available at a level lower than that of the
land to be irrigated, water is to be lifted by pumps or other mechanical devices and then
conveyed to the land to be irrigated by gravity flow. Such a system of irrigation is called lift
irrigation system. Irrigation from well is an example of lift irrigation system.

On the basis of time duration of irrigation practiced, the irrigation systems may be
classified as

(i) Perennial irrigation system and

(ii) Inundation irrigation system

1.6.2.(a): Perennial irrigation system is adopted where perennial source of water for
irrigation is available either from a perennial river or a well. In this system water is supplied
as per the crop water requirement throughout the cropping period by direct irrigation or lift
irrigation or a combined system. No storage reservoir is required in this system.
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11.6.2.(b) : In Inundation irrigation system, when large quantities of water are flowing in
a river during floods, the flood water is allowed to inundate the land to be irrigated, thereby
causing a through saturation of the soil of the land. The excess water is then drained off and
the land is used for cultivation. Such a system of inundating the land during the floods is
known as Inundation or flood irrigation.

1.7 METHODS OF APPLICATION OF WATER TO CROPS:

Irrigation methods are classified according to the manner in which water is applied to
the land to be irrigated. They are

1. Surface irrigation methods.

2. Sprinkler irrigation methods

3. Subsurface irrigation or sub irrigation methods.

1.7.1: The surface irrigation method involves spreading water on the land in the form of
sheet of water. This method is further classified as

i. Flooding method

ii. Furrow method and

iii. Contour farming

The flooding method is further classified as (a) Wild or uncontrolled flooding (b) Controlled
flooding method.

In the wild flooding method, water is applied by spreading it over the land to be
irrigated without any prior preparations of the land. The water is allowed to follow the natural
slope of the land without any control to guide the flow of water. This method is generally
used in the inundation irrigation system. This method is suitable for smooth and flat land and
involves wasteful use of water and hence is practiced where irrigation water is abundant and
inexpensive.

1.7.1.2: In Controlled flooding method, irrigation water is applied by spreading it over

the land with proper methods to control the quantity and depth of application. These methods
are further classified as follows.

1. Free flooding method

2. Contour laterals method

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3. Border strips method

4. Checks or levees method

5. Basin method

6. Zig zag method.

These methods are briefly described below.

i. In the free flooding method also known as irrigation by plots, the field is divided into
a number of small sized plots, which are practically level. Water is admitted at the higher end
of the plots as shown in figure and the supply is cut off as and when the lower part receives
enough depth of water. Oblong plots are preferred to square ones. This method is commonly
used in India.

Fig. (1.4) Free flooding method

ii. The contour lateral method is adopted for steeper terrain. A net work of small laterals
are taken from the main ditch. The spacing of the laterals depends upon the grade of the field
between two adjacent ditches or laterals and the uniformity of slope and soil type. Water is
admitted to the field on one side of the contour laterals as shown in fig. 1.5.
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Fig (1.5) contour laterals

iv. Border strip method: In this method the farm is divided into a series of strips of 10 m
to 20 m width and 100 m to 300 m length as shown in figs. 1.6 (a) and (b). The strips
are separated by levees (low flat dikes) and water is supplied from the supply ditch at
the head of the border. The land is level between two borders and water advances as a
sheet of water covering the entire width of the strip. The slope along the length
usually varies from 0.5% to 1.5%. The length of the border strips depend on

(i) Infiltration rate of the soil,

(ii) Longitudinal slope of the land and

(iii) Size of irrigation channel available. The length of the border strips suggested for
different soil types are as follows.

Type of soil Length of border strip

i. Sandy soil or sandy loam 60 to 90 m

ii. Medium silt loam 90 to 150 m

iii. Clay loam or clay soil 150 to 300 m.

The first 6 to 12 m length of the strip should be made level to ensure uniform
spreading. The water is supplied to the strips from (i) earth or concrete ditches (canals) and
(ii) under ground concrete pipes through risers as shown in fig 1.6 (a) & (b)
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.Fig (1.6) (a & b) Analysis of time in border strip method.

Fig. 1.6 Border strip method

Analysis of time to cover a given strip area with water : Consider the border strip shown in
fig 1.6 (c) and (d) which irrigates by flooding a thin sheet of water over it.

Let q = quantity of water supplied to the strip in ha. m./hr.

A= Area of the strip in ha.

I= rate of infiltration of water into the soil in m/hr

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t= time in hrs since the supply started.

y= average depth of water in m. as it flows over the strip.

The total quantity of water flowing in a small time interval dt is equal to the quantity
of water infiltrated in time dt over the area A plus the quantity of surface flow over the area
dA.

Thus, qdt = ydA +IA dt.

y. dA
dt =
(q - IA)

Considering q, I and y as constant and integrating the above expression, we get

y 1
t= I ln ( q - IA ) +C

At time t = 0, A =0

y
c = ln q
I

y q
t ln ( q  IA )
I

y  q 
or t = 2.303 log  q  IA 
I  

In the above equation I has been considered constant but actually I decreases as the
soil gets saturated. Rewriting the equation in the form,

q It
log q  IA = 2.303y = x, say

q
10x = q  IA

From which,

(10 x  1)q q
A= 
10 x I I

This equation gives the maximum area that cause be irrigated with a supply rate of q.
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Example 1.1: Find the time required to cover an area of 0.15 ha when a tube well supplies
water at a rate of 0.03 m 3/s for irrigating rabi crops. Average depth of flow expected is 7.5 cm
and the average infiltration rate of the soil may be takes as 5 cm/hr.

Solution:

0.03  60  60
q= 0.03 m3/s = = 0.0108 ha. m/hr
10 4

y = 7.5 cm = 0.075 m: I = 5 cm/hr = 0.05 m/hr

A= 0.15 ha

y q
t = 2.303 I log q - IA

2.303  0.075 0.0108

= log ( )
0.05 0.0108 - 10.15  0.05

= 3.273 hr or 3 hr 16m.

Example 1.2: Find the maximum area of the strip that can be irrigated with a supply discharge
of 0.03 m3/s given the average infiltration rate for soil to be 0.04 m/hr.

q 0.0108
Max area, A = ha = = 0.27 ha
I 0.04

iv. Check flooding: This method is more suitable for permeable soils which must be
quickly covered with water to prevent excessive percolation losses near the supply ditches. It
is also suitable for impermeable soils in which percolation rate is so slow that infiltration
would be inadequate in the time needed for the sheet of water flowing over it.

In this method comparatively larger supply ditches discharge water into relatively
level plots surrounded by checks or levees.

These levees are 2 to 3 m. wide at the base and about 25 to 30 m high so that they do
not obstruct the operation of farm machinery. In level ground the plots are rectangular while
with some slope, the levees follow the contours. The irrigation water is applied by flooding
the plots without overtopping the levees and the water is retained there to allow it to infiltrate
into the soil.

v. Basin flooding: The basin flooding is a special form of check flooding adopted to
orchards. In this method, a separate basin is made for each tree in a circular shape and hence
it is also known as ring basin. Water is supplied to these basins from a supply channel with
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small field channels connected to the basins. Hose pipe my replace the supply channel and
field channels.

vi. Zig zag method: In this method of flooding, water is made to take a circuitous route
before reaching the dead end of each plot. Here the land is divided into a number rectangular
or square plots and each plot is further sub divided using low bunds or levees to form a zig
zag system as shown in fig 1.7 This method is not suitable for farming operations using farm
machinery

Fig. 1.7. Zig Zag method of flooding

1.7.1.2 Furrow method:

The furrow method of irrigation is used for row crops like maize, sugarcane,
groundnut, tobacco, cotton, Potatoes etc. In this method, water is applied to the land by a
series of long, narrow filed channels, called furrows, which are dug in the land at regular
intervals as shown in fig 1.8. The size, shape and spacing of the furrows depend on the type
of crop and soil condition. The length of the furrows usually lie between 100 to 300 m and
may vary from 3 m for gardens to 500 m for field crops. The common size of furrows for row
crops is about 25 cm wide and 8to 10 cm deep. Large furrows are used for widely spaced
crops while small furrows are used for closely spaced crops. The general slope provided for
furrows may vary from 0.2 to 5%. In this method only one half to one fourth of the surface is
wetted and thus the evaporation losses are much reduced.
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Based on the alignment, the furrows may be (a) straight furrows and (b) corrugated
furrows. Straight furrows are aligned along parallel straight lines along the slope of the land.
These are best suited where the land slope does not exceed 0.75%. Contour furrows are
aligned along different contours and hence they are laid across the slope of land. The furrows
are curved in plan and are adopted where the land to be irrigated has relatively steeper slope.

Fig. 1.8 Furrow method

Advantages of Furrows method of irrigation:

1 1
1. Only part of the land of about to is wetted and thereby reducing pudding and
2 4
crusting of the soil .Evaporation losses are also reduced.

2. This is specially suitable for crops like maize which are subjected to injury if allowed
to come into contact with ponded water.

3. There is no wastage of land in field channels.

4. Labour requirement in land preparation and irrigation is much reduced.

Corrugation method: Furrows and corrugations are essentially similar. In both cases water
is conveyed through long, small capacity channelets dug at regular intervals. While furrows
are channels of comparatively large cross section and are used on flat slopes. corrugations are
chnnelets of smaller cross section of U or V shape, 6 to 10 cm deep and spaced at 40 to 90
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cm. The corrugation method is commonly used for close growing crops of small grains and
other forage crops such as alfalfa on lands having steep slopes.

Contour farming: Contour farming is practiced in hilly areas having steep slopes. (Fig. 19)
The land to be irrigated is divided into a series of strips, known as terraces or benches, which
are aligned to follow different contours at a vertical interval of 30 to 60 cm. The strips are
level in the direction of the original land slope and given a gentle slope along the length to
ensure efficient irrigation and drainage of excessive water at nonerosive velocities. At the
outer end of each strip a low earthen bund called contour bund is provided. For applying
water to the strips any of the methods like border strip , furrow or check basin can be used.

Fig 1.9 contour farming

1.7.1.3 Sprinkler Irrigation method:

The sprinkler method consists of applying the water in the form of a spray, some what
similar to ordinary rain. This method is useful where

(i) The land can not be prepared for surface irrigation methods

( ii) The slopes are excessive

( iii ) The topography is irregular,

(iv ) The soil is erosive

(v ) The soil is excessively permeable or impermeable and

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(vi ) The depth of the soil is shallow over gravel or sand, In this method, the cost of land
preparation and water delivery by channels or conduits is less . However, a large
investment is required to provide pumping and sprinkling equipment.

The sprinkler system requires a pumping unit, main pipeline, submains, laterals, risers
and sprinklers. Three types of sprinklers are in use. They are

(i) Fixed nozzle pipe type

( ii ) Perforated pipe type and

( iii ) Rotating sprinklers.

The fined nozzle type of sprinkler consists of a series of pipes installed parallel to
each other at 15 m apart and supported on rows of posts. The pipes are having a line of small
holes drilled at the top at regular intervals and nozzles are fitted to them Spray of water is
developed through the nozzles and the distance between the pipes is covered by the spray by
turning the pipes through 1350.

The perforated pipe type of sprinklers consist of lateral pipes laid on the ground and
having perforations drilled at the top and sides in a designed pattern to distribute the water
fairly uniformly. The operating pressures of these sprinklers are in the range of 0.5 to 2.5
kg/cm2.

The rotating sprinkler consists of one or two nozzles with an oscillating vane to
develop a spray through the nozzle and cover a circular area of the land as it rotates . The
operating pressures for the rotating sprinklers range from 2 kg/cm 2 to 7 kg/cm2 for large units.
The rotating sprinklers are placed on the riser pipes and located just above the crop to be
irrigated. The riser pipes along with the sprinklers are fixed at regular intervals along the
lateral pipes. The lateral pipes are laid on the ground surface or buried below the plough
depth.

The required discharge of each sprinkler is a function of the spacing of the sprinklers

S1 S m I
and spacing of the lateral pipes and the water application rate and is given by q =
360

where q = required discharge of each sprinkler in l/s

S1 = spacing of sprinklers along the lateral pipes in m.

S2 = Spacing of the lateral pipes along the main pipes in m.

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I= Optimum water application rate in cm/hr.

Based on the portability, the sprinkler irrigation system in classified under three heads
namely (i) permanent system, (ii) Semi permanent system and (iii) portable system.

Advantages of sprinkler irrigation:

i. Uniform application of water is possible.

ii. It can be effectively used for a wide range of topographic conditions, soils and crops.

iii. Erosion of soil can be controlled.

iv. Better control on irrigation Provides light irrigation for seedlings and young plants.

v. Small streams can be effectively used for irrigation.

vi. Land preparation is not required. Surface runoff is eliminated and more land is
available by avoiding borders and ditches.

vii. Time and amount of fertilizers can be controlled for application.

viii. Crop damage from frost can be reduced.

Limitations of sprinkler method:

i. Wind may distort sprinkling pattern.

ii. Water must be clean and free from sand etc.

iii. A constant water supply is needed for Commercial use of the equipment.

iv. Power requirement is high.

v. Initial investment is high.

vi. Heavy soils with poor intake can not be irrigated efficiently.

1.7.2 Sub surface irrigation methods:

In the subsurface irrigation methods water is applied below the ground surface and
directly in the root zone of the plants. They eliminate the borders, field channels and pipes
and reduce evaporation losses considerably. The sub irrigation methods may be classified as

i. Natural sub irrigation

ii. Artificial sub irrigation

iii. Drip or trickle irrigation.

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1.7.2.1 Natural sub irrigation: In natural sub irrigation water is supplied to the plants from
below the surface by controlling the level of the water table. The water table is required to be
maintained at the desired level by artificial means to ensure the supply of water to the crops.
For this purpose, a series of parallel channels with almost vertical sides are excavated in the
field to be irrigated. The spacing of these channels varies from 15m to 100m depending on
the topography of the land and the permeability of the subsoil. The depth of channels varies
from 0.3 to 1m and the width varies from 0.25 to 0.5m. The flow of water in the channels is
maintained at a slow rate so that seepage takes place and raises the water table to ensure
moist condition in the top soil by capillary movement . There is the possibility of
accumulation of harmful salts close to the land surface because of the upward movement of
water. Hence provision is made for periodic leaching of the soil by heavy application and
drainage of water on the land surface.

The requirements for the use of these methods are as follows.

1. There must be abundant water supply of good quality and low salinity

2. The land must be flat or near level.

3. There must be an impermeable sub stratum or free water table at about 2 to 3 m

below surface level.

4. The soil in the root zone should be highly permeable loam or sandy loam.

1.7.2.2 Artificial subirrigation : In the artificial subirrigation water is supplied by a network

of buried perforated piped under pressure. This method is effective only if the soil in the root
zone has high horizontal permeability to permit free lateral movement of water and low
vertical permeability to prevent deep percolation. The pipes are buried more than 0.4m below
the ground surface and spaced at about 0.45m. This method is not widely used since the cost
of installation of pipe network is high and the rootlets are likely to clog the perforations of the
pipes and the water used shall be of low salinity since no provision exists to leach the salts in
this method.

1.7.2.3 Drip or Trickle irrigation : Drip irrigation was introduced in Israel. In this method,
water is conveyed through a system of flexible pipes operating at low pressure and is applied
to the plants through drip nozzles commonly called emitters or drippers. Water is applied at 2
to 10 litres/hour to keep the soil moisture within the desired rate of plant growth. Drip
irrigation limits the water supply to consumptive use of the plant by maintaining a minimum
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soil moisture equal to the field capacity. The system permits very good control of water and
nutrients at stated frequencies; Water is first filtered to avoid the impurities clogging the fine
holes of the drippers. In this method evaporation losses from the land surface are minimum
and deep percolation of water can be entirely avoided. This method is particularly
advantageous when the water is saline since the salts move to the outer edge of the wetted
zone.

The whole arrangement of drip irrigation consists of the following units as shown in
Fig. 1.8.

1. A pump to lift water.

2. A head tank to store the water and maintain a pressure head of 5 to 7 m.

3. A Central distribution system which filters the water, adds the nutrients (or fertilizer
solution) and regulates the pressure and amount of water to be applied.

4. Main and secondary pipe lines made of polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride or

alkalene material.

5. Trickle lines consisting of 10 to 20 mm diameter pipes with perforations at required

spacing of about 75 cm for most of the crops.

6. Plastic nozzles having perforations fitted to the trickler lines.

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Fig. 1.10. Arrangement for drip irrigation system

The drip system is suitable to all types of crops except paddy, which requires standing
water, to all types of soils and in all climatic conditions and for any topography.

ADVANTAGES OF DRIP IRRIGATION :

1. Low requirement of irrigation water

2. High yield

3. No over irrigation and no water logging

4. No soil erosion

5. Controlled application of water and nutrients

6. Weed control

7. Effective Pest Control

8. Reduced labour cost

9. Suitability for saline water

10. Suitable for any topography

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11. Increase in net irrigable area

DISADVANTAGES OF DRIP IRRIGATION :

1. High initial cost

2. Possibility of the nozzles getting blocked

2. Replacement of the trickles line may be required to change the spacing of nozzles
with change in crops.

1.7.2.4 CROP WATER REQUIREMENT :

Water requirement of crops may vary with the crop and its variety, soil condition,
fertilizer schedule and climate.

CONSUMPTIVE USE :

The amount of water used in producing a crop is called consumptive use or Evapo
transpiration. It includes the water used by the plants in transpiration and building up of plant
tissues and the water evaporated from the wet soil around. Rainfall occurring during the
growing season or prior to planting that is retained in the root zone of the crop will help
satisfy part of the consumptive use requirement. The amount of rainwater intercepted by the
plant leaves and subsequently evaporated without entering the plant system also constitutes a
part of the consumptive use. Consumptive use is empressed as the depth of water for specific
periods such as centimeters per season or mm/day; hectare - metres / hectare or cm. for the
crop growing season. The total water required during a crop season in m 3 is the product of the
seasonal water requirement (m) and the area of the land to be irrigated (m 2). The rate of
consumptive use during the period of peak water used determines the size of the irrigation
canal required for irrigating the crop.

The peak rate of soil moisture used by crops under different climatic conditions vary
from 3mm/day in cool and humid climate, 4mm/day in cool dry or Moderate humid climates;
5mm/day is moderate dry or hot humid climate to 8mm/day in hot dry climate.
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EFFECTIVE ROOT ZONE:

Plants absorb water mainly through root hairs and small roots. The zone of root
concentration depends on the type and age of the plant and the depth of soil. The fig. 3.1
shows the moisture extractive pattern of average crop plants growing in deep uniform soils.
Effective root zone is the depth from the roots an average plant is capable of reducing the soil
moisture to the extent that should be replaced by irrigation. The table 3.2 gives the
approximate effective root zone depths of some common crops grown on very deep and well
drained soils.

Fig. 3.1 Typical moisture extraction Pattern in crop root zone

Table. 3.2. Effective root zone depth of crops

Root Characteristics
Shallow rooted Moderately deep rooted Deep rooted Very deep rooted
Depth of root zone
60cm 90 cm 120 cm 180 cm
Rice Wheat Maize Sugarcane

Potato Tobacco Cotton Citrus

Cauliflower Castor Soyabean Coffee

Cabbage Ground nut Pearl millet Apple

Onion Carrots, Peas, Beans, Chilly Tomato, Sugarbeat Grapevine

1.7.2.5 Soil Moisture Constants:

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Soils are porous mixtures of inorganic particles, decaying organic matter, air and
water. The soil pores, spaces between the soil particles, form a network of connected cavities
of every conceivable shape and size. When water is added to a dry soil by rain or irrigation, it
is distributed around the soil particles when it is held by cohesive and adhesive forces ; it
displaces the air in the pores and fills the pores. When all the pores refilled, it is said to be
saturated. The water present in the soil may be classified (Fig 3.2) as

i Gravitational water

ii Capillary water and

iii Hygroscopic water

Fig 3.2 Classes of Soil Water

The gravitational or free water is the water in the pores that move freely under the
action of gravity. Capillary water is that part of water in the pores which exists by molecular
attractions. (capillary forces). Hygroscopic water which is held so tightly that it cannot be
used by the plants and is referred to as unavailable water to plants. Irrigation is concerned
with the gravitational water in the soil.
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Certain soil moisture constants are of significance in the relationship between the soil
moisture and plants. They include saturation capacity, field capacity, permanent wilting point,
temporary wilting point, moisture equivalent and soil moisture deficiency and are explained
below.

Saturation capacity is defined as the total water content of a soil when all the pores
of the soil are filled with water. When the porosity of a soil is known, the saturation capacity,
can be expressed as cm. of water per metre depth of soil.

Field Capacity is the moisture content of the soil after free drainage has removed the
gravitational water. The concept of field capacity is useful in arriving at the amount of water
available in the soil for plant use.

Permanent Wilting Point or wilting coefficient: This is the water content at which
plants can no longer extract water form the soil for its growth. The permanent wilting point is
the lower limit of the available moisture range. At this point the leaves first undergo a
permanent reduction of their moisture content because of deficient supply of moisture. It is a
soil characteristic and all plants which permeate the soil will wilt at the same moisture
content when grown in a soil in a humid atmosphere.

Available soil moisture: Soil moisture between the field capacity and permanent wilting
point gives the amount of moisture that can be retained in the soil and this is referred to as
available soil moisture and represents the moisture that can be stored in the soil for
subsequent use by plants. About 75% of the available moisture is called the readily available
moisture, which can be easily extracted by plants. The soil moisture for different types of
soils are shown in table 3.

Table 3.3. Soil Moisture

Type of soil Wilting Coefficient Field Capacity Available Water

Sandy Soil 4 9 5
Sandy Loam 6 14 8
Loam 10 22 12
Clay Loam 13 27 14
Silty Loam 15 31 16
Clay 17 35 18
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Temporary Wilting: Temporary wilting takes place during hot summer day, even when soil
moisture is above the wilting coefficient, because of increased transpiration rates. But the
plants will recover in the cooler part of the day.

Moisture equivalent: This is an artificient soil moisture property. It is the percentage of the
moisture retained in a sample of wet soil when subjected to a centrifugal force 1000 times as
great as gravity for a period of 30 minutes. The moisture equivalent can be roughly related to
the natural moisture contents as below for medium textured soil.

Moisture equivalent = Field capacity

= 1.8 to 2 times permanent wilting coefficient

= 2.7 times Hygroscopic Coefficient

Soil moisture deficiency: or Field moisture deficiency: This represents the water content
required to bring the soil moisture content of the soil to its field capacity.

Optimum water content: The optimum water content is the optimum level upto which the
soil moisture may be allowed to be depleted in the root zone without fall in the yield. The
moisture between the field capacity and the optimum moisture content is the readily available
moisture.

1.7.2.6 DUTY, DELTA AND BASE PERIOD :

Duty of water is the relation between the area of land irrigated and the quantity of
water to be supplied for growing a crop. Duty is defined as the ratio of the land in hectares,
which can be irrigated for growing a crop if one cumec. of water is supplied continuously to
the land for the entire base period of the crop.

BASE PERIOD : Base period for a crop refers to the whole period of cultivation form the
time irrigation water is first supplied for preparation of the land to the last watering before
harvesting the crop.

CROP PERIOD : refers to the time in days from the time of its sowing to that of its
harvesting.

DELTA : Delta is defined as the total depth of water over the irrigated land required by a
crop grown on it during the entire base period of the crop. It is denoted by the symbol .

The duty of water may be expressed by any of the following four ways.
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1. By the number hectares irrigated by one cumec of water during the base period. i.e.
Hectares / cumec.

2. By delta, , the total depth of water supplied over the area irrigated i.e. cm or m.

3. By the number of hectares that can be irrigated by one million cubic meters of stored
water. i.e. hectares / m. cu. m. This is stated with reference to tank or reservoir irrigation

4. By the number of hectare-meters of water supplied per hectare of area irrigated. i.e.
ha. m / ha. This is equivalent to delta.

For a precise statement of duty, in addition to base period, the place of measurement
is to be stated in canal irrigation system, such as head of the field, head of the main canal or
branch canal.

1.7.2.7 Relation between duty of water in hectares per cumec and delta in metres.

Let D = duty of water on the field in hectares per cumec.

 = total depth of water in metres supplied.

B = best period of the crop in days.

If we take the field area of D hectares, the quantity of water supplied to grow the crop = D
hectare - m. The total quantity of water supplied at 1 cumec. for the entire base period of B
days is also equal to 1x B x 24 x 60 x 60 m

Thus D x 104 = B x 24 x 60 x 60

 D = 8.64B

B
or  = 8.64
D

1.7.2.8 Factors affecting Duty of water:

The duty of water depends upon the following factors.

1. Type of crop - Duty of water varies from crop to crop.

The duty of rice at the field is 800 hectares/cumec. while that for wheat is 180
hectares/cumec.

2. Climatic condition of the area. Climatic conditions like temperature, wind, humidity
and rainfall affect the duty. The loss of water due to evopotranspiration is higher with
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high temperatures or high winds and less with humid condition or during rainfall and
hence water requirement of crops varies.

3. System of irrigation: In perennial irrigation system less water is required for initial
saturation since the soil is wet continuously. In inundation irrigation there is wasteful
use of water. In flow irrigation system duty of water is low due to transmission losses
in canal network, while the transmission losses are less in lift irrigation because of the
proximity of the land to the source of water.

4. Method of Irrigation: The method of application of water to the fields affects the duty
considerably. Duty is less for furrow method than flooding methods. Duty is less for
surface irrigation methods than sprinkler method. Duty is highest for drip irrigation.

5. Quality of irrigation water - water containing harmful salts require larger quantities to
effect leaching of salts.

6. Methods of cultivation : Use of modern methods of cultivation gives higher duty than
in conventional methods.

7. Time of irrigation and frequency of cultivation: Initial stages of land cultivation

require more water and have less duty. Frequent cultivation maintains soil in good
structure to retain water and results in higher duty.

8. Type of soil and subsoil of the irrigated field: Coarse grained soil results in more
percolation losses than fine grained soils and have lower duty. Presence of impervious
layer below root zone of plants reduces percolation losses and results in higher duty.

9. Type of soil and subsoil of the area through which canal passes: These effect
percolation losses and varies duty of water.

10. Canal condition: The condition of the canal and its maintenance affects the
transmission losses and in turn affect the duty of water

11. Skill of cultivator: Judicious use of water by the cultivator economizes water use and
increase the duty.

12. Base period: Longer base period requires more water to be supplied and results in
less duty
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13. Method of assessment of irrigation water: The method of assessment of irrigation

water on volumetric basis rather than flat area basis prevents wastage of water and
over irrigation by farmers and hence duty increases.