What is Pavement?
Pavement is the upper part of roadway, airport or parking
area structure
It includes all layers resting on the original ground
It consists of all structural elements or layers, including
shoulders
What is a pavement design?
It is the process by which the structural components of a road
segment are determined taking into account the nature of the
subgrade, density and traffic composition
Rigid pavement
Types of pavements
Flexible pavement
Composite pavement Composite pavement
Functions of the Pavement Structure
Reduce and distribute the traffic loading so as not to damage
the subgrade
Provide vehicle access between two points under all-weather
conditions
Provide safe, smooth and comfortable ride to road users
without undue delays and excessive wear & tear
Meet environmental and aesthetics requirements
Limited noise and air pollution
Reasonable economic
Pavement Design Phases
Highway design consists of three stages
Geometric design (route selection or alignment design)
Capacity design (number of lanes to meet traffic demand)
Structural design to withstand loads and environment
Structural design consists of 3 steps
Selection of materials (types of pavement)
Proportioning of materials
Layer thickness design
Pavement Serviceability
Pavement serviceability can be briefly defined as the ability
of a pavement section to serve traffic in its current condition
Two methods are used to measure pavement
serviceability:
Present serviceability index (PSI): roughness + distress
characteristics (technical personell + profilometer)
International roughness index (IRI): surface
characteristics of pavements (profilometer)
Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
Pavement serviceability index correlates subjective rating of
a section with field measurements covering both roughness
and distresses
Rating of serviceability of a section between 0 for poor and 5
for excellent 5
Very Good
4
Good
3
Fair Scales used for PSI
2
Poor
1
Very Poor
0
QC/QA Criteria used by the Turkish General
Directorate of Highways
Pavement materials characterization tests
Characterization tests for unbound layers (subgrade,
subbase and base courses)
Resilient Modulus
Represents the stiffness of a soil under the repeated
load application.
It can be calculated as the ratio of axial stress to the
recoverable strain:
sd where sd : deviatoric stress;
MR
er er : recoverable strain
Repeated haversine loading is used to represent the
traffic loading
Resilient modulus
test setup
Stress-strain relationship
is derived by applying
a repeated deviatoric stress
and recoding recoverable
strain
AASHTO T307 and
NCHRP 1-28A are the current
test procedures used
Total
eR
Deviator stress
Resilient
Plastic eP
sD
ER =
eR
Deformation of soil sample (strain)
Characterization tests for bound layers (wearing course
and binder course)
Indirect Tensile Tests
Load, P
sv
d= diameter sr
Indirect Tensile Tests
P
st = 2P
LD
2 2
Tension O Compression
Equivalent Axle Load Factor:
The equivalent axle load factor (EALF) gives a relation
between an induced damage by per pass of a specific axle
configuration relative to the damage by per pass of a single
axle.
The design is carried out using the number of passes of the
standard axle load, which is taken as 18 kip or 80 kN and
called ESAL (equivalent single axle load)
m
where m the number of axle groups; Fi EALF for the
EASL F n
i 1
i i
i-th axle group; and ni the number of passes of the i-
th axle group during the design period
Definitions Used in traffic Analysis:
ESAL: Unit of measure in pavement design equivalent to the
damage caused by the passing of a single 80 kN axle
Load equivalency factor (LEF): The equivalent number of 80
kN ESALs for a specific combination of pavement type
(flexible or rigid), terminal serviceability, axle type, and axle
weight
Truck factor (TF): The equivalent number of 80 kN ESALs for
a specific combination of truck axle configuration, gross
vehicle weight, pavement type (flexible or rigid), and
pavement terminal serviceability
Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL):
Lane Distribution factor (LD): Truck distribution in the lanes of the
design highway
Directional distribution (DD): the percent of truck traffic traveling
in one direction
Weigh-in-motion (WIM): A technique of weighing vehicles while in
motion. The process uses any one of a number of different
technologies to weigh vehicles
Automatic vehicle classification (AVC): Any one of several
technologies which are capable of counting and classifying vehicles
by axle spacing and axle grouping.
Calculation of EALF
W: axle load W W
Single axle
Tandem axle
Tridem axle
EALF
W = 80 kN or 18 kips axle load
Standard single axle
Equivalent Axle Load Factor:
Effect of Relative Damage by each LEF:
100
10
18-kip single axle LEF
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
10 20 30 40 50
Single axle load, kips
Measuring Axle Load in the Field:
Types of WIM devices
•Bridge weighing devices
•Capacitance pads
•Piezoelectric cables
•Strain gauge load cells
•Strain gauge bending plates
•Hydraulic load cells
Calculating EASL for a Design Section:
ESAL = ADT x TKS x DD x LD x TF x 365
where
ESAL =Number of 80 kN ESAL applications in design lane for 1 year
ADT =Initial two-way average daily traffic, vehicles per day
TKS =Percent of ADT that is heavy trucks (FHWA class 5 or greater)
DD =Directional distribution of truck traffic (decimal, not percent)
LD =Lane distribution of trucks in design lane (decimal, not percent)
TF =Average truck factor for all trucks, ESALs per truck
AASHTO 1993 flexible pavement design process include two main steps:
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
DESIGN PROCESS
Design variables: include four main inputs:
Time constraints
Traffic
Reliability
Environmental effects
Material properties
Design variables
Time constraints
Performance period: the amount of time that the
pavement will serve without any rehabilitation or time
between rehabilitation periods
Analysis period: the amount of time the design process is
carried out
Typical analysis periods for various road types
Design variables
Traffic: the cumulative expected 80 kN equivalent single axle
load on the design lane. The two directional traffic can be
reduced to design lane using the following formula:
w80
w80 DD x DL x w80 w80 : traffic in the design lane; DD : directional distribution
DL : lane distribution; : cumulative two-directional traffic
Reliability: introducing certain level of uncertainty to the
design to ensure that the various design alternatives will last
the analysis period
Environmental effects:
effect of environmental
factors on design causing loss
of serviceability
Serviceability loss due to
frost heave
∆𝑃𝑆𝐼𝐹𝐻
= 0.01𝑃𝐷 ∆𝑃𝑆𝐼𝐹𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 − 𝑒 −(0.02∅𝑡
Serviceability loss due to
swelling
∆𝑃𝑆𝐼𝑆𝑊 = 0.00335𝑉𝑅 𝑃𝑆𝑊 1 − 𝑒 −∅𝑡
Performance criteria: Serviceability
Serviceability: defines the ability of a pavement to serve the
design traffic level
Terminal serviceability index (pt): serviceability index that
can be tolerated by user of roadway. 2.5 is recommended for
major highways and 2.0 is for low-volume roads
Serviceability loss is calculated through the following
equation:
pt : terminal serviceability index
PSI po pt
po : initial serviceability index
Material Properties: include characterization test results
depending on the type of pavement to be designed:
Effective Roadbed Soil Resilient Modulus: resilient modulus
of roadbed soil (subgrade) in stress and moisture levels
representing its in-situ condition (AASHTO T307)
Pavement Layer Materials Characterization: elastic
(resilient modulus) of pavement layers other than subgrade,
i.e., subbase, base and asphalt concrete (AASHTO T307)
Layer coefficients: layer coefficients are used for flexible
pavements to convert layer thickness to structural number (SN)
which represents the structural performance of pavement layer.
Relationship between layer coefficient and structural number
can be given using the following relation:
SN = structural number
SN ai Di ai : layer coefficient
i 1 Di : layer thickness
Layer coefficients are given for various materials as a function
measurable material characteristics
AASHTO design process: include four main inputs:
Determining structural number
AASHTO design process: include four main inputs:
Determining structural number
