Cartesian Coordinates

Daniel S. Weile

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

University of Delaware

ELEG 648—Cartesian Coordinates

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

Outline

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

Outline

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

Separation of Variables

Away from sources, in Cartesian coordinates, we have

The Helmholtz Equation
∂2ψ ∂2ψ ∂2ψ
+ + + k 2ψ = 0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

To apply separation of variables, we assume

ψ(x, y , z) = X (x)Y (y )Z (z)

and plug in:

∂2X ∂2Y ∂2Z

YZ + X Z + XY + k 2 XYZ = 0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

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Separation of Variables

We now divide by XYZ :

1 ∂2X 1 ∂2Y 1 ∂2Z

+ + + k2 = 0
X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2 Z ∂z 2

We now make the following key observation:

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

Separation of Variables

We now divide by XYZ :

1 ∂2X 1 ∂2Y 1 ∂2Z

+ + + k2 = 0
X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2 Z ∂z 2

We now make the following key observation:

Justification of Separation of Variables
Each term in the equation depends on one variable and not the
others. Since only one term depends on x, it cannot vary with x
since then the other terms would need to vary with x to keep
the equation true. Since this is a contradiction, every term in
the equation must be constant.

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

Separation of Variables

We thus have
1 ∂2X
= −kx2
X ∂x 2
1 ∂2Y
= −ky2
Y ∂y 2
1 ∂2Z
= −kz2
Z ∂z 2
subject to the separation equation

kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = k 2

We have also seen that solutions to these equations are of the

form
h (kx x) ∼ cos (kx x) , sin (kx x) , e−jkx x , e+jkx x

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Separation of Variables
A function of the form

ψkx ky kz (x, y , z) = hx (kx x) hy (ky y ) hz (kz z)

(subject to the separation equation) is called an elementary

wave function. In problems with boundaries, the allowed values
of ki are determined by the boundary conditions and are called
eigenvalues. The functions themselves are called
eigenfunctions.
Superpositions of these functions also work:
XX
ψ = Akx ky hx (kx x) hy (ky y ) hz (kz z)
kx ky
Z Z
ψ = f (kx , ky ) hx (kx x) hy (ky y ) hz (kz z) dkx dky
kx ky

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

Outline

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

The General Form

A general Cartesian elementary wave function is of the form

ψ(x, y , z) = e−jkx x e−jky y e−jkz z

A more telling version of this expression defines

k = kx ux + ky uy + kz uz
r = xux + y uy + zuz

so that
General Plane Wave Expression

ψ(r) = e−jk·r

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Interpretation of the General Form

In the time domain, the wave becomes

ψ(r) = cos(ωt − k · r)

Thus, the wave is traveling in the k direction with phase velocity

ω
vp =
|k|

This is of course the smallest phase velocity that might be

assigned, and it is along the direction perpendicular to the
equiphase planes.

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Complex Propagation Constant
Suppose
k = β − jα.
The strange notation allows us to define

γ = jk = α + jβ.

If the propagation material itself is lossless, k 2 = ω 2 µ must be

real. This implies

k 2 = k · k = β 2 − α2 − j2α · β

is real, and so either α = 0 or

α · β = 0.

What does this mean about the equiphase planes and the
equiamplitude planes?

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Complex Propagation Constant
Suppose
k = β − jα.
The strange notation allows us to define

γ = jk = α + jβ.

If the propagation material itself is lossless, k 2 = ω 2 µ must be

real. This implies

k 2 = k · k = β 2 − α2 − j2α · β

is real, and so either α = 0 or

α · β = 0.

What does this mean about the equiphase planes and the
equiamplitude planes?
What type of wave has nonzero α?
D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates
Outline

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

The Rectangular Waveguide

Let us consider TM modes in an a × b waveguide along the

z-direction. (We assume a > b, and a is along the x-direction.)
The Setup

A = µψuz
ψ = hx (kx x)hy (ky y )e−jkz z

Now, from our earlier work,

1 2 
Ez = k − kz2 ψ
ŷ

The most important thing to note is that Ez ∝ ψ.

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TM Modes

This immediately tells us that we need

Boundary Conditions

ψ(x = 0, y , z) = ψ(x = a, y , z) = 0
ψ(x, y = 0, z) = ψ(x, y = b, z) = 0

Now

hx (kx x) = Ax cos(kx x) + Bx sin(kx x)

hx (0) = 0 ⇒ Ax = 0
mπ
hx (kx a) = 0 ⇒ kx = for m = 1, 2, . . .
a

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The TM solution

Therefore, we have the

TM Wave Potential
 mπx   nπy 
ψ(x, y , z) = sin sin e−jkz z
a b
subject to
 mπ 2  nπ 2
+ + kz2 = k 2
a b
and

m = 1, 2, . . .
n = 1, 2, . . .

From here, we can find all of the fields from our TM formulas.

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TE Modes

Now, let us consider TE modes.

The Setup

F = ψuz
ψ = hx (kx x)hy (ky y )e−jkz z

Now, from our earlier work,

∂ψ
Ex = −
∂y
∂ψ
Ey =
∂x

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TE Modes
This immediately tells us that we need

Boundary Conditions

∂ψ(x = 0, y , z) ∂ψ(x = a, y , z)
= = 0
∂x ∂x
∂ψ(x, y = 0, z) ∂ψ(x, y = b, z)
= = 0
∂y ∂y

Now

hx (kx x) = Ax cos(kx x) + Bx sin(kx x)

∂hx (kx x)
= −kx Ax sin(kx x) + kx Bx cos(kx x) = kx hx0 (kx x)
∂x
hx0 (0) = 0 ⇒ Bx = 0
mπ
hx0 (kx a) = 0 ⇒ kx = for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
a

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The TE solution

Therefore, we have the

TE Wave Potential
 mπx   nπy 
ψ(x, y , z) = cos cos e−jkz z
a b
subject to
 mπ 2  nπ 2
+ + kz2 = k 2
a b
and

m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
m = n = 0 excluded
From here, we can find all of the fields from our TE formulas.

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Cutoff

From the formula for kz , it is obvious that cutoff wavenumber for

the TEmn or TMmn mode is
The Cutoff Wavenumber
r
 mπ 2  nπ 2
kcmn = +
a b
In terms of this wave number we have the propagation constant
( p
jβ = jp k 2 − kc2 for k > kc
γmn = jkz = 2 2
α = kc − k for k < kc

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Cutoff Frequency and Wavelength

√
From the cutoff k and the formula k = 2πf µ = 2π/λ, we find
the
Cutoff Frequencies
r
1  m 2  n 2
fcmn = √ +
2 µ a b

and
Cutoff Wavelengths
2
λcmn = q
m 2 n 2



a + b

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Alternate Expression for γ

Since
kc fc
=
k f
we can always write the
Propagation Constant as a Function of Cutoff Frequency
 r  2
 jβ = jk 1 − ffc

 for f > fc
γmn = jkz = r   2
 α = kc 1 − ff


c
for f < fc

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TE Impedance

Recall from earlier that for TE modes

1 ∂2ψ −jkz
Ex = − ∂ψ
∂y Hx = jωµ ∂x∂z = jωµ
∂ψ
∂x
∂ψ 1 ∂2ψ −jkz ∂ψ
Ey = ∂x Hy = jωµ ∂y ∂z = jωµ ∂y

From this we have

jωµHx = −jkz ∂ψ
∂x = −jkz Ey
jωµHy = −jkz ∂ψ
∂y = jkz Ey

This gives the

TE Modal Impedance
TE Ex Ey ωµ
Z0mn = =− =
Hy Hx kz

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TM Impedance

By precisely the same logic, we find the

TM Modal Impedance
TM Ex Ey kz
Z0mn = =− =
Hy Hx ω

In the application of these formulas, we must remember that kz

is real above cutoff and imaginary below.
Indeed, these formulas are not particular to rectangular cross
section, as we will see.

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Outline

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

TM Modes

Let us assume we form a cavity by placing metal walls on our

waveguide at z = 0 and z = c. Because we need to satisfy the
BCs on the other four walls, we can start with our expression
for TM waveguide modes.
 mπx   nπy 
ψ(x, y , z) = sin sin [Az cos(kz z) + Bz sin(kz z)]
a b

We need the x- and y -directed electric fields to vanish at

z = 0 and z = c.
∂ψ
Both of these fields are proportional to ∂z , so

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

TM Modes

Let us assume we form a cavity by placing metal walls on our

waveguide at z = 0 and z = c. Because we need to satisfy the
BCs on the other four walls, we can start with our expression
for TM waveguide modes.
 mπx   nπy 
ψ(x, y , z) = sin sin [Az cos(kz z) + Bz sin(kz z)]
a b

We need the x- and y -directed electric fields to vanish at

z = 0 and z = c.
∂ψ
Both of these fields are proportional to ∂z , so
We need hz0 (0) = hz0 (kz c) = 0.

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TM Modes

hz0 (0) = 0 ⇒ Bz = 0
pπ
hz0 (kz c) = 0 ⇒ kz =
c
Thus, we have the
Elementary Wave Functions for TM Cavity Modes

Az = µψ
 mπx   nπy   pπz 
ψ(x, y , z) = sin sin cos
a b c
subject to

m, n = 1, 2, . . .
p = 0, 1, 2 . . .

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Resonant Frequencies and TE Elementary Wave
Functions

The Resonant Frequencies

r
1 m 2  n 2  p 2
frmnp = √ + +
2 µ a b c

By similar effort

Elementary Wave Functions for TE Cavity Modes

Fz = ψ
 mπx   nπy   pπz 
ψ(x, y , z) = cos cos sin
a b c
subject to

m, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
p = 1, 2 . . .

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Outline

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

Alternate Mode Sets

The most important way of finding waveguide modes is by

assuming them TE or TM to z.
This characterization holds for non-Cartesian coordinates
as well.
In Cartesian coordinates, other choices are possible and
sometimes useful.
Thus, we can create a set of TMx modes by choosing

A = µψux

or a set of TEx modes with

F = ψux

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TMx Modes

Using the standard formulas for computing fields from

potentials we can write
 2 
Ex = ŷ1 ∂x
∂
2 + k
2 ψ Hx = 0
1 ∂2ψ ∂ψ
Ey = ŷ ∂x∂y
Hy = ∂z
1 ∂2ψ
Ez = ŷ ∂x∂z
Hz = − ∂ψ
∂y

From the formula for Ez , it is easy to find the

Wave Potential for TMx Waves in a Rectangular Guide
 mπx   nπy 
ψ(x, y , z) = cos sin e−jkz z
a b

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TEx Modes

Similar methods give rise to TEx mode formulas:

 2 
Hx = ẑ1 ∂x
∂
2 + k
2 ψ Ex = 0
1 ∂2ψ
Hy = ẑ ∂x∂y
Ey = − ∂ψ
∂z
1 ∂2ψ ∂ψ
Hz = ẑ ∂x∂z
Ez = ∂y

From the formula for Ez , it is easy to find the

Wave Potential for TEx Waves in a Rectangular Guide
 mπx   nπy 
ψ(x, y , z) = sin cos e−jkz z
a b

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Mode Impedance
Despite the novel mode formulation, we can still compute the
impedance of a mode relative to z.
For TMx modes, we have

1 ∂2
    mπ 2 
2 2
Ex = + k ψ ⇒ jωEx = k − ψ
ŷ ∂x 2 a

Similarly,
∂ψ
Hy = = −jkz ψ
∂z
We thus have the
TEx Mode impedance

2
TE Ex k 2 − mπ
a
Z0mn = =
Hy ωkz

We can find modal impedance for TMx waves similarly.

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Outline

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

Partially Filled Waveguide

As an example of the need for alternative modes, consider the

partially filled guide
y
d

b � ,µ �2 , µ2
1 1

a x
z

To find the modes in this, we will start with TMx modes.

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TMx Modes in Partially Filled Waveguide

We will expand Ax differently in the two regions, taking into

account the step change in µ. We thus write
nπy −jkz z
ψ1 = C1 cos kx1 x sin e
b
nπy −jkz z
ψ2 = C2 cos [kx2 (a − x)] sin e
b
Note:
1 The form of the solution is determined by previous slides.
2 The solutions in the y -direction must be the same since the
boundary conditions have not changed.
3 The solutions in the z-direction must have identical kz to
ensure continuity of fields.
4 The behavior of the solution at x = 0 and x = a is
determined by the metal waveguide wall.

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TMx Modes in Partially Filled Waveguide

For these to be legitimate solutions, they must satisfy the usual

separation conditions:
 nπ 2
2
kx1 + + kz2 = k12 = ω 2 µ1 1
b
 nπ 2
2
kx2 + + kz2 = k22 = ω 2 µ2 2
b
Now we must enforce continuity at the boundary. This implies
1 Ey 1 (x = d) = Ey 2 (x = d)
2 Ez1 (x = d) = Ez2 (x = d)
3 Hy 1 (x = d) = Hy 2 (x = d)
4 Hz1 (x = d) = Hz2 (x = d)
How many of these conditions do we actually need?

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TMx Modes in Partially Filled Waveguide

For these to be legitimate solutions, they must satisfy the usual

separation conditions:
 nπ 2
2
kx1 + + kz2 = k12 = ω 2 µ1 1
b
 nπ 2
2
kx2 + + kz2 = k22 = ω 2 µ2 2
b
Now we must enforce continuity at the boundary. This implies
1 Ey 1 (x = d) = Ey 2 (x = d)
2 Ez1 (x = d) = Ez2 (x = d)
3 Hy 1 (x = d) = Hy 2 (x = d)
4 Hz1 (x = d) = Hz2 (x = d)
How many of these conditions do we actually need? Two. Why?

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Finding the Eigenvalues

From our work with alternative mode sets, we find

1 nπ nπy −jkz z
Ey 1 = − C1 kx1 sin kx1 x cos e
jω1 b b
1 nπ nπy −jkz z
Ey 2 = C2 kx2 sin [kx1 (a − x)] cos e
jω2 b b

These must be equal at x = d so we have the

E-Field Continuity Condition
1 1
C1 kx1 sin kx1 d = − C2 kx2 sin [kx2 (a − d)]
1 2

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Finding the Eigenvalues

A similar condition can be found from the continuity of Hz :

nπ nπy −jkz z
Hz1 = C1 cos kx1 x cos e
b b
nπ nπy −jkz z
Hz2 = C2 cos [kx2 (a − x)] cos e
b b
These must be equal at x = d so we have the
H-Field Continuity Condition

C1 cos kx1 d = C2 cos [kx2 (a − d)]

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Finding the Eigenvalues

Dividing these two equations yields a transcendental equation

for kz :
TMx Eigenvalue Equation
kx1 kx2
tan kx1 d = − tan [kx2 (a − d)]
1 2

Once kz is found (and hence kx1 and kx2 , either one of the
previous equations may be used to find C1 /C2 . TEx modes can
be found similarly, and lead the the
TEx Eigenvalue Equation
kx1 kx2
cot kx1 d = − cot [kx2 (a − d)]
µ1 µ2

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Partially Filled Waveguide Observations

The resulting kz can be shown to be between those

obtained for homogeneous guides filled with material 1 or
2.
The TEx and TMx modes are no longer degenerate.
Computing the cutoff frequency can be done without
solving transcendental equations by setting kz = 0 and
finding kx1 and kx2 .
Knowledge of the cutoff frequency is no longer sufficient
using the usual formulas to find kz ; a transcendental
equation must be solved at each frequency.
The dominant mode is affected by the orientation of the
inhomogeneity as well as the shape of the guide.

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Outline

D. S. Weile Cartesian Coordinates

The Slab Waveguide

Waves can be guided without metal. (This should be known to

everyone here, especially those studying optics. The simplest
example of a dielectric waveguide is the slab waveguide:
x
�0 , µ0

�d , µd z
a

This problem is simple primarily because it is two dimensional.

We assume no variation with y .

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Slab Guide Setup

It turns out that we can examine modes either

TEx and TMx , or
TEz and TMz .
We choose the latter. Given the lack of y variation, the TMz
equations are:

kz ∂ψ
Ex = −
ω ∂x
1  2 
Ez = k − kz2 ψ
jω
∂ψ
Hy = −
∂x
Also, because of the symmetry of the problem, the solutions
must either be odd or even functions of x.

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Form of the Solution

In the dielectric region we choose

Odd Dielectric Mode
ψdo = A sin ux e−jkz z for |x| < a
2

In the air we choose

Odd Air Mode

ψao = Be−vx e−jkz z for x > a

2
ψao = −Bevx e−jkz z for x < − a2

Why are these expression of different forms?

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Separation Equations

As usual, all of this is subject to the separation equations,

which say the length of the wavevector is the wavenumber.
The guide wavenumber kz must be the same in both
media.

Separation Equations

u 2 + kz2 = kd2 = ω 2 µd 0
−v 2 + kz2 = k02 = ω 2 µa 0

Of course, Ez and Hy must be continuous.

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Continuity of Ez

From our equations of TM propagation, we find that

A 2 −jkz z a
Ez = jωd u sin ux e for |x| < 2
−B 2 −vx −jkz z a
Ez = jω0 v e e for x > 2
B
Ez = 2 vx −jkz z
jω0 v e e for x < − a2
a
Enforcing continuity at x = 2 gives the

E-Field Continuity Condition

A 2 ua B va
u sin = − v 2 e− 2
d 2 0

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Continuity of Hy

By the same token

a
Hy = −Au cos ux e−jkz z for |x| < 2
a
Hy = Bve−v |x| e−jkz z for |x| > 2

a
Enforcing continuity at x = 2 gives the

H-Field Continuity Condition

ua va
Au cos = −Bve− 2
2

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The Odd TM Characteristic Equation

Dividing the E-field continuity condition by the H-field condition

gives
The Characteristic Equation
ua ua d va
tan =
2 2 0 2

Coupling this with the

Separation Equations

u 2 + kz2 = kd2 = ω 2 µd 0
−v 2 + kz2 = k02 = ω 2 µa 0

we can find the kz ’s and cutoffs of the odd TM modes.

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Even TM Modes

Doing precisely the same for even modes, we can write

ψde = A cos ux e−jkz z for |x| < a

2
ψae = Be−v |x| e−jkz z for |x| > a
2

Enforcing continuity of Ez and Hy gives the

Even TM Characteristic Equation

ua ua d va
− cot =
2 2 0 2

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TE Modes
TE modes are completely dual to TM modes. The characteristic
equations are

Characteristic Equations

ua ua d va
tan = (odd)
2 2 0 2
ua ua d va
− cot = (even)
2 2 0 2

The fields are given by

kz ∂ψ
Hx = −
ωµ ∂x
1
k 2 − kz2 ψ


Hz =
jωµ
∂ψ
Ey = −
∂x

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Cutoff in Dielectric Waveguides

Above cutoff, the wave propagates in the z-direction

unattenuated.
In free space, kx is imaginary.
In the dielectric, kx is real.
Below cutoff, kz is complex due to radiation out of the core.
The condition for guidance is
Guidance Condition
k0 < kz < kd

1 After all, if kz < k0 , there will be propagation away from the

guide.
2 If kz > kd , there evanescence everywhere (and the
equations cannot be satisfied).

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Cutoff Computation

1 By the previous argument, cutoff occurs when v = 0.

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Cutoff Computation

1 By the previous argument, cutoff occurs when v = 0.

2 This implies that kz = k0 .

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Cutoff Computation

1 By the previous argument, cutoff occurs when v = 0.

2 This implies that kz = k0 .
q
3 This in turn implies that u = kd2 − k02 .

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Cutoff Computation

1 By the previous argument, cutoff occurs when v = 0.

2 This implies that kz = k0 .
q
3 This in turn implies that u = kd2 − k02 .
We thus have the equations
 q 
a 2 2
tan kd − k0 = 0 (odd)
2
 q 
a
cot kd2 − k02 = 0 (even)
2

for both TE and TM modes.

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Cutoff Computation

The cutoff equations are solved when

Cutoff Wavenumbers
a nπ
q
kd2 − k02 = n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2 2
Consistent with Murphy’s law, odd mode numbers go with even
modes!
Cutoff Frequencies
n
fc = √
2a d µd − 0 µ0

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Observations

1 The TE0 and TM0 modes have no cutoff regardless of a.

2 If the slab is thin, the guidance is weak in that v → 0.
3 The mode number n is roughly the number of half
wavelengths in the dielectric; this characterization is more
accurate for large refractive indices.
4 If the slab is weakly guiding, the cutoff of higher order
modes will be at very high frequency.

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Graphical Method for Characteristic Equation Solution
Eliminating kz from the separation equations, we have
u 2 + v 2 = kd2 − k02 = ω 2 (d µd − 0 µ0 ) .
Given this, the TE characteristic equations become
r
µ0 ua ua  ωa 2  ua 2
tan = (d µd − 0 µ0 ) −
µd 2 2 2 2
r
µd ua ua  ωa 2  ua 2
− cot = (d µd − 0 µ0 ) −
µ0 2 2 2 2
We now assume µd = µ0 and let
ua
x=
2
The right hand side is thus a circle of radius
ωa √
r= d µd − 0 µ0
2
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Graphical Method for Characteristic Equation Solution

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Why bother with graphical methods when we have computers?

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