VECTORS, DOT PRODUCT O.

Knill, Maths21a VECTOR OPERATIONS: The ad- ~u + ~v = ~v + ~u commutativity

dition and scalar multiplication of ~u + (~v + w)~ = (~u + ~v ) + w ~ additive associativity
VECTORS. Two points P1 = (x1 , y1 ), Q = P2 = (x2 , y2 ) in the plane determine a vector ~v = hx2 − x1 , y2 − y1 i. vectors satisfy ”obvious” properties. ~u + ~0 = ~0 + ~u = ~0 null vector
It points from P1 to P2 and we can write P1 + ~v = P2 . There is no need to memorize them. r ∗ (s ∗ ~v ) = (r ∗ s) ∗ ~v scalar associativity
COMPONENTS. Points P in space are in one to one correspondence to vectors pointing from 0 to P . The We write ∗ here for multiplication (r + s)~v = ~v (r + s) distributivity in scalar
numbers ~vi in a vector ~v = (v1 , v2 ) are also called components or of the vector. with a scalar but usually, the multi- r(~v + w)~ = r~v + rw ~ distributivity in vector
REMARKS: vectors can be drawn everywhere in the plane. If a vector starts at 0, then the vector ~v = hv1 , v2 i plication sign is left out. 1 ∗ ~v = ~v the one element
points to the point hv1 , v2 i. That’s is why one can identify points P = (a, b) with vectors ~v = ha, bi. Two
vectors which can be translated into each other are considered equal. In three dimensions, vectors have three LENGTH. The length |~v | of ~v is the distance from the beginning to the end of the vector.
components. In some Encyclopedias vectors are defined as objects which have ”both magnitude and direction”. √
This is unprecise and strictly speaking incorrect because the zero vector is a vector with no direction. EXAMPLES. 1) If ~v = (3, 4) , then |~v | = 25 = 5. 2) |~i| = |~j| = ~k| = 1, |~0| = 0.

ADDITION SUBTRACTION, SCALAR MULTIPLICATION. UNIT VECTOR. A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector. If ~v 6= ~0, then ~v /|~v | is a unit vector.
EXAMPLE: If ~v = (3, 4), then ~v = (3/5, 4/5) is a unit vector, ~i, ~j, ~k are unit vectors.
y y

u
u+v
u
u-v
y
3 u
PARALLEL VECTORS. Two vectors ~v and w
~ are called parallel, if ~v = rw
~ with some constant r.
u

x x

v v x

DOT PRODUCT. The dot product of two vectors ~v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w

~ = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) is defined as

~v · w
~ = v1 w1 + v2 w2 + v3 w3

~u + ~v = hu1 , u2 i + hv1 , v2 i ~u − ~v = hu1 , u2 i − hv1 , v2 i λ~u = λhu1 , u2 i Remark: in science, other notations are used: ~v · w~ = (~v, w) ~ > (quantum mechanics) vi wi (Einstein
~ (mathematics) < ~v |w
= hu1 + v1 , u2 + v2 i = hu1 − v1 , u2 − v2 i = hλu1 , λu2 i notation) gij v i wj (general relativity). The dot product is also called scalar product, or inner product.
√
LENGTH. Using the dot product one can express the length of ~v as |~v | = ~v · ~v .

BASIS VECTORS. The vectors ~i = h1, 0i, ~j = h0, 1i are called standard basis vectors in the plane. In space, CHALLENGE. Express the dot product in terms of the length alone.
one has the basis vectors ~i = h1, 0, 0i, ~j = h0, 1, 0i, ~k = h0, 0, 1i.
Every vector ~v = (v1 , v2 ) in the plane can be written as a sum of standard basis vectors: ~v = v1~i + v2~j. Every SOLUTION: (~v + w,
~ ~v + w)
~ = (~v , ~v ) + (w,
~ w)
~ + 2(~v , w)
~ can be solved for (~v , w).
~
vector ~v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) in space can be written as ~v = v1~i + v2~j + v3~k.

WHERE DO VECTORS OCCUR? Here are some examples: ~ 2 = (~v − w,

ANGLE. Because |~v − w| ~ = |~v |2 + |w|
~ ~v − w) ~ 2 − 2(~v, w)
~ is by the
cos-theorem (which is easy to prove) equal to |~v |2 +|w|
~ 2 −2|~v|·|w|
~ cos(α),
Forces: Some prob- where α is the angle between the vectors ~v and w, ~ we get the important
Velocity: if (f (t), g(t))
lems in statics in- formula
is a point in the plane
which depends on time t, volve the determina-
tion of a forces acting ~v · w
~ = |~v | · |w|
~ cos(α)
then ~v = hf ′ (t), g ′ (t)i is
on objects. Forces
the velocity vector at
are represented as
the point (f (t), g(t)).
vectors CAUCHY-SCHWARZ INEQUALITY: |~v · w| ~ ≤ |~v ||w|~ follows from that formula because | cos(α)| ≤ 1.
TRIANGLE INEQUALITY: |~u + ~v | ≤ |~u| + |~v | follows from |~u + ~v |2 = (~u + ~v ) · (~u + ~v ) = ~u2 + ~v 2 + 2~u · ~v ≤
2 2 2 2 2
Qbits: in quantum ~u + ~v + 2|~u · ~v | ≤ ~u + ~v + 2|~u| · |~v | = (|~u| + |~v |) .
Fields: electromagnetic
computation, rather
or gravitational fields or
than working with FINDING ANGLES BETWEEN
√ √ VECTORS. Find the angle between the vectors (1, 4, 3) and (−1, 2, 3).
velocity fields in fluids
bits, one deals with ANSWER: cos(α) = 16/( 26 14) ∼ 0.839. So that α = arccos(0.839..) ∼ 33◦ .
are described with vec-
qbits, which are vec-
tors.
tors. ORTHOGONAL VECTORS. Two vectors are called orthogonal (= perpendicular)if ~v · w ~ = 0. The zero
vector ~0 is orthogonal to any vector. EXAMPLE: ~v = (2, 3) is orthogonal to w ~ = (−3, 2).
2 2 2
PYTHAGORAS. If ~v and w ~ are orthogonal, then |v−w| = |v| +|w| . Proof: (~v −w)·(~
~ v −w)~ = ~v ·~v +w·
~ w+2~
~ v ·w
~=
Color can be written as ~v · ~v + w
~ · w.
~
a vector ~v = (r, g, b), blue SVG. Scalable
where r is red, g is green (r,g,b) Vector Graphics is w

and b is blue. An other an emerging stan- PROJECTION. The vector ~a = projw~ (~v ) = w(~~ v · w/|
~ w|~ 2 ) is called the
coordinate system is ~v = green
dard for the web projection of ~v onto w. ~ b

(c, m, y) = (1 − r, 1 − red for describing two- The scalar projection is defined as compw~ (~v ) = (~v · w)/|
~ w| ~ . (Its ab-
g, 1 − b), where c is cyan, dimensional graphics
m is magenta and y is solute value is the length of the projection of ~v onto w.)
~ The vector
in XML. ~b = ~v − ~a is called the component of ~v orthogonal to the w-direction.
yellow. ~ a
v

√
EXAMPLE. ~v = (0, −1, 1), w
~ = (1, −1, 0), projw~ (~v ) = (1/2, −1/2, 0), compw~ (~v ) = 1/ 2.