8 Processing Methods
“If you don´t like something, change it” Mary Engelbreit and Patrick Regan
Processing alters the structure of the material to make it more usable.
Casting (Fundición)
Refers to melting and pouring (casting) metal into a mold whose interior has the desired shape, the
solidified metal then is formed with the shape of the inner contours of the mold.
Furnaces and Crucibles (Hornos y crisoles)
The most common furnace design to melt metal for casting is a refractory-lined steel tank heated
by electric resistance or by hydrocarbon combustion. Some furnaces heat the casting metal with
alternating electromagnetic fields that induces eddy currents (Foucault) in the metal that melt it by
ohmic resistance heating. Other casting operations melt the metal by striking it with an electric arc.
It can be covered with a floating liquid slag (escoria) of molten salts (sales fundidas) to avoid
oxidation from contact with air.
Crucibles are typically steel or cast iron with a refractory ceramic interior lining (revestimiento) that
does not react with the molten metal. To avoid porosity by dissolved gases in the final casting, it is
bubbled by other gases through the molten metal with a submerged tube to entrain (arrastrar)
dissolved gases.
Moving Molten Metal into a Mold
Molten metal is moved into the mold by tilting (inclinando) the crucible to pour the metal out the
top or by tapping (golpeando) it out the crucible´s side or bottom. Pouring (vertir) must avoid
entraining slag into the casting metal and should minimize contact with air. Channels are arranged
to direct molten metal into the mold cavity in which risers compensate volume shrinkage as the
metal in the mold cools and solidifies.
Casting Defects and Segregation
Ideal casting has no porosity, slag inclusions or entrained mold material, but real casting have more
physical defects. Hot tears (desgarro en caliente) are separations that occur in the semisolid metal
caused by molds that do not allow the metal to contract as it shrinks during cooling. Porosity is
caused by dissolved gases in the solidifying metal. Misruns (mal moldeado) are missing portions of
the intended casting caused when the mold fails to fill completely with the metal. Cold shuts (cierre
frío) occur when liquid metal streams (Corrientes) entering from more than one gate fail to fuse
when they meet inside the mold (caused by excesive cooling or oxide skins). Blows (golpes), blisters
(ampollas), scabs (costras) and scars (cicatrices) are surface defects caused by dissolved gas in the
liquid metal as the mold is filled. Wash (arrastre de moldeo) is an unwanted potrusion from the
casting surface caused by mold wall erosion.
Casting usually have nonuniform grain structure. The metal near the mold wall freezes to form
small, randomly oriented nuclei, giving this region equiaxed grains. As freezing progresses, the
grain structure tends to become columnar oriented parallel to the direction of heat flow.
Continuos Casting
Plate and sheets are cast in large, vertical molds, then hot rolled after solidifying to reduce ingot
thickness. The continuously cast bar is withdrawn at the same rate as liquid metal is poured into a
water-cooled mold. To prevent the solidifying metal from sticking to the mold, they are usually
covered with special coating to minimize friction.
Sand casting
Casting molds can be made from mixtures of sand, clay, binders and water packed around a pattern
in a steel housing. The mold is split into lower (drag) and upper (cope) sections. Some properties
are: Accuracy and surface finish quality are generally lower, can produce complex shapes, it is used
for smaller production runs.
Shell mold casting
Shell molds are thin-walled sand models held together by a thermosetting binder (cubierta
termoendurecible). The two mold halves are formed around metal patterns heated to 175°C to
375°C by spraying a sand thermosetting binder mix onto the pattern. The molds are assembled and
placed in a steel box which is filled with steel shoot to support the thin. The mold walls are
sufficiently porous to allow gases to escape during casting. This method produces a smoother finish
on the cast metal with costs about the same as for conventional sand mold casting.
Precision casting
Molds are made of plaster of paris (yeso blanco) formed over the pattern which they need to be
heated 120°C before molten metal is poured. It is used for fine detail and dimensional accuracy.
Investment Casting (Lost Wax Casting) (Fundición de inversión)
It is used to remove the pattern from the mold without damaging the mold by using expendable
pattern materials that melt anf flow out of the mold. It is an expensive process, give good surface
finish, close tolerance control and require no trimming or grinding
Permanent Mold and Pressure Die Casting
The mold is broken apart to remove the casting. Permanent mold uses metal or graphite molds
designed to produce many castings which must not react or dissolve in casting materials. This is the
most economical casting method for large production runs. Permanent molds can be filled by
pouring molten metal into the die (molde) or pulling it into the die with vacuum. This die casting or
pressure die casting moves metal rapidly into the mold, allowing high production rates and cool
shuts or misruns.
Centrifugal Casting
Some casting systems use centrifugal force to shape the metal. A hollow cylindrical die can be
partially filled with molten metal and rotated rapidly around its centerline to cast the metal and
form the shape of a pipe.
Single-Crystal Casting
Certain applications require single-crystal products like turbine blades and microprocessors. One
method for producing it is the Czochralski crystal pulling method which free grain boundaries and
dislocations by immersing a seed crystal into the surface of a pool of liquid under high vacuum and
a slowly rotating.
Powder Metallurgy
Metal Parts can be fabricated by compacting metal powders into the desired shape and then
sintering them into a solid object. For refractory metals this powder metallurgical (PM) approach is
the only workable fabrication method because their high melting points make casting difficult.
Making Metal Powders
A liquid metal stream can be atomized by gas or water jets that break into small droplets. It
produces round particles that are easily pressed and sintered. Another method is the rotating
electrode process, in which a metal rod is rotated at high speed in an inert gas chamber around its
centerline while a W electrode strikes an arc with the rod end. Metal powders can also be
produced by reducing fine metal oxide particles with H2 or CO gas. Another method is that metals
can be deposited electrolytically to form powder particles rather than massive metal platings in
the electrode. Brittle metals can be powdered by milling.
Mixing Powders and Compaction
Metal powders may be coated with thin layers of wax or lubricants. The loose powders can be
compacted at high pressure in a die (cold pressing).
Sintering
Sintering at 70 to 90% of the homologous melting temperature diffusion-bonds the powder particles
to one another. Is usually performed in a controlled atmosphere to minimize oxidation. Any wax or
lubricants present will vaporize during sintering.
Forming and shaping
Metals can deform without breaking. Most products are plastically deformed at some point in
their preparation for service.
Flat-Rolling Plate and Sheet (Laminación plana de hojas y placas)
Flat metal plates or sheets can be fabricated by rolling a metal ingot between two parallel steel
cylinders. Rolling makes the ingot thinner and longer.
Rolling can be performed on either hot or cold metal. Hot rolling reduces the force required to
deform the metal, and it can break down and recrystallize the large nonuniform grains; it can
produce an undesirably thick oxide layer and it is more difficult to achieve accurate dimensions.
Cold rolling requires more energy but it can produce excellent surface finish and dimensional
accuracy. Cold rolling deforms the metal below its recovery and recrystallization temperature so it
hardens residual stress (compression in the surface and tension in the core for small rolls and the
reverse effect for large rolls).
Shape-Rolling Operations
Flat rolling is the most common rolling operation, but rollers with variable diameters along their
lengths can form rods, I-beams, corrugated sheet and threaded surfaces.
Forging
Forging presses or hammers a metal billet (palanquilla) between two surface Ss. Friction forces
between the die and billet tend to give the forged work piece a barrel shape, but lubricants can
minimize this effect. There are equations that predict the forging force necessary to achieve a given
deformation level in the workpiece.
Extrusion and Drawing
Extrusion pushes a ductile metal through a die (dado) to reshape. Metal is preheated near its solidus
temperature so it melt partially as it passes through the die. This causes intergranular tearing and
cracking (agrietamiento). Surface flaws (fallos superficiales) can result from intermittent sticking of
the workpiece to the die producing bamboo defect. The last portion of the extruded product pass
through the die containing a funnel shapedvoid called tailpipe defect (defect de tubo de escape).
The interface between the extrusion die and the workpiece is lubricated to minimize die wear
(desgaste) and ram force (fuerza de empuje). The extrusion ratio is defined as A0:Af where A0 ir the
workpiece´s initial cross sectional area and Af is cross sectional area after extrusion.
Drawing is a cold working process reduces the workpiece´s diameter and modifies its countour as it
passes through a die, but drawing pulls the metal through the die, whereas extrusion pushes it
through. Drawing cannot be performed above the recovery temperature and the cross-sectional
area reduction is limited to a maximum of 45% to avoid deforming or breaking.
Sheet Metal Forming
Sheet metal is produced by rolling and given subsequent processed by bending (doblado), punching
(punzonado), deep drawing (extracción profundal), spinning (girar) or stretching the metal (estirar
el metal). The amount of deformation that sheet metal will tolerate without cracking or fracturing
varies from one metal to the next. Other method can be applied as hydroforming (transfer high fluid
pressure to the workpiece), peen forming (Granalladora) (punch of workpiece with high-velocity
steel balls), explosive forming (uses detonation shock front in a water tank to push the sheet metal
into the die, and magnetic pulse forming (employs a magnetic repelling force generated by induction
to push the sheet metal over the die.
Material Removal
Material removal allow parts to be fabricated with accurated control by cutting, grinding, dissolving
or vaporizing.
Cutting Machines and Cutting tools
Saws, lathes, mills and drills shear metal from the workpiece surface. These machines apply large
forces to a small region with a sharp edged tool to cut it away from the workpiece.Cutting tools
materials with sufficient hardness, toughness and chemical stability to slice through the workpiece
without dulling (entorpecer) or breaking the cutting edge too rapidly. So if the workpiece metal is
hard, the cutting tool must be harder (tools with martensite steel containing substantial amounts
of V, Cr, Nb, Mo or W carbides (Carburos). Lubricants are used to lower temperatures and minimize
friction to reduce wear (desgaste).
Tool-Workpiece Interactions
Chemical reactivity between the tool and the workpiece is a major factor in selecting cutting tool
materials. Because of elevated temperature due high work hardening metals, cutting tool wear
becomes much more rapid.
Grinding (desbaste)
Grinding is used to remove material with abrasive, it drags hundreds of small, hard crystals across
the workpiece surface and each crystal acts like miniature cutting tool, shaving tiny chips off the
surface. To reduce heating problems in surface, grinding fluids are often used to lubricate and cool
the workpiece.
Chemical and Electrochemical Machining and Grinding
Chemical and electrochemical methods can dissolve metal to controlled depths in patterns across
the workpiece surface. Chemical milling relies entirely on the reaction between the metal and
suitable reagent. Electrochemical milling imposes a galvanic current on the workpiece to accelerate
material removal with the cathode acting as a cutting tool that approaches but does not touch the
anodic workpiece. It is used primarily for hard brittle metals, for workpieces where no temperature
rise is tolerable and machining tasks where complicated patterns need an excellent finish.
Electrical Discharge Machining
Electrodischarge machining (EDM) erodes the workpiece by striking a spark between a tool and a
workpiece that are both submerged in a dielectric fluid. This technique can machine any electrically
conductive material and works well to fabricate hard, brittle, fragile parts to complex or difficult-to-
cut shapes. The cutting electrode is usually graphite, Cu, brass or CuW.
Laser and Electron Beam Machining
The energy of laser beams or focused electron beams can be used to saw and machine metal by
melting or vaporizing it. These processes are particularly useful for cutting narrow slots and drilling
small holes (10um in diameter). In laser beam machining, workpiece reflectivity is important in
determining how effectively the beam will heat the metal and may pose a safety hazard to workers.
Joining
Many assemblies require methods to join separate pieces permanently or temporarily. These
connections can be made by welding, brazing, gluing or fastening the individual parts.
Traditional Welding
Two parts can be joined by melting juxtaposed regions and allowing the liquid metals to mix and
fuse into a single part as the liquid solidifies. The metal may be heated with a torch fueled with a
hydrocarbon-oxygen flame or an electric arc. A reducing flame minimizes metal oxidation in the
weld zone. An oxidizing flame can cut metal by a combination of melting and blowing the debris out
of the kerf. In arc welding, a high amperage electric arc heats the metal, the electrode is gradually
consumed to provide filler metal to the weld zone. Welding alter the metal´s microstructure
enlarging grain size and because weld cool rapidly there are often residual tensile stress in the weld
and compressive stresses near the weld.
Other Joining Processes
Roll bonding method is a simple cold deformation that can join two ductile metals by rolling or
forging one piece stacked atop the other.
Friction welding rotates one workpiece against the face of the other, heating the interface and
fusing the surfaces together.
Ultrasonic welding is where an oscillating tool (10 to 75 kHz) causes a shearing action between the
workpieces that heats them and breaks loose the oxide scale, bonding the metals a without melting
them.
Friction-stir welding, in which rapidly rotating tool is pushed through the metals at the joint between
the juxtaposed workpieces; plastic flow of metals around the rotating tool joins the metals.
Explosives can join dissimilar metals that cannot be fusion welded due to formation of brittle
intermetallic compounds or large differences in melting points.
Electron-beam welding can join plates up to 150nm thick, forming a fusion zone that is about 10
times narrower than conventional fusion welding. This method permits precise power control that
achieves reliable welding.
Brazing and soldering
Brazing and soldering are often used to join metals by melting a lower melting alloy between two
workpieces. Brazing implies a higher temperature use where significant diffusion occurs neat the
joint, by contrast, soldering is a lower temperature procedure.
Adhesive Bonding
Organic adhesives can join metal parts. A wide range of thermosetting polymers (phenolics and
epoxies) are available with higher shear strengths (40MPa). Adhesive materials weaken rapidly at
elevated temperature so their use is limited to components operating near room temperature.
Mechanical Fasteners
This are separable joints like bolts, nuts, washers, splines, keyways, clips, cotter pins, and related
devices which use involves certain potential mechanical and corrosion problems.
Surface Modification
Nature of metal surfaces
Metal surfaces are contaminated with microscopically thin of layers of adsorbed gas, oxide films,
residual skin oil and lubricating oil or adherent dust and other debris. In addition, many metal-
working processes (grinding, polishing) produce a work hardened metal surface layer tens or
hundreds of micrometers deep. Without these contaminants layers, metals part would cold welding.
Mechanical Surface Treatment
Metals properties can be improved by various mechanical treatments. Shot-peening bombards the
part with high-velocity steel, glass or ceramic shot to work harden the surface and induce residual
compressive stresses near the surface to retard fatigue. Roller burnishing is used to increase fatigue
resistance by polishing the surface with a hard smoothing roller to remove scratches.
Coatings
Hard facing applies hard metal coatings to surfaces using welding techniques.
Thermal spray coats the surface by melting the coating material and spraying it at high speed onto
the metal.
Physical vapor deposition (PVD) coats a substrate with vaporized metal in a vacuum chamber. The
hot vapor condenses as a solid coating when it contacts the cooler workpiece.
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) coats a hot substrate by allowing gaseous, metal-bearing
compounds to contact the workpiece in a controlled atmosphere. The high temperature of the
workpiece and reactions in the chamber atmosphere decompose the chemical, leaving meatls or
compounds on the workpiece surface.
Ion implantation injects selected impurity atoms a few micrometers the workpiece surface. The
metal´s surface is bombarded by accelerated charged ions of the impurity atom.
Electroplating deposits metal by making the workpiece the cathode in an electrolyzed solution.
Electroplating base metals with Ni, Cu, Cr, Ag, Cd, Sn, Zn or Au increases corrosion resistance.
Painting
Painting coats metal surface with blends of organic and inorganic materials suspended in a loquid
carrier. Paint is applied by spraying, brushing or dipping. As with all coatings operations the metal
surface must be cleaned of debris, oils, and loose oxide scale by scrapping, blasting, brushing or
dissolving them chemically.
