CELLS 2.

2.1.1 Outline the cell theory (2).

Outline: To give a brief account or summary.

 All living things are made of cells.

 Cells are the smallest unit of life.
 Existing cells have come from other cells.
 Stated in this way Cell Theory might be attributed to Schleiden and Schwann (1838).
 Robert Hooke first coined the term 'cell' after observing the structure of cork in 1655.
 The first observation of living cells was by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1674.

2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory (3).

The cell theory has amassed tremendous credibility through the use of the microscope in the following:

 Robert Hooke- studied cork and found little tiny compartments that he called cells
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek- observed the first living cells, called them 'animalcules' meaning little
animals
 Schleiden- stated that plants are made of 'independent, separate beings' called cells
 Schwann- made a similar statement to Schleiden about animals
2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all of the functions of life

 Metabolism; chemical reactions inside the cell, including cell respiration to release energy
 Response; perceiving and responding to changes in the environment
 Homeostasis; keeping conditions inside the organism within tolerable limits
 Growth; an irreversible increase in size
 Reproduction; producing offspring either sexually or asexually
 Nutrition; obtaining food, to provide energy and the materials needed for growth
 Defense; protection against enemies
2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and
cells, using the appropriate SI unit

nm = nanometer µm = micrometer

 Molecules - 1 nm
 Thickness of membrane - 10 nm
 Viruses - 100 nm
 Bacteria - 1 µm
 Organelles - up to 10 µm
 Most cells - up to 100 µm (three dimensional nature/shape)

1
2.1.5 Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of known
magnifications

Magnification = measured size of object/ actual size of object

2.1.6 - Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size.

 A cell needs a large surface area in order to carry out metabolic functions (as chemical reactions
require a surface). As a cell grows, it needs to carry out more and more reactions. Therefore,
since a cell has to maintain a certain surface area to volume ratio, its size is limited.
 The rate of exchange of materials (nutrients/waste) and energy (heat) is a function of its surface
area.
Thus: As a cell grows in size (volume), the distance increases between the cytoplasm at the center of
the cell and the cell membrane. The rate of chemical exchange with the surrounding environment
may hence become too low to maintain the cell. It is not able to excrete waste quickly enough or take
in important minerals.
Volume of a cell determines requirements while surface area determines supply.

2.1.7 - State that multicelluar organisms show emergent properties

 Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component parts: the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts

2
 PROKARYOTIC CELLS 2.2

2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an example of a
prokaryote

 Note the absence of membrane bound organelles

 There is no true nucleus with a nuclear membrane

 The ribosome's are smaller than eukaryotic cells

 The slime capsule is used as a means of attachment to a surface

 Only flagellate bacteria have the flagellum

 Plasmids are very small circular pieces of DNA that maybe

transferred from one bacteria to another.

2.2.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the functions of each named structure

 Cell Wall- Forms a protective layer protecting from damage from the outside and from
bursting due to high pressure
 Plasma Membrane- Controls entry and exit of substances, pumping some of them by active
transport
 Cytoplasm- Contains enzymes that catalyse chemical reactions of metabolism and contains
DNA in the nucleoid
 Pili- Hair-like structures projecting from outer cell wall, used for attachment.
 Flagella- Solid protein structures used for movement
 Ribosomes- Synthesise proteins by translating messenger RNA.
 Nucleoid- Region of the cytoplasm that contains naked DNA

2.2.3 Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrograph of Escherichia Coli

2.2.4 State that prokaryotes divide by binary fission.

3
 Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.
 The process starts with DNA replication, then separation of the two circular strands to either side
of the cell. Then cytokenesis occurs: division into two.
 Each new cell has about half of the cytoplasm.
 Growth restores the original size.

4
 EUKARYOTIC CELLS 2.3

2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cell

 N:Nucleus
 PM: plasma membrane
 M: mitochondria
 rER: Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 GA: Golgi apparatus
 L: Lysosome
 MV: Microvilli
 FR: Free ribosomes

2.3.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each of the named structures.

 Ribosomes- Main site of protein synthesis

 RER- Packages proteins synthesised in ribosomes
 Lysosomes- Digest macromolecules and contain digestive enzymes
 Golgi Apparatus- Modifies, stores and routes products of endoplasmic reticulum.
 Mitochondrion- Site of cellular respiration
 Nucleus- Contains cell’s genetic information

2.3.3 Identify structures from 2.3.1 in electron micrographs of liver cells.(2)

2.3.4 Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

EUKARYOTIC PROKARYOTIC
Always has nucleus with linear DNA (chromosomes) and histones Naked loop of DNA
Membrane bound organelles No membrane bound organelles
Mitochondria present No mitochondria present
Cell division by mitosis or meiosis Cell division by binary fission
Ribosomes are larger (80s) Ribosomes are smaller (70s)

5
2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells

ANIMAL PLANT
No cell wall, just a plasma membrane Cell wall and plasma membrane present
No chloroplasts present Chloroplasts present in photosynthesizing cells
Vacuole not usually present Large fluid filled vacuole often present
Able to change shape, usually rounded Fixed shape. Usually quite regular.

2.3.6 Outline two roles of extracellular components

 The plant wall maintains shape, prevents excess water uptake, and holds the whole plant up against the
force of gravity.
 Animal cells secrete glycoproteins that form the extracellular matrix (ECM). This functions in support,
adhesion and movement.

6
 MEMBRANES 2.4

2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the

structure of membranes.

2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the
structure of cell membranes.

 The 'head's have large phosphate groups, thus they are hydrophilic (attract water) or polar. These
section are suited to the large water content of the tissue fluid and cytoplasm on opposite sides
of the membrane.
 The fatty acid tails are non-charged, hydrophobic meaning they repel water. This creates a barrier
between the internal and external 'water' environments of the cell. The 'tails' effectively create a
barrier to the movement of charged molecules
 The individual phospholipids are attracted through their charges and this gives some stability.
They can however move around in this plane
 The stability of the phospholipid can be increased by the presence of cholesterol molecules.

2.4.3 List functions of membrane proteins

7
2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis.

 Diffusion: is the passive movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration, as a result of the random motion of particles.

 Osmosis: the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable membrane,
from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.

2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion

 Some molecules are so small that they pass through the membrane with little resistance
 This includes Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
 Lipid molecules (even though very large) pass through membranes with very little resistance also.
 Larger molecules (red) move passively through the membrane via channel proteins
 These proteins(grey) have large globular structures and complex 3d-shapes
 The shapes provide a channel through the middle of the protein, the 'pore'
 The channel 'shields' the diffusing molecule from the non-charged/ hydrophobic/ non-polar regions of
the membrane.

2.4.6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes.

 Molecules are moved against the concentration gradient from a region of their low concentration to a
region of their high concentration.
 Active mean that the membrane protein 'pump' requires energy (ATP) to function

 The source of energy is ATP is produced in cell respiration

 Transported molecules enter the carrier protein in the membrane.

 The energy causes a shape change in the protein that allows it to move the molecule to the other side
of the membrane.
 The sodium-potassium, pump that creates electro-chemical gradient across the cell membrane of all
cells.
 Cells are -ve charged on the inside relative to the outside.
 This pump is modified in the nerve cell to create some of the electrochemical phenomena seen in nerve
cells.

2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and plasma membrane.
 vesicle is made by pinching off a piece of membrane
 fluidity of membrane allows this
 vesicles can be used to transport material around inside cells
 proteins are transported in vesicles
 from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus
 from the Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane
 formation of vesicle from plasma membrane allows material to be taken in
 endocytosis/pinocytosis/phagocytosis is absorption of material using a vesicle

8
  fusion of vesicle with plasma membrane allows material to be secreted / passed out
 exocytosis is secretion of material using a vesicle
2.4.8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-form during
endocytosis and exocytosis

 In endocytosis part of the plasma membrane is pulled inwards. A droplet of fluid becomes enclosed
when a vesicle is pinched off. Vesicles can then move through the cytoplasm carrying its contents.
 In exocytosis vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane. The contents of the vesicles are then expelled.
The membrane flattens out again.

2.5.1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2, mitosis and cytokinesis)

 G1- period of growth, DNA transcription and protein synthesis

 S- period during which all DNA in nucleus is replicated
 G2- Period in which cell prepares for division
 Mitosis- process by which nucleus divides to form 2 genetically identical nuclei
 Cytokinesis- process of dividing cytoplasm to form two cells

2.5.2 State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any
organ or tissue

Tumors are formed when cell division goes wrong and is no longer controlled. This can happen in any organ or
tissue.
2.5.3 State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur,
including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or
chloroplasts

Interphase is an active period in the life of a cell during which many metabolic reactions occur such as protein
synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplast.

2.5.4 Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase)

1. Prophase: The spindle microtubules are extended from each pole to the equator.
2. Metaphase: Chromatids move to the equator and the spindle microtubules from each pole attach to
each centromere on opposite sides.
3. Anaphase: spindle microtubules pull sister chromatids apart making the centromeres to split. This
brings the sister chromatids apart, splitting them into chromosomes. Each identical chromosome is
pulled to opposite poles.
4. Telophase: Spindle microtubules break down, while chromosomes uncoil and therefore are no longer
individually visible. The nuclear membrane now reforms. The cell then is divided by cytokinesis to
form two daughter cells with identical genetic nuclei.

9
 2.5.5 Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei.

During prophase, chromosomes become visible under a light microscope as they super coil and
therefore they get shorter and becomes more bulky.

The nuclear envelope disintegrates and the spindle microtubules grow, moves towards each pole,
towards the equator.

At metaphase the chromatids move to the equator.

The sister chromatids are two DNA identical molecules as they were replicated during DNA
replication.

These sister chromatids are then separated in anaphase as the spindle microtubules attaches to the
centromere, it pulls the sister chromatids to opposite poles.

Now that sister chromatids are separated, they are known as chromosomes.

This means that each pole has the same chromosomes.

Finally the microtubules break down, the chromosomes uncoil and the nuclear membrane reforms.

The cell then divides into two daughter cells with genetically identical nuclei.
2.5.6 State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis.

 Growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis.

10