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European Research
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POLICY REVIEW

EUR 23863 EN Socio-economic Sciences and Humanities

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 EUROPEAN COMMISSION

European Research on Youth

Supporting young people

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The contribution of European Research

Directorate-General for Research

2009 Socio-economic Sciences and Humanities EUR 23863 EN
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Foreword
Young people are one of the major resources of Europe.
They also represent its potential for the future. However
they are also a group which face many challenges such
as youth unemployment and related social problems. The
resulting lack of personal and professional development
perspectives for young people have created high levels
of social disaffection in many European countries and
a ghettoisation of marginalised young people in many
cities. This is a disadvantage for individual young people
and for Europe as a whole.

This publication examines the results of a number of youth related projects

funded under the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Research Framework Pro-
grammes of the European Union i.e. from 1996 to 2013. It analyses some com-
mon recurring themes which are of interest to policymakers and which could
contribute to the formulation of policies to support young peoples’ transition
from education to employment and their full participation in society.

The Framework Programmes for research, and in particular their policy-oriented

programmes for socio-economic sciences and humanities, play a significant role
in addressing major economic, scientific and social challenges which are impor-
tant for Europe. They enable us to identify recommendations and strategies
which have the capacity to contribute to evidence-based policymaking at re-
gional, national and/or European levels.

The projects reviewed emphasise the importance of an integrated and holistic

approach to policymaking. It can draw on resources outside the dominant philo-
sophical or theoretical mindsets prevailing in a given thematic area. Multilateral
and participative approaches, which incorporate a broadly based approach to
the subject matter and involve those who are the subjects of the policymaking
on a crucial factor of success.

Such participatory policies emerging from a dynamic process of partnership

and equality of interaction between key actors will stand a better chance of ef-
fectively resolving the issues they are designed to remedy than purely unilateral
approaches.
3
4

Partnership is an underpinning concept in policy framing and in addressing the

needs of those who may be in danger of marginalisation within societies.

The involvement of those who are the subjects of the policies to be developed is
essential if unintended consequences are to be effectively addressed. Policymaking
should be seen as a process which works with people rather than for people, if it
wants to be successful in delivering solutions which support young people in the
transition to the world of work and are also responsive to their longer term needs.

There is a significant body of evidence which raises the question of how young
people perceive their identity and their role within a given social context. Levels
of participation raise issues about how citizenship is experienced in local con-
texts, but also at national and European levels.

The strengthening of concepts of citizenship and the young person’s identities within
his own local and national context, in addition to his European identity, is closely
linked with the policy measures taken which support equity within societies.

More effective links between the worlds of enterprise and education are also
crucial in ensuring that young people leave formal education and training fully
equipped to participate in the labour market in the context of the knowledge
society highlighted in the Lisbon Strategy.

Policymaking with young people, engaging with their realities and developing
structured approaches to exclusion issues, creates a laboratory where each
aspect of one’s identity as a citizen, of a region, a country or the European
Union may be fully analysed and explored.

Jean-Michel Baer
Director
Acknowledgements
This report was drafted by Sean Feerick, expert in education and youth issues,
who made a review of research results concerning scientific evidence for policy-
making in the field of youth.

We are grateful to colleagues in Directorate-General for Education and Culture,

notably Pascal Lejeune, Sergej Koperdak, Sylvie Vlandas and Finn Denstead for
their comments, especially on the youth policy aspects of this report.

Finally, the report has benefited from the inputs of several colleagues in
the Directorate “Science, Economy and Society” of the Directorate-General for
Research, in particular from the Unit of Pierre Valette, Marc Goffart, Louisa
Anastopoulou, Domenico Rossetti and Joëlle Moraïtis.

5
6
Table of Contents

1. Setting the scene 11

2. Policy context 15

2.1 EU youth policies: identifying some underlying trends 15

2.2 Renewed Social Agenda 18
2.3 Role of the Research Framework Programmes in supporting
the use of scientific evidence in policymaking 20

3. Key thematic research areas 23

3.1 Pathways between the worlds of learning,

work and society 24

3.1.1 Defining priorities: the economic and social

context which creates prosperous societies 24
3.1.2 Integrated transition policies: developing
tailor-made, coherent and context-related
policy responses 25
3.1.3 Reinforcing the connections between education
systems and the wider community 30

3.2 Strategies for social cohesion and inclusion 36

3.2.1 Social cohesion and inclusion – definition

of priorities and policy context 36
3.2.2 Social strategies to reduce and to promote
exclusion-engagement between key stakeholders,
with and for young people 37
3.2.3 Holistic rather than purely quantitative
monitoring of progress 42

7
8
 3.2.4 Partnership approaches within systems
and the role of cross sectoral approaches
to supporting cultural change 45

3.3 Citizenship and participation 47

3.3.1 Citizenship: defining priority and underpinning

principle of policymaking 47
3.3.2 Engagement with multiple levels of citizenship
at local, national and European levels 49
3.3.3 Promoting equity within societies 52
3.3.4 Individual and structural approaches
to the development of citizenship 55

4. Ensuring policy usefulness: messages for policymakers 59

4.1 Importance of context in policy formulation 59

4.2 Drivers of success: concern for social cohesion and inclusion 60
4.3 The policymaking process: multifaceted and complex 61
4.4 Evaluation: ensuring effective policies 65

5. Supporting successful policymaking at European

and other levels: recommendations for the future 67

5.1 Recommendations to policymakers in general 67

5.2 Recommendations to those working with young people 68

Annex: list of project titles and websites 71

9
10
1. Setting the scene

Young people are one of the major resources of Europe. They also represent its
potential for the future. In a European Union which must position itself globally
as an outward looking, innovative and creative economy built on the principles
of inclusiveness, respect for diversity and openness to change they are key players.
In a time of constantly developing technologies and rapidly changing political,
social and economic realities they are among the most equipped to contribute
to the solutions of the future. Today’s young Europeans have grown up in the
Europe of the Single Market, Schengen and the Euro. Many have benefited
from mobility programmes such as Erasmus, Comenius, Leonardo and Youth. In
many instances they have been educated to think beyond national boundaries
and to reason in terms of European rather than national responses to the chal-
lenges faced by their societies.

However they are also a group which face many challenges. In many European
countries youth unemployment rates are unacceptably high. Lack of the per-
sonal and professional development perspectives which are provided by the
opportunities which employment provides, have created high levels of social
disaffection in many European countries and a ghettoisation of marginalised
young people in many cities.

This is not only a waste for individual young people. It is also a waste for Europe.
Societies need the contribution of the ideas, enthusiasm and fresh insights which
young people bring to resolving problems and facing challenges.

These projects address a wide range of topics and demonstrate

that youth issues are inextricably linked to core social, political,
economic and cultural concerns such as working life, poverty and
precariousness, housing, health, education, family, welfare, citizen-
ship and social cohesion.

11
12

This Policy Review examines the insights which research brings to the question
of young peoples’ involvement in society and how policymakers can build on
research findings in order to enable Member States and the European Commis-
sion to harness the significant contribution young people can make as individuals,
employees and citizens.

The review presents and analyses the results of youth related projects funded
under the DG Research Framework Programmes since the Fourth to the
Seventh one. Its main purpose is to distil some common themes recurring in
the projects which are of interest to policymakers and which will contribute to
the formulation of policies relating to young peoples’ transition from education
to employment and their participation in society. The projects chosen provide
important insights for policy formulation and a solid basis for European coope-
ration in this field.

The aim of the review has been to identify areas of major thematic interest for
policymakers and to identify the messages that are important, rather than pro-
viding an overview of how each project examined addresses different aspects
of each thematic area. The central part of this review explores the policy-useful
messages which emerge from the research. It analyses the recurring themes
when addressing patterns of inclusion and exclusion of young people in society,
their transition to the labour market, and their participation in society.
The review uses as its starting points three major areas which will inform the
approach taken in analysing the projects namely:

the significant policy reflection undertaken by the Commission on youth and

their participation in society1;

the broad policy context provided by the Renewed Social Agenda2 and its
presentation of the challenges facing young people;

the policy context provided by the DG Research Framework Programmes.

13

1 European Commission, Decision No 17192/2006/CE of the European Parliament and the Council establishing
the programme Youth in Action for the period 2007-2013, JO L 412/44 of 30.12.2006.
2 European Commission, Communication, Renewed Social Agenda: Opportunities, access and solidarity
in 21st Century Europe, COM(2008)412.
14
2. Policy context

2.1 EU youth policies: identifying some underlying trends

While Youth Policy at EU level has only been formalised 10 years ago with the
consultations undertaken with a view of preparing the White Paper on Youth3,
the concerns on Youth at EU-level have been tackled since at least 20 years. With
the development of the first programme activities in this area in 19894, and the
promotion of European cooperation, the EU has embedded a culture of coope-
ration between youth work actors on the ground, and also created a basis for
policymaking which seeks to respond to young peoples’ needs as individuals and
members of society.

Successive programmes in the field of education, training and youth have pro-
vided a laboratory for exploring ways in which young people can be supported
in their education and training5, as well as in the process of developing their citi-
zenship and social solidarity competences through European Voluntary Service
and other activities within the broader framework of the successive programmes
targeted at young people.

Such programmes have also influenced the development of a more formal EU policy
relating to youth. This White Paper, drawing on the experience of policymakers at
European and Member State levels, as well as the results of a public consultation,
identifies the major challenges faced by young people, and suggests the types of
policies which are important if these challenges are to be addressed.

The White Paper of the Commission presents three strategic messages which
should inform policymaking in relation to young people:

a substantial number of young people have lost confidence in decision-making

systems and experience disaffection in terms of traditional participation in
public life and youth organisations;

policymaking needs to focus on the individual and how to best support

his/her participation in society in order to address this level of alienation.
Individual pathways between the worlds of learning and work are essential
if policymaking is to support the development of inclusive societies where the
issues relating to youth disaffection are addressed;
15

3 European Commission, White Paper, A New Impetus for European Youth, COM(2001)681.
4 Youth for Europe Programme 1989 and its successor programmes in 1995, 2000
and the Youth in Action Programme 2007-2013.
5 Socrates and Leonardo Programmes since 1995 and the Lifelong learning Programme 2007-2013.
16

there is a need for the development of policies not only at a European level,
but also for the active engagement of policymaking at Member State and
regional levels in identifying suitable implementation strategies.

The White Paper also emphasises the major contribution the Open Method of
Coordination6 in the field of youth can make to developing policy responses
to the challenges faced by young people. It suggests the active participation of
young people in processes designed to identify appropriate responses through
organising direct dialogue, involvement of young people in policymaking initia-
tives and the development of the kinds of projects which will foster their closer
participation in the policymaking process. Participation and information are
seen as two priorities which are necessary to drive this process.

The White Paper stresses that there needs to be a greater under-

standing of youth and their needs in other policymaking areas.
This not only concerns areas such as education and training but
also other areas which impact on the quality of life of young peo-
ple and their relation with society, such as health and housing poli-
cies, finance and social welfare.

The White Paper stresses the complementarity between formal and non-
formal education, and highlights the important role of non-governmental
youth organisations in promoting citizenship, social inclusion, and develop-
ment of entrepreneurial mindsets among young people. Policymaking in these
areas therefore needs to ensure an effective youth dimension which is fostered
through a meaningful dialogue with young people using appropriate consulta-
tive channels.

6 The Open Method of Coordination within the framework of the follow-up of the Lisbon Strategy and its related
education, employment and social policy processes has played a significant role in supporting the exchange of policy
practice and implementation experience at a European level.
 Education, employment, and inclusion of young people were covered by “main-
streaming” until the adoption of the European Youth Pact7 by the European
Council in 2005. These areas are now part of the Lisbon strategy and Member
States have to report in their “national reform programmes” on how they are
implemented.

The Youth Pact incorporates three broad strands which

should be priorities in policymaking, namely,
(i) education and training;
(ii) employment and social inclusion;
(iii) reconciliation of working life and private life.

Harmonized unemployment rate

and youth unemployment rate in 2007

25

20

15

10
Percentage (%)

0
LT

AT

IE

EE

CY

SI

CZ

LV

DE

MT

UK

EA15

BG

EU27

LU

FI

PT

HU

ES

BE

SE

FR

RO

IT

SK

PL

GR

Harmonized unemployment rate Youth unemployment rate

Source: Eurostat, 2008

When drawing up the policy context for research projects in the youth field,
it is relevant to mention the European Commission’s strengthened emphasis
on youth participation in all policy domains and in society in general through
a Communication on young people’s full participation in education, employ-
ment and society.8
17

7 The Youth ministers of the Member States of the European Union adopted Conclusions calling for the establishment
of a European Youth Pact on 21 February 2005.
8 European Commission, Promoting young people’s full participation in education, employment and society,
COM(2007)498.
18

The first ever Council Recommendation in the youth policy field

(2008)9, emphasises volunteering as a means to enhance young
people’s professional skills and competences, employability, sense
of solidarity and foster active citizenship.

Policymaking relating to youth will need to address a number of challenges over

the coming years if young people are to be supported to play their important
role in European societies. A key priority is to create the policy framework which
will ensure that societies are prosperous, where there are more and better jobs
and where young people have clear pathways between the world of learning
and work. Greater efforts are also required to promote cohesion within socie-
ties, intergenerational solidarity and the development of inclusive multicultural
models where all young people can find a place. This process is an essential
foundation stone for the development of citizenship practice not only at local
and regional levels, but also at a European level.

This broader policy concern with the development of prosperity and the in-
tegration of young people into policymaking processes which support their
participation in society will emerge in many of the policy messages in the
projects reviewed. It will allow identifying practical examples of how to most
appropriately address these issues in practical and sustainable ways.

2.2 Renewed Social Agenda

The Renewed Social Agenda presents a strategy for supporting a Europe

where promoting opportunities, access and solidarity is seen as a major priority
in responding effectively to the challenges posed by the ever present social and
economic changes we face. The introduction to the Commission Communica-
tion stresses the important role the European Union has played in creating a
society of unprecedented opportunities in terms of choice and living condi-
tions10. However the Communication also emphasises the stark reality of high
levels of youth unemployment and disaffection within our societies when it
states that “too many young people are inactive or unemployed, and too many
young people leave school early (...) as a result there are still too many people
living in poverty (especially children and older people) and in social isolation”.

9 Council Recommendation of 20 November 2008 on the mobility of young volunteers across the European Union
C(2008)319.
10 European Commission, Communication, Renewed Social Agenda-Opportunities, access and solidarity
in 21st Century Europe, COM(2008)412.
This statement clearly presents the scope of the problem to be addressed. It also
provides an important background against which we can examine the results of
some of the projects funded by the Framework Programmes which address
issues of youth exclusion, poverty, unemployment and the transition between
education and employment. The challenge is seen not so much as one of iden-
tifying the skills young people will need in order to participate in employment.
It is rather to be seen in terms of the skills and competences which are needed
for a new type of economy and how citizens can be best equipped to succeed.

The message to policymakers is also clear. There is no single answer to the

challenges faced by societies. Responses must draw on a number of sources
and must be capable of producing flexible social policies in order to meet the
challenges. Such responses also need to be able to empower individuals to fully
participate in society as citizens and as employed people.

Youth is seen as the key determining factor for Europe’s future. This
expectation however is counterbalanced by the particularly acute marginalisa-
tion they suffer through lack of opportunities to access education and training.

The EU is seen as playing a key role in providing a context for addressing these
issues through its role in supporting policies to improve solidarity between gene-
rations and addressing specific problems relating to young peoples’ access to
education and training, the labour market as well as housing and finance. The
Renewed Social Agenda refers specifically to the policy impetus provided by the
European Youth Pact and other initiatives such as the Commission Communica-
tion on Schools in helping to address these issues.

Investment in human capital, the creation of new and better jobs and the
development of new skills are seen as major pillars for the development of an
EU strategy to address the problems of exclusion, unemployment and disaffec-
tion. Fostering of growth and jobs is seen as the major contribution the EU can
make to developing prosperity. The Lisbon Strategy and European Monetary
Union have already created a basis for significant progress in this respect.

The Renewed Social Agenda puts at 19 millions the number of

young European people who are at risk of poverty and at 6 mil-
lions the number who drop out of school.
19
20

Social dialogue, the development of processes which facilitate change, the

involvement of the social partners and other key stakeholders are seen as key
components in creating a space for the creation of effective policy responses to
the challenges faced by European societies.

The Open Method of Coordination is seen as one of the major contributors to

success in supporting exchange of policy practice and implementation experi-
ence at European level. It has also increased confidence between policymakers
in Member States and contributed to removing barriers between approaches
and sectors in policymaking processes.

Therefore a new openness in policymaking and a readiness to engage with

new partners in the process of identifying and developing appropriate policy
responses can be seen in the European context. This provides a background
against which the policy messages in the projects analysed in this review can
be examined. This allows identifying a number of recommendations which are
important for policymakers working in the youth policy area.

2.3 Role of the Research Framework Programmes in supporting

the use of scientific evidence in policymaking

The EU Framework Programmes managed by the DG Research have, since their

inception, played, and continue to play, a significant role in addressing major
economic, scientific and social challenges which are important for Europe.

Significant work is undertaken within these projects to ensure that they con-
tribute meaningful messages which will support the use of scientifically developed
evidence and rigorous social analysis in policymaking. A key feature of these
projects is their capacity to strengthen the process of evidence-based policy-
making not only at a European level but also within individual Member States.
 The projects supported within the Socio-economic Sciences and
Humanities (SSH) address major structural issues, such as participa-
tion of young people in society, citizenship, and the development
of inclusive and cohesive societies.

The projects funded have a key role to play in informing the European Union’s
policy development at the political level. They also provide policy-useful infor-
mation and insights in terms of collaborative practices in the communication
and information sharing process between projects and key actors and engage-
ment between policymakers and end users at every stage of the policymaking
process at European and national levels. In this respect they show how the Open
Method of Coordination can work in areas like Youth, Education, Employment,
and Social Inclusion.

The results of the projects help to understand the importance of appropriate

connections across the policymaking spectrum and to use research results to
inform dialogue with politicians and senior policy advisors so that policymaking
benefits from the most up-to-date information available from the research com-
munity. Recommendations and strategies which have the capacity to contribute
to evidence-based policymaking at regional, national and/or European levels
are identified. These recommendations are drawn from projects which address
some of the most important issues addressed by those with responsibility in the
field of youth and their integration in society.

21
22
3. Key thematic research areas

Certain projects put the emphasis on the factors which contribute to the full
integration of young people in society and their successful participation in eco-
nomic life. Such factors have the capacity to create the conditions which ensure
a prosperous development of societies both in terms of individual success and
of society as a whole. They contribute to an environment in which young people
feel stimulated to be creative and empowered to develop innovative responses
to professional and societal challenges. These projects also show the impor-
tance of coherence in the policymaking process.

There is a need to ensure that those for whom policies are de-
signed are part of the policymaking process as subjects rather than
as objects of the planning process.

They examine a range of policy conditions and contexts which enable them to
identify success factors and recommendations for policymaking. This section
will explore the results of these projects in order to identify a series of policy
practices and recommendations which can contribute to this debate. It will
examine in detail the concepts which the projects have addressed and highlight
the messages which have the capacity to provide a European added-value to
the reflection on how to best promote the development of a society which will
ensure economic success and social integration for all its citizens and for young
people in particular.

Two underpinning concepts need to be addressed to fully understand the

extent of the challenges faced by societies and in particular by young people:

the development of more targeted and relevant responses through integrated

transition policies within policymaking systems;

the concept of “agency”11 and connection between education systems

and the wider community in order to promote coherence of approach and
engagement of all key actors in the policymaking process.

23

11 Agency defines the capacity of an agent to act in a world. For human beings it indicates their capacity to make
choices and to impose those choices on the world.
24

3.1 Pathways between the worlds of learning, work and society

3.1.1 Defining priorities: the economic and social context which creates
prosperous societies

A significant number of the projects supported under the Framework Programmes

address the conditions which are necessary in order to ensure that young people
are supported to participate as economic actors in society. They have focused on
strategies to reduce exclusion, the development of integrated responses to employ-
ment and integration challenges, cross sectoral partnerships in policy development
and the relation between education systems and the broader enterprise and em-
ployment context.

These projects examine a range of issues which play an important role in creating
successful examples of policies targeting the participation of young people in
employment. They are also useful in helping us to identify indicators of success
in policymaking in relation to providing opportunities for the participation of
young people in the world of work.

The experience of these projects points to the importance for policymakers to work
towards policies which ensure that young people are empowered to contribute to
the development of a dynamic and successful economy. They show that success
is not haphazard but is planned for through the creation of appropriate policies
with clearly planned for outcomes.

A key feature of such policies is the emphasis on partnership and cross sectoral
approaches. Some of the most interesting examples of successful initiatives at local
and national levels are provided by projects which show how policies are framed
and developed in a targeted and integrated way rather than addressing different
aspects of a problem using ad hoc and sometimes sporadic solutions. In addition,
those policies which have seen young people as key actors in the development of
responses, rather than as the objects of particular policies, have also pointed the
way to developing initiatives which create optimum conditions for success.
 Ensuring the conditions for economic well-being, and maximising
opportunities for involvement of young people in employment are
seen as major vectors for the development of successful, socially
inclusive and forward looking societies.

Several initiatives have been successful in creating the conditions for the transi-
tion of young people into the world of work and the development of prosperous
societies which are capable of harnessing the creativity and dynamism of young
people.

3.1.2 Integrated transition policies: developing tailor-made,

coherent and context-related policy responses

A key feature of the projects which explore the issue of supporting young people in
the transition from education and training into active participation in the world
of employment is their emphasis on the importance of an integrated and holistic
approach to policymaking.

This approach is characterised by:

a concern to focus on issues and/or target publics at a first stage and to adopt
policymaking strategies which are solutions-based and targeted at the needs
of individuals within a specific context;
a change in the processes by which policy is developed with substantial effort
devoted to partnership across sectors and the involvement of key stakeholders
in policymaking;
a tendency to see those who are the targets of a particular policy as key
actors in the reflection process and in the identification of a response to a
particular policy issue. In this instance young people are seen as the subjects
of policy development rather than the objects of the process. They should be
major stakeholders in the policymaking process.

The multi-faceted nature of this reflection is well exemplified in the Mislead-

ing Trajectories project (“Misleading Trajectories: evaluation of the unintended
effects of labour market integration policies for young adults in Europe”)12. This
project identifies the importance of the contextual dimension in policy develop- 25
ment. While European policy documents may create a broad framework within

12 http://www.iris-egris.de/en/uebergaenge/misleading_trajectories/
26

which more specific, national, regional or indeed sectoral policies may be deline-
ated, the factors which impact on young people’s transition to work are heavily
dependent on the particular context within a given Member State. The project
provides an in-depth analysis of the way in which holistic perspectives on transi-
tion to work and the respective assessment and monitoring of success levels has
become an integral part of the EU policy development process.

The INCLUD-ED project (“Strategies for inclusion and social cohesion in Europe”)13
emphasises the importance of broader approaches to addressing the issue of edu-
cational disadvantage and its impact on access to education and employment. It
argues that education should be considered in connection with the other policy
factors related to exclusion such as employment, economy, social inclusion, youth,
healthcare, justice, housing and social services. This perspective and the conclusions
of the Misleading Trajectories project (“Misleading Trajectories: evaluation of
the unintended effects of labour market integration policies for young adults in
Europe”)14 support a view which prioritises the intrinsic motivation of individuals
and works on the premise that the broader policy context will be supportive of
individual efforts to participate in the world of work.

Such policy initiatives are often framed at EU level, but also in Member States
within an all-embracing Lifelong Learning Policy. Such an approach values the
individual and foresees a continuum of learning and development which embraces
the personal and professional aspects of the individual’s life.

The reality confronting individuals may be somewhat different however. National

and other contexts within individual Member States may be characterised by
difficulties of access to appropriate learning and/or training opportunities for
young people in certain categories.

Individual education and training contexts, and their concomitant certification

and access to employment systems may also make it difficult to recognise and
harness informal education.

National policies on vocational education and training may be

outmoded with a tendency to prioritise specific skill areas rather
than the transversal skills which are seen as important in a lifelong
learning context.

13 http://www.ub.edu/includ-ed/
14 http://www.iris-egris.de/en/uebergaenge/misleading_trajectories/
Such systems, which are more traditional in their organisation and policy develop-
ment methodologies, do not support young people to make innovative and
creative transitions to the world of work. They tend to assess policy effective-
ness in terms of quantitative outcomes rather than in qualitative and holistic
terms. In terms of framing lifelong learning policies policymakers must also be
aware of the significant “cultural” differences that exist between the world of
education/training and the world of work and labour market.

The important role of context is a recurring theme in many of the projects address-
ing young people and the policies which impact on their transition to the world
of work. YUSEDER project (“Youth unemployment and social exclusion: dimen-
sions, subjective experiences and institutional responses in six countries of the EU”)15
examines the extent to which successful initiatives at individual project level
can be transferred to other countries and regions. The findings highlight the
importance of not underestimating the importance of structural and cultural
peculiarities in the implementation of policy.

However this does not necessarily imply that policymaking cannot learn from
the examples of projects and initiatives developed in other contexts. Such
policy examples may provide a catalyst for addressing issues in new ways or
with the benefit of considered reflection on the impact of particular policy ini-
tiatives and how they were implemented in a particular context. This is part of
the added-value of policymaking in the European context, particularly within
the context of the Open Method of Coordination where the opportunity to
reflect back into ones own system the meaning or rationale for certain types of
policy decisions may provide new insights into dealing with particular proble-
matic situations.

The strong message which underscores this analysis of the importance of con-
text in determining responses to specific circumstances is that it is critical to
prioritise the kinds of policies which ensure that the circle of disadvantage is
broken. This requires Member States and other policymaking levels as appro-
priate, to develop the kinds of policies which prioritise continued training. When
addressing issues of coherence and integration of policies many of the projects
provide examples which devote considerable energies to promoting participa-
tive processes and dialogue between all the stakeholders within the system. The
EMILIE project (“A European approach to multicultural citizenship: legal, political
and educational challenges”)16 stresses the importance of adequately engaging
the educational needs of very different groups of students when addressing 27

15 http://www.ipg.uni-bremen.de/research/yuseder/
16 http://www.eliamep.gr/en/emilie/
28

issues of exclusion. These include those belonging to the majority population,

new arrivals, immigrant children who have been living in the receiving country
for a number of years, second or even third generation young people, as well as
those whose stay in the country is likely to be short term.

In light of this, the EMILIE project (“A European approach to multicultural citizen-
ship: legal, political and educational challenges”)17 puts forward a number of policy
relevant considerations regarding access to schooling; language, culture and history;
multicultural and citizenship education; as well as anti-discrimination policies and
practices in the workplace. Similarly the YUSEDER project (“Youth unemployment
and social exclusion: dimensions, subjective experiences and institutional responses
in six countries of the EU”)18 emphasises the importance of engaging those involved
in vocational guidance as well as those with policy responsibilities in terms of edu-
cation and labour market provision, in order to avoid the development of disparate
policies which address parts of problems rather than root causes.

A second major finding across the projects analysed is the interaction between
the infrastructure requirement of labour market systems and the needs of the indi-
vidual. This may be seen as a tension arising from differing perspectives within
education and training systems and in the world of employment. Such differ-
ences may be most obvious when discussing education and training and the
transition to the world of work. The research indicates that there are significant
cultural differences between the world of the labour market, but particularly the
specific needs of employers and those who are specialists and policymakers in
the field of education and training.

The situation is well presented in the CASE project (“Social exclusion as a multidi-
mensional process”)19. This project, which is heavily influenced by theories of social
exclusion and inclusion, highlights a particular dilemma in policymaking which is
targeted at young people in danger of exclusion who may be excluded from the
labour market. It finds that it is difficult to mix welfare with educational and discipli-
nary aims when framing policies. In order to avoid social exclusion of at risk groups
of young people it is preferable to prioritise the provision of suitable organisational
arrangements which enable systems either to avoid social exclusion or to cope with
it. This is best done through supporting networks of associations and developing
policies at a macro level rather than by supporting individuals directly.

17 http://www.eliamep.gr/en/emilie/
18 http://www.ipg.uni-bremen.de/research/yuseder/
19 http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/projects/006_en.html
 Youth education in 2006 (%)
Early school leavers
45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10
Percentage (%)

0
SI

CZ

PL

SK

FI

AT

LT

DK

SE

IE

HU

BE

NL

UK

FR
EE

DE

EU27

EL

CY

LU

BG

LV

RO

IT

ES

PT
MT
Source: Eurostat, 2007

Such an approach however also supports the view that policymaking should
draw on resources outside the dominant philosophical or theoretical view in
a given thematic area.

Such an argument provides a clear message relating to the importance of multi-

lateral and participative approaches, incorporating a broadly based approach to
a particular subject, involving along with key actors those who are the subjects
of the policymaking. Policies which are developed in such a cultural context, and
which emerge from a dynamic process of partnership and equality of inter-
action between key actors will stand a better chance of effectively resolving the
issues they are designed to remedy than unilateral approaches.

The researchers speak in terms of broadening the conceptual field

to involve social psychology theories by introducing ideas such as
belonging, trust and accessibility of resources as well as political
theory, particularly those of democracy and equity by “installing
levels and degrees of participation” as the more general formula-
tion of what social exclusion means politically.

29
30

3.1.3 Reinforcing the connections between education systems

and the wider community

The second part of our analysis will focus on the interaction between education
and training systems and the wider community and in particular the concept of
agency between these two levels.

Policymaking in the field of youth, addressing ways to ensure the personal and
professional participation of individual young people in society, constantly strad-
dles the issue of supporting the individual and the need to ensure that society
creates opportunities for economic success which is seen as the necessary basis
for socially inclusive and prosperous societies. Elsewhere we will explore some
of the other dimensions of this issue.

In terms of integrated transition policies however we can see that whether policy-
making is approached from an individual standpoint or from the broader labour-
market needs perspective, the messages are the same. Some issues are best ad-
dressed through policies targeted at the individual. The Knowledge Society and
the constantly changing global context require major investment in creative and
innovative policies to support personal development in a lifelong learning context
for young people. These policies are only part of the solution however.

Reinforcing the connections between education and the wider community is

defined as “agency” in the Balancing Competencies project (“Balancing com-
petencies: enhancing the participation of young adults in economic and social
processes”)20. This project argues that agency is promoted when educational
communities practice opening up and are connected to wider communities of
labour and social, cultural participation. This concept is best understood in the
context of how education institutions and systems interact with the societies
in which they operate and how policymakers involve key stakeholders and the
targets of policymaking in the process. It is concerned with notions of policy
development with, rather than for people.

20 http://www.pjb.co.uk/npl/bp14.doc
 Broader, structural level intervention is also necessary in order to
create the environment for participation in the labour market and
to lay the building blocks of a prosperous labour market.

The UP2YOUTH project (“Youth. Actor of social change”)21 reflects on how

institutional structures of social integration such as politics, state, markets, fam-
ily need to be re-conceptualised in order to allow for policymaking which is
both in line with the implications of social change and open for the involvement
of young men and women. The research emphasises the key role that young
people themselves play as actors in the process of social change in addition
to whatever structural arrangements may be in place in given policy contexts.
The complexity of the personal and social situations in which individual young
people may find themselves creates a dynamic which contributes to new solu-
tions to the challenges they face with regard to the three issues of reproduction,
integration and participation. This provides a further refinement of the concept
of “agency” and its role in the policymaking process.

In the previous section a reference was made to partnership-based policymaking

processes. Discussing the concept of agency, the focus is on the development
of cultures of professional practice and on policies which promote interpretative
and reflective practice. Such ideas are at the heart of what can be considered
the added-value of cooperation in the European context. The Open Method of
Coordination has created not only a methodology for collaboration on issues
of shared concern by European policymakers, but has also created a space for
exploring policy options, and addressing in a non-threatening way some of the
more problematic issues with which they are confronted.

When applied to the education field the concept of agency refers to the way
in which education systems interact with the wider world. This is of particular
importance when discussing issues of inclusion and exclusion, the preparation
of young people for the world of work and their active participation in society.

The UP2Youth project (“Youth. Actor of social change”) highlights

the importance of the development of alternative learning set-
tings and non-formal education in compensating for the absence
of formal qualifications. 31

http://www.up2youth.org
32

But it also concerns the effectiveness of the school in creating a solid basis for
young people’s acquisition of the skill of lifelong learning. However non-formal
education may also be considered as a valuable means of fostering citizenship,
employability and entrepreneurial spirit, social inclusion and youth autonomy.

For young people, who experience learning problems in formal education, as

is often the case for migrants because of linguistic and cultural challenges or
interrupted educational trajectories, it is particularly important to develop alter-
native learning settings. Informal learning processes can be successfully used in
strengthening the integration process. Through informal pedagogy and practi-
cal work, young people acquire a number of skills not only relevant in profes-
sional work but also in their everyday life.

Learning successes or failures differ highly, depending on both the ethnic mi-
norities‘ country of origin and the actual level and area of education. Many
countries have preparatory classes and language classes, but the advantages
and disadvantages vary depending on migrants’ country of origin, attitude and
cultural values held by parents, relatives and friends. Informal learning stemming
from ethnic minority families and peers can in some cases create further difficul-
ties, in particular where such learning focuses on values and traditions from the
country of origin. Such cases may further isolate or limit ethnic minority youth
from taking part in ethnic majority culture and learning activities.

The EDUMIGROM project (“Ethnic differences in education and diverging pros-

pects for urban youth in an enlarged Europe”)22 studies how ethnic differences
in education contribute to the diverging prospects for minority ethnic youth (incl.
Roma) and their peers in urban settings. Despite great variations in economic de-
velopment and welfare arrangements, recent developments seem to lead to similar
consequences for certain groups of second-generation immigrants in the western
half of the continent and Roma in Central and Eastern Europe, often experiencing
new and intensive forms of involuntary separation, social exclusion, and second-
class citizenship. EDUMIGROM critically examines the role of education in these
processes of socialisation, ‘minoritisation’ and knowledge distribution. It explores
how schools contribute to reducing, maintaining, or deepening inequalities in
young people’s access to the labour market, further education and training, and
also to different domains of social, cultural, and political participation.

A recurring finding across the projects surveyed is the need to address the con-
cept of agency and the connection between education communities and the
wider community as a matter of urgency. This is a multi-faceted task involving

22 http://www.edumigrom.eu
not only partnerships between appropriate stakeholders but also the organisa-
tion of relationships in terms of the structures that should exist to facilitate such
connections. We are here touching on many of the concepts we addressed in
our earlier section when we discussed the importance of partnership and policy-
making with, rather than for people.

This is articulated in the YOYO project (“Youth policy and participation”)23 when
it examines the way in which policies succeed in motivating young people in their
transition from the world of education and training to that of work. The research
finds that success levels in terms of remuneration are rarely linked to the nature of
young peoples’ work and training per se. Rather, satisfactory remuneration levels
are linked more to the conditions imposed on young people in formal training
and labour market programmes. The implication of this finding is clear. Policies
must be developed which move beyond an exclusive focus on the needs of one or
other of the parties concerned directly with or by the particular policy issue. There
are no viable answers which do not address the needs of both the employer and
the employed. Where policies are framed in ways which are responsive to the
needs of both, then more useful ways of ensuring the successful transition of
young people into the world of work can be assured.

Other examples like FATE project (“Families and transition in Europe”)24 high-
light the usefulness of integrated transition policies in supporting young people’s
participation in the world of work.

In Denmark policies aimed at supporting young people’s independ-

ence are recognised as an explicit goal of social policy.

The issue therefore is to be seen not in terms of addressing infrastructural or

institutional issues alone, but also in terms of the added-value for individuals of
policies and responses to societal issues.

Partnership again emerges as an underpinning concept in policy framing and in

addressing the needs of those who may be in danger of marginalisation within
societies. In the ENTRANCE project (“Enterprise and its transfer to combat social
exclusion”)25 specific examples are provided of policies which effectively address
33

23 http://www.iris-egris.de/yoyo
24 http://www.socsci.ulst.ac.uk/policy/fate/fate.html
25 http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/projects/027_en.html
34

the issue of “at risk” young people. Enterprise education is seen as an effective
initiative in supporting such young people by focusing on work place needs. It is
also seen as an effective way of bringing the worlds of education and employ-
ment together.

Positive results for young people are seen in terms of high self-esteem, motiva-
tion to take responsibility for their own lives, a more positive view of life and the
development of social skills necessary to turn visions into reality. What is seen
here is the value of opening the world of education and training to the “real”
world of employment and the added value to the learning experience of young
people which stems from such connections. The project identifies the major
policymaking message to be drawn from this example as the importance of
social partnership and the involvement of key stakeholders.

Supporting social partnership rarely happens by accident however. It is the result

of planned approaches to solving problems, addressing issues and developing
and implementing policies. This analysis is pursued in EGSIE project (“Education
governance and social integration and exclusion”)26 which explores patterns of
social exclusion and segregation of young people. The findings point to a significant
variation in patterns between the countries with liberal social regime traditions
and those with social democratic traditions. While the former may include less
provision for supporting individuals at system level or the provision of tailored
programmes to ensure their transition to the world of work, the latter tend to
provide programmes which involve institutional and/or system led responses to
specific problems.

The YIPPEE project (“Young people from a public care background: Pathways to
education in Europe”)27 explores the cultural, social, psychological and practical
factors which encourage and enable young people who have grown up in a
public care institution to continue their education beyond the school years.
Young people from a public care background (who spent part or all [at least
one year] of their childhood in public care) constitute a highly disadvantaged
and socially excluded group of young men and women. For example, from UK
figures it is estimated that fewer than five care leavers in a hundred go to uni-
versity. The project explores the pathways by which they might overcome their
childhood disadvantages through further and higher education, as well as their
own resourcefulness.

26 http://www.ped.uu.se/egsie/
27 http://tcru.ioe.ac.uk/yippee
 Students in tertiary education as % of the people aged 20-29 in 2005

50
47
45 44
41
40
40 39
38
37 37
35 35
35

30
30 29 29 29
28
27 27
25 24 24 24 24
22
21 20
20 19
17
15
Percentage (%)

10

5
5

0
EL
FI

LT

SE

LV

SI

DK

UK

EE

PL

BE

HU

NL

IT

EU27

ES

IE

PT

BG

AT

DE

RO

CZ

SK

CY

MT

LU
Source: Eurostat, 2007 (Data for France was not available)

Programmed and partnership driven responses to exclusion issues may avoid

some of the pitfalls of purely market-driven responses. There is some research
which finds that increased access to education on its own may not always allow
for increased access to the world of employment. Indeed increased access to
education sometimes has the unintended result of a greater danger of exclusion
because of educational level. Some policies aimed at promoting inclusion may
have the opposite effect.

One of the major barriers to be overcome is that of different timescales in the

education and production systems. This issue is addressed in the EDEX project
(“Educational expansion and labour markets”)28. The misfit between timescales
is seen as a crucial background factor in understanding the relationship between
education and employment and analysing their evolution. An awareness of these
differing timescales needs to be understood at the heart of the policymaking
process. Partnerships which accommodate a multiplicity of viewpoints and which
are equitably based are capable of transcending this dichotomy.

Partnership practices at a European level, particularly those which have devel-

oped as a result of the common framework for social policies (cf. YUSEDER
(“Youth unemployment and social exclusion in Europe”)29 have tended to be
successful because they have striven to accommodate a variety of view points in
developing policy responses to specific employment related issues. This approach,
which has evolved within the wider context of the follow-up of the Lisbon 35

28 http://edex.univ-tlse1.fr/edex/
29 http://www.nova.no/subnet/Hammer/unemployment.htm. This project includes an analysis of the National Action
Plans (NAPs) which have been developed within the Common Framework for Social Policies in the EU.
36

Strategy may be seen as one which promotes a concept of agency between

key players in the policymaking and implementation processes. It provides a basis
for addressing sometimes problematic issues in a context where it is necessary
to ensure shared ownership of results and “buy-in” by both those in danger of
exclusion from the world of employment and those who are creating employment
opportunities within societies. When applied to policymaking at the interface
between the worlds of education and employment it creates a clear identification
of the importance of a European model of policy framing in the employment
sphere: the need for a social Europe to complement the economic Europe.

3.2 Strategies for social cohesion and inclusion

3.2.1 Social cohesion and inclusion – definition of priorities

and policy context

Social cohesion and issues of inclusion and exclusion are fundamental principles
across all EU social and employment policies. These issues are seen as transversal
ones which need to be addressed when discussing the development as well as
the implementation of new policies. This working out of social inclusion and
exclusion issues, as well as the need to develop social cohesion within European
societies, underpins each stage of the policy development process.

The principles which should underpin policies targeted at developing the Know-
ledge Economy, building a social Europe and supporting the full integration
of young people into societies are presented in policy documents such as the
European Youth Pact (2005) and the Renewed Social Agenda (2008) and the
biennial reports published within the context of the Education and Training
Work Programme30. By establishing the principles which should inform policy
development, politicians have shown the political importance of addressing
issues of inclusion and exclusion and the disaffection of young people within
European societies.

30 Education and Training 2010 Work Programme successive reports published every 2 years.
 The particular challenges facing the European Union are those of
balancing efforts to ensure that the European economy prospers
in the context of increasingly difficult to control globalisation with
the need to build inclusive societies.

A key concern is to avoid social fracture by developing policies that put a pre-
mium on participation, and the provision of opportunities for all citizens and
residents within a country. The European Youth Pact provides the clearest
examples of this approach. In a context of the demographic downturn and high
levels of youth unemployment in many European countries there is an acute
sense of marginalisation of many young people. The strategy proposed in the
Youth Pact is to work with and for young people to ensure they participate fully
in every aspect of social and economic life. Youth are also seen as a key target
group in the Renewed Social agenda. The suggested solutions to problems of
disaffection and youth unemployment are seen in a context of partnership and
engagement with those who are the subjects of policymaking.

The driving force throughout these policy documents is the concern to strengthen
European social models: the European way of promoting cohesion within
societies. These policymaking concerns are around the issues of ensuring that all
citizens are treated equally and that societies put policies in place which provide
all citizens and especially young people with the opportunity of full participation
in society. Participation in employment and access to a suitable job or profes-
sional activity are seen as a base line for achieving success in this area.

3.2.2 Social strategies to reduce and to promote exclusion-engage-

ment between key stakeholders, with and for young people

In the previous section, the importance of involving all the appropriate stakeholders
in the process of policy development has been pointed out. The appropriateness
of the process was defined in terms of policymaking with, as well as for young
people. The projects examined below focus on the importance of investing time
and resources in the development of the kinds of social strategies which promote
engagement between key actors and see policies as something which developed
through a constructed process of interaction between key actors.
37
38

The CSEYHP project (“Combating social exclusion of young homeless people”)31

has a direct and action-oriented approach to combat the social exclusion of
young homeless men and women (white native born, ethnic minority native
born and migrants). In order to do so, the young people get a central role and
participate in the project in various ways, through providing their own perspec-
tives on their life trajectories, but also by involving ex-homeless young people
as co-researchers. The project seeks to test two intervention models on youth
homelessness (UK, the Netherlands) in two other countries (Portugal, Czech
Republic) and to define policy recommendations for NGOs and policymakers in
this domain, applying also to young people with low education qualifications,
and lesser employment and social integration prospects.

While some cultures show evidence of greater ease and experience of involve-
ment of key actors in the policymaking process as in the Scandinavian countries,
there is clear evidence which shows the importance of concerted action at a
political level in supporting such processes of engagement between the major
protagonists in the policymaking process. The EGSIE project (“Education gover-
nance and social integration and exclusion”)32 best encapsulates the concept
when it advances its theory of how the EU policymaking context has effected
subtle yet perceptible changes in the way policies are developed.

The growing importance of regulatory ideas which promote increased congru-

ence on specific policy questions within and between systems has helped create
a new policymaking context which emphasises the importance of involvement
of key actors in the process. The thematic content of this process, which is con-
cerned with supporting the development of sustainable knowledge-based poli-
cies, quality-based learning to work progression and the increase in the mobility
of young workers, has created its own dynamic. The transnational element of
the interaction between policymakers and the identification of shared end results,
to be achieved through a collaborative process over time has changed the way
in which policies directed at young people, and particularly those in danger of
exclusion are framed.

This policymaking process, inspired by the methodologies of the Open Method

of Coordination in the field of youth stresses the importance of inclusion, not
only as the end result of the policymaking process and policy implementation.
It has also placed inclusion at the centre of the methodologies which are used in
developing these policies and has contributed to giving young people and other
players in the process, an increased sense of the value of their experience when
policies are discussed.
31 http://www.movisie.nl/homelessyouth
32 http://www.ped.uu.se/egsie/
The EUMARGINS project (“On the margins of the European Community -
Young adult immigrants in seven European countries”)33 analyses the phenomena
of exclusion and inclusion of immigrants dynamically, arguing that the most
marginalised will also have experiences of inclusion and the least marginalised
will have possible experiences of exclusion too. Thus the project seeks to pro-
vide a deeper understanding of the reasons why some young adult immigrants
find their way to participate as active citizens in society, whereas others struggle
to achieve access to the majority society’s institutions.

Another aspect of this viewpoint is developed in the EUYOUPART project

(“Political participation of young people in Europe - Development of indica-
tors for comparative research in the EU”)34 when it discusses the impact of the
development of comparable indicators and measurement instruments at Euro-
pean levels in policymaking. This impact is visible at a number of levels. Firstly
there is the impact at a methodological and content level. Producing statistical
information which is comparable across Member States and which will enable
the production of policy-useful material requires a level of sharing of content
that is a new departure for many policymakers.

However this process engages the participants, and particularly those who shape
policies at a national level in a process of mutual confidence building which
enables them to share sometimes sensitive information. It is this incremental
movement forward which is the motor for the development of policies targeting
the major challenges which exist at an EU level in relation to the exclusion of signi-
ficant numbers of young people from social and economic life. This approach
provides an example of one of the central tenets of the White Paper on Youth
when it stresses the importance of developing a new impetus for the develop-
ment of targeted and creative policies to address youth exclusions issues.

In addressing the question of social strategies and engagement of key stakeholders

the research reviewed identifies a number of pitfalls. These relate primarily to
the unintended results of policymaking which sometimes only become clear
when the effects of the implementation of a particular policy are assessed.

This danger is best exemplified in the EGSIE project (“Education governance and
social integration and exclusion”)35 when it presents the results of its evaluation
of policies which have aimed to increase access to education with a view to
improving the possibility of entry to the labour market. In its analysis of systems
where policies have been concerned to expand education systems to include 39

33 http://www.iss.uio.no/forskning/eumargins/index.html
34 http://www.sora.at/EUYOUPART
35 http://www.ped.uu.se/egsie/
40

more young people for longer periods of time it observes increasing patterns of
social exclusion and segregation. This arises because of the tendency in some
countries to perennialise education and training schemes, which by encouraging
young people to stay within the formal education and training system create a
distinction with those who move more efficiently into the labour market. Thus,
policies which are designed to support young people towards labour market
participation have the unintended effect of creating a class apart which has real
difficulty in securing worthwhile or “real” jobs.

The interplay between policies to promote inclusion and their impact on vul-
nerable groups, particularly women, migrants, cultural minorities, people with
disabilities and young people is an area which is of particular interest in the
INCLUD-ED project (“Strategies for inclusion and social cohesion in Europe”)36
Common educational strategies that lead to academic success and social inclu-
sion in Europe were identified.

Targeted group specific methodologies and use of additional

resources in the classroom, increased use of additional teachers,
extending the learning time for students with more difficulties,
and individualising the curriculum to facilitate student learning
are practices which help towards the achievement of academic
success.

Another aspect of an unintended result of policies to promote access to educa-

tion and training is the phenomenon of increased exclusion from the world of
work because of education. Because of a proliferation of training and profes-
sional development courses in order to keep young people in the education and
training system rather than on the unemployed register, the standard required
for entry to the world of employment continues to rise in many areas. This leads
to the creation of a significant subsection of young people who suffer disaffec-
tion and will experience significant difficulty in getting unto the first rung of the
employment ladder.

The important policy decision which needs to be made in order to address such
unintended consequences is to explore the development of solutions with those
who are the subjects of the policies to be developed. This is a major success
factor in the development of social scenarios which are equitable and which
provide for the development of societies where access to knowledge is seen as

36 http://www.ub.edu/includ-ed/
Immigration of non-nationals
share (% of total immigrants)
IMMIGRANTS
COUNTRY EUROPE AFRICA AMERICA ASIA OTHERS
(1000)
BE 68,8 60,4 21 7,7 10,2 0,7
CZ 58,6 80,2 0,8 2,9 15,8 0,2
DK 30 64,7 3,8 9,5 20,2 1,9
DE 579,3 74,9 4,4 5,8 14,1 0,7
ES 682,7 41,5 17,7 33,8 6,9 0,1
FR* 140,1 15 64,4 8,7 11,4 0,5
IT 392,8 57,8 17,8 12,6 11,7 0,1
CY 21,9 79 1,2 2 16,8 1
LV 1,2 89,7 0,2 5 4,7 0,6
LT 2,1 66,5 0,3 8,2 10,9 14,7
LU 12,3 88,1 4,6 3,8 2,6 1
HU 22,2 83,2 1,6 2,8 12,1 3
NL 63,4 51,9 9,5 11,3 18,8 8,5
AT 101,5 79,8 4,3 3,3 10,3 2,4
PT 16,8 41,1 33,6 20,2 5 0
RO 3,7 79,6 1,1 13 5,5 0,9
SI 13,3 97,2 0,2 0,9 1,4 0,1
SK 7,7 77,3 1,6 4,8 15,9 0,5
FI 12,7 59,6 10,8 4,7 23,7 1,7
SE 51,3 52,8 10 6,2 28,8 2,3
UK 407,4 33,8 13,1 6,7 37,9 8,5

Source: Eurostat, 2007

*Excludes nationals and EU immigration from EU-15 Member States

Some EU Member States are not included in this table because no data were available.

important for all citizens. Policymakers have an important role to play in ensuring
that their work leads to the equitable distribution of the resources which sup-
port full participation in society. The scenarios they construct and the methodo-
logies they employ will be the major determinants of successful, inclusive social
outcomes.

The final element which is seen as contributing to the development of such

policies determines the processes used to monitor policy implementation and
determine factors of success. The findings here echo the earlier discussion on
the influence of regulatory frameworks and the use of statistics and bench-
marks in determining the success factors in policy implementation. While these 41
contribute to a shared sense of purpose and enable mutual learning between
policymakers there is a danger that the may limit the basis on which the policy
implementation is evaluated.
42

A key finding of the Misleading Trajectories project (“Misleading Trajectories:

evaluation of the unintended effects of labour market integration policies for
young adults in Europe”)37 is that the evaluation of policy effectiveness needs
to be seen as holistic and qualitative rather than purely quantitative. When policy
implementation is evaluated it needs to be done in terms of the policy continuum.
This involves examining the coherence between the starting point for the develop-
ment of a particular policy, the multi-dimensional aspects of its development
and implementation, the cultural and social contexts. How policies and their
implementation are evaluated should be present from the earliest stages of the
policy development process.

The recommendations that apply to the policy development process also apply
when framing the evaluation of effectiveness. Those actors who are important
as the target publics of a particular policy are also key players in determining
how it should be evaluated. The terms of reference of such an evaluation should
be framed in a way which enables the multi-dimensional aspects of how a
particular policy might be considered to be assessed as effective. Approaches
need to be based on engagement with key stakeholders and a clear awareness
ex ante of success factors.

3.2.3 Holistic rather than purely quantitative monitoring of progress

A considerable body of the material reviewed raises the role of context in deter-
mining the success of particular policies. How employment is seen in a given
social context and the strategies used to support policies aimed at encourag-
ing the entry of young people into the labour market are important factors in
assessing the success of particular policies As demonstrated in the Social Cons-
truction of Employment project (“La construction sociale de l’emploi”), em-
ployment is seen as a social construct in some countries with significant cultural
and social factors influencing not only how policy is developed, but also what
specific measures are chosen in terms of implementation, and most importantly
how policy implementation is evaluated.
37 http://www.iris-egris.de/en/uebergaenge/misleading_trajectories/
The PROFIT project (“Policy responses overcoming factors in the intergenera-
tional transmission of inequalities”)38 studied how inheritance of inequalities (in
particular poverty) occurs. On average, about half of the young people growing
up in poor families (in the 8 middle-sized towns in 8 European countries) remain
in (“relative”) poverty, while only about half experience advancement.

The cumulative effect of a discouraging family and a non-supportive

school are the most likely factors leading individuals to stay in
poverty and follow their parents’ life course.

The economic standing of a country is not a decisive factor: educational, labour

and welfare policies matter as well, pointing to the relevance of policies. While
social policy is not perceived by young adults as a factor impacting on their life
course, the survey data reveal that policies can contribute to upward mobility of
underprivileged young people.

Social contexts where the State is seen as playing a key role in supporting transi-
tion into the labour market may tend to apply set formulae, sometimes supportive
of individual needs, sometimes less so, when developing transition policies. In
this context it may be more difficult to determine the real impact of a particular
policy, as participation in an education or training course per se may be seen as
a factor of success. There may be no social context for establishing real added-
value in terms of an individual’s participation in the labour market.

This view is further developed in the YUSEDER project (“Youth unemployment and
social exclusion: dimensions, subjective experiences and institutional responses in six
countries of the EU”)39 where the research points to the difficulty of transferring
implementation models for successful projects between systems. What works
in one cultural context may not necessarily work elsewhere. The role of context
is seen as the major factor which should be considered when assessing policy
implementation.

However this dominant role of context should not be seen as a barrier to making
progress in the policymaking sphere. An analysis of the material provided in the
FATE project (“Families and transition in Europe”)40 approaches the issue of context
from a different angle. While its importance should not be under-estimated, what
is most important is the dynamic which influences policy development. 43

38 http://www.profit.uni.lodz.pl
39 http://www.ipg.uni-bremen.de/research/yuseder/
40 http://www.socsci.ulst.ac.uk/policy/fate/fate.html
44

This is seen in the interaction between the key actors in the process and particularly
where the needs of the individual are seen as the basis on which systems need to
develop policy responses.

The findings here highlight the significance of the dynamic interplay

between the different policy actors as a key element in the process.

Referring to the concept of marginality in describing position in the labour mar-

ket with specific reference to young people the research highlights the notion of
movement either towards integration or exclusion. This tends to push policymaking
towards an axial point where work/employment measures are seen to be the most
effective labour market programmes. Here we see another side of the coin from the
socially engineered situation referred to in the Social Construction of Employ-
ment project. The emphasis is on the dynamic dimension inherent in a process
where societal and market forces combine to create their own reality.

This raises an interesting question which returns on the interplay between sup-
porting individuals and developing infrastructural responses to the need to improve
the transition of young people into the world of work. The consensus in the FATE
project (“Families and transition in Europe”)41 is that support to individuals, par-
ticularly in terms of the development of strategies to qualify unemployed youth in
accordance with the demands of the labour market is an important determinant of
success. It is the interaction between the system level responses and the develop-
ment of individuals’ personal education and training pathways which is important.
Their general level education and the development of skills yield dividends in terms
of ultimate successful participation in the world of work.

Similarly this project, which approaches the issue of work training from the
opposite end of the spectrum to the Social Construction of Employment
project raises the question of continued participation in education and training
which may be used at a structural level to hide unemployment figures, or which
may set the individual on a path to repeated participation in education and
a variety of training programmes.

The responses to this dilemma are not clear cut. However as discussed in the pre-
vious section they may be most effectively sought in the development of holistic
policymaking responses at a societal level. The scope of this type of response is
identified in the CASE project (“Social exclusion as a multidimensional process”)42
where the research advocates broadening the conceptual field into social psy-
chology by introducing “belonging, trust and accessibility of resources” to the

41 http://www.socsci.ulst.ac.uk/policy/fate/fate.html
42 http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/projects/006_en.html
policymaking process. These are responses which are premised on notions of
participation of a broad range of concerned actors, but also empowering the
key players to be responsive in developing situations.

Policymaking in a European context, particularly within the context of the Open

Method of Coordination has become a driver of change in Member States. It has
been a catalyst for exploring approaches which learn from the examples of peers
and which also encourage the involvement of a wide range of actors in the policy-
making process.

3.2.4 Partnership approaches within systems and the role of cross

sectoral approaches to supporting cultural change

The projects surveyed devote considerable time to discussion of the importance

of partnership approaches to policymaking within systems. In earlier sections, the
involvement of key stakeholders in the process has been underlined. The idea of
making policy with, rather than for people has been argued. Here, the focus is
more on institutionalised notions of partnership within established policymaking
contexts. The analysis concentrates on different ways in which partnership ap-
proaches are articulated within systems. The link between these approaches and
different sectors within systems is explored. How the approaches which facilitate
transfer of practice and experience across sectors can provide a context for a
more target driven policymaking process?

While the examples quoted in the projects surveyed address the broader struc-
tural aspects of partnership and cross sectoral approaches, the research reveals
a common thread.

In some of the most positive examples of such partnerships this

thread is premised on the notion of developing policies which are
supportive of young people’s motivation.

This emphasis on the young person as the starting point for policymaking, its
methodologies and structures, creates examples which are perceived to be suc-
cessful in delivering policies which support young people in the transition to the 45
world of work and are also responsive to their longer term needs. The question
driving the research is how policies succeed in motivating young people to engage
in their transition to the world of work.
46

This question is a concern of a number of the projects reviewed. In the SPREW

project (“Generational approach to the social patterns of relation to work”)43
it is phrased in terms of the way in which young people are supported where
traditional models of relation to and progression in the world of work are ad-
dressed. The new context which is faced by policymakers is described in terms
of the “rupture between new work forms and standard work characterised by
standard jobs, linear careers, knowledge transmission between senior and junior
workers and what is called the perception of a ‘common destiny’ between old
and young generations.” This new situation makes way for a diversification of
beliefs and new ways of managing relations between the generations as well as
their relation with the world of work.

The YOYO project (“Youth policy and participation”)44 identifies intrinsic factors
such as how young people are inducted into patterns of working as the key
determining agents in deciding on how young people participate in the labour
market. Communication between sectors, clear pathways between the educa-
tion and employment sectors are indicators of successful transition. Policymaking
contexts which display an awareness of the importance of such approaches
and use them in building their approaches will have greater success in ensuring
participation of young people in employment and in minimising the dangers of
social disaffection.

The issue faced by policymaking systems is described in the Balancing Compe-

tencies project (“Balancing competencies: enhancing the participation of
young adults in economic and social processes”)45 as one where “policy formula-
tion needs to pay more attention to the necessity of having multiple and flexible
options of training and guidance available for young adults even though their
actions and choices may fall outside programme objectives.”

How policies need to be frameworked when balancing the needs of young peo-
ple and employment systems. Sensitive and multi-faceted issues such as how
young people can be supported to have a sense of ownership of decisions and
engagement with the world of employment require multi-faceted approaches.
In earlier sections this issue was examined from the standpoint of the key actors
in the process. Here the emphasis is on the capacity of systems to respond with
the kinds of approaches and policies that empower young people and provide
them with valid choices. There is an added level in the policymaking process;
that of looking beyond the immediate societal or labour market needs to a
more generalised need for belonging at a fundamental level.

43 http://www.ftu-namur.org/sprew/
44 http://www.iris-egris.de/yoyo
45 http://www.pjb.co.uk/npl/bp14.doc
An inherent part of this type of policymaking response is the need for what is
termed institutional reflexitivity in policy development. This is seen in a system’s
capacity to identify major current and emerging issues and to respond appro-
priately. It is an approach which also implies looking at issues in a positive way
with a view to achieving a “win-win” result for everybody. It involves enhanced
practices of communication between key players and also an approach which
facilitates thinking “outside the box” in terms of identifying new policies and
appropriate implementation strategies.

The policy findings in these projects are highlighted in the recommendations

identified in relation to inclusive and engaging methodologies in order to ensure
the involvement of all key actors. They raise the issue of citizenship and how it
must be seen as a defining factor in the policy development targeted at young
people, particularly if local and national engagements are promoted with demo-
cratic processes, but also an increased sense of what it means to be European
and an EU citizen.

3.3 Citizenship and participation

3.3.1 Citizenship: defining priority and underpinning principle

of policymaking

Citizenship appears as an underpinning concern across a broad range of EU

policies targeted at the individual and the young person. Policies are seen as
having a key role in developing societal models which are premised on equity,
participation and the positive contribution that individuals can make to well-
being in social, as well as economic terms. Citizenship is also seen in terms of
multiple levels of identities; the identity of the individual within his own immediate
environment as a citizen of a region, his status as a citizen of a nation state and
his status as a European citizen.

These concerns are present in policies targeted specifically at supporting young

people and individuals in the education, training and youth areas. They are also a
key priority in projects funded within the EU Research Framework Programmes,
particularly but not exclusively in those projects funded within the social sciences
and humanities area. Other policy areas in the employment, migration and environ-
ment areas have also been developed with a clear focus on the social position,
quality of life and contribution that the individual can make not only to the society 47
in which he lives, but also to the development of European citizens.
48

The concept of European Citizenship first appears in the Treaty of Maastricht

at the beginning of the nineties. Its appearance as a concept which should be
understood in terms of an additional level of identity, of belonging provides a
legal basis for the development of EU policies which are conceived in two ways.
A first level identifies certain rights which the individual has, as a citizen of a
Member State. These relate to condition or status within a particular country-
gender, as employee, consumer, and citizen. Arising from the legal basis provided
by the Treaty, various directives and recommendations provide a new level of
jurisprudence which identify and provide support for certain rights within an EU
context. These rights are also mobile rights. They can be availed of in one’s own
Member State. They can also be availed of throughout all the Member States of
the EU, thus reinforcing the important European principle of mobility.

In addition to this growing legal support of the individual’s rights which has
been an incremental process over time, the Treaty ascribes to citizens of each
Member State a new level of citizenship which they hold by virtue of their being
citizens of an EU Member State. This European citizenship confers a number of
rights such as free movement throughout the EU, the right to install oneself in
any country of the Union and to avail of social protection regimes and access
to diplomatic and consular protection. European citizenship is also linked to
notions of identity, and is seen as an additional level at which individuals will
define themselves. Common formats for passports and driving licences provide
a first step in reinforcing this level of European identity.

In parallel there is a growing tendency towards subsidiarity where decisions

should be taken at the level which is closest to the citizen. This reinforces the
sense of individual empowerment and the importance of intermediary levels of
governance at local and regional levels, in addition to the traditional centralised
model of decision-making which has been a feature of the nation state. Parado-
xically this local and regional level supports an increased sense of the impor-
tance of European identity and links between regions.
The Maastricht Treaty also provided the legislative basis for major European level
programmes in the education, training and youth fields. These programmes intro-
duced the European dimension and support to European citizenship in their objec-
tives. They also placed a high priority on inclusion, supporting the full participation
of all young people in education and training, intercultural education and dealing
with diversity among their objectives. These programmes, mirrored by other ini-
tiatives which addressed the skills needed to participate in the economy such as
ADAPT and EQUAL created a large research base and body of innovative material
on how to best address issues such as developing the skills needed for full parti-
cipation in society and access to the employment market. They also introduced
the concept of volunteering46 where young people were encouraged to support
initiatives of benefit to the quality of life of European citizens.

The experience of such programmes laid the groundwork for the more direct
policy related work initiated in the education and training area with the Lisbon
Process. This work, which is known as the Education and Training Work Pro-
gramme 2010 has created a strengthened policy cooperation between Member
States, articulated around the needs of the labour market and how young people
are best supported to lead full and active lives in the knowledge society. This
policy direction within the context of EU initiatives is further developed in the
Renewed Social Agenda which prioritises issues relating to employment, pros-
perity and full participation as key axes for policy development in the social and
employment related fields.

This section examines how the projects which have been supported in the Frame-
work Programmes provide an increased sense of the relevance of notions of full par-
ticipation in society, the need to avoid exclusion and the importance of promoting
equity as key components of a reflection on citizenship within a European context.

3.3.2 Engagement with multiple levels of citizenship at local,

national and European levels

The concept of multiple levels of citizenship is one which appears in a signifi-

cant number of the projects reviewed. It is a concept which is often seen to be
closely related to patterns of partnership within specific social contexts.

Levels of participation raise issues about how citizenship is experienced in local

contexts, but also at national and European levels. 49

46 Decision 1686/98/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 20 July 1998 establishing the Community Action
Programme European Voluntary Service for Young People.
50

There is a significant body of evidence in the Framework projects ad-

dressing issues of young peoples’ participation in education, training
and employment which raises the question of how young people
perceive their identity and their role within a given social context.

In the Orientation of young men and women to citizenship and Euro-

pean identity project47 this issue is explored in some depth. The research is
premised on a fundamental question, namely why, when and where people
acquire European identities. The research results focus on the role of practice in
supporting the acquisition of notions of what citizenship means and its impor-
tance in helping young people to grow into a realisation and an acceptance of
the important role they can play at social as well as economic levels in society.
Indeed where young people feel that they are listened to and that they have an
important role in their own particular contexts they also have an enhanced sense
of what it means to be a European citizen. Essentially the question is premised
around coming to terms with and understanding the language and practice of
citizenship. This is both a question of education and learning through doing.

European citizenship is enhanced where people experience a sense

of engagement with their national and local citizenship.

This interplay between levels of citizenship is an important indicator of success

of social policy and levels of participation in employment. This finding echoes
earlier arguments about the need to engage young people actively in the process
of policymaking as subjects rather than objects of policymaking.

A further key component of the argument on practice of citizenship and the

interplay between levels of citizenship is addressed when exploring the kinds of
policies which are developed in order to avoid the total exclusion of young peo-
ple from the economic and social activity of society. In the YUSEDER project
(“Youth unemployment and social exclusion: dimensions, subjective experiences
and institutional responses in six countries of the EU”)48 there is a useful analysis
of the importance of a common framework for social policies in the EU. The im-
portance of NAPs in this respect is stressed49. They remind policymakers of the
relevance of the broader context provided by the Lisbon Process in supporting
reform and good practice in policymaking within Member States.
47 http://www.sociology.ed.ac.uk/youth/
48 http://www.ipg.uni-bremen.de/research/yuseder/
49 Every EU Member States draws up a National Reform Programme (until 2005, National Action Plans) which describes
how the Employment Guidelines are put into practice at the national level. They present the progress achieved in
the Member State over the previous 12 months and the measures planned for the coming 12 months: they are both
reporting and planning documents.
The major contribution the partnership process provides is in the area of devolping
a creative space for collaborative exploration of potential solutions to shared chal-
lenges. At a policy level a context is provided to enable policymaking practice to
be shared in a way which is non-threatening but which also allows transversal
objectives such as involvement of stakeholders in decision –making processes to be
accepted. We can discern the formalisation of a European way of addressing societal
needs in the area of participation and involvement of young people in the world of
work, but also in the processes which help to create employment policies.

The importance of the engagement with concepts of citizenship whether at local,

national or European levels is further explored in the Balancing Competencies
project (“Balancing competencies: enhancing the participation of young adults
in economic and social processes”)50 which explores the incidence of policies
aimed at avoiding the total exclusion of young people within European societies.
The findings of this project, which explores the importance of identifying flexible
responses to policy issues or problems are articulated around the need to create
spaces for encounter and dialogue in all policymaking processes. This is seen as
an important feature of identifying responses to particular issues faced by young
people in danger of exclusion. However it also enables us to understand the need
to see the individual rather than the regulatory framework as the starting point
for policy development. This emphasis on the individual with his multiple levels of
being in every social context reveals the importance of supporting him to engage
with each level of his citizenship and to understand his identities.

The YOUNEX project (Youth, unemployment, and exclusion in Europe)51 builds

on previous work on social exclusion as well as on civic and political participation
to advance knowledge on the causes, processes, and perspectives for change
related to the social and political exclusion of unemployed youth. The project
elaborates a multidimensional theoretical framework that combines macro-level,
meso-level, and micro-level explanatory factors while taking into account various
dimensions of exclusion: departing from the political and institutional settings in
each city (allowing to grasp the local political opportunity structure), it studies
the networks of associations present in these localities (to understand the organi-
zational opportunities to be socially and politically active) in order to analyse the
unemployed and precarious youth (for an understanding of social and political
exclusion as well as individual well-being). This multidimensional approach
should allow considering the mediating impact of European, national, or local
public policy on the way people cope with their situation of unemployed.
51

50 http://www.pjb.co.uk/npl/bp14.doc
51 http://www.younex.unige.ch
52

The strengthening of concepts of citizenship and the young person’s identities

within his own local and national context, in addition to his European identity,
is closely bound up with the policy measures taken which support equity within
societies. We will now examine the insights the projects provide in relation to
promoting the development of equity in society and how this is linked to young
peoples’ level of engagement in society and their sense of commitment as citi-
zens of their local community and the wider European context.

3.3.3 Promoting equity within societies

The argument on the promotion of equity within societies is closely linked to that of
promoting social inclusion in general and the participation of young people in society
in particular. It is also linked to questions of the policies that are needed in order to
ensure that young people are supported to engage in education, continued training
and the world of work. The projects reviewed provide a variety of material which
highlights policy practices in this area which will be important in promoting equality
of participation and the development of solutions to support young peoples’ involve-
ment in society and their development as individuals and citizens.

In addressing these inter-related issues two major trends are identified: a strong
argument in favour of decentralising decision-making to the most appropriate
level within systems in order to respond effectively to the challenges; an inter-
related argument concerning governance and the philosophies underpinning
the preparation of legislation. There is a strong argument supporting decen-
tralisation of policymaking within Member States. This is driven by the need to
ensure effective participation by key stakeholders in decision-making and also
by the need to ensure the responsiveness of policy solutions.

In the Policies of Social Integration in Europe project this process is referred

to as the decentralisation of competencies and activities. This is a process which
encapsulates both what types of policy and/or legislative measure is decided at a
local or a regional level in addition to the methodologies through which decision-
making takes place. It is driven by the concern to see the individual as the starting
rather than the end point for policy development. It is also a way of working
which values the individual’s participation and engagement with the process.

As such it relates to earlier discussions on the need to see policymaking with rather
than for, the subjects of a particular policy. The process is formulated in another
way in the FATE project (“Families and transition in Europe”)52 when referring to
the importance of recognising the support of young peoples’ independence as an
explicit good of social policy.

This question is formulated somewhat differently in the YUSEDER project (“Youth

unemployment and social exclusion: dimensions, subjective experiences and insti-
tutional responses in six countries of the EU”)53 when it examines the importance
of affirmative policymaking action in order to avoid the perennialisation of unem-
ployment and other negative aspects of social policy development. In discussing
the issue of supporting young people to engage in continued training and prepa-
ration for labour market entry, the project stresses the importance of developing
practices that support rather than impede young people’s entry into the labour
market. In this respect they argue the importance of supportive measures such
as the development of appropriate forms of vocational guidance as a way of
building on young peoples’ experience and responding specifically to their needs.
The central tenet of the research produced here is the need to ensure that policy
development is inclusive and supports the development of responses which are
responsive to individuals’ needs.

Policymaking in the education and training field is a major contributor to finding

appropriate solutions to the issues of young people’s participation in the world of
work and their broader participation in society. Notwithstanding differing times-
cales in the worlds of education and employment as we have seen earlier in the
EDEX project (“Educational expansion and the labour market”)54 which is a crucial
factor in examining the interaction between each area, there is a clear indication
that this dynamic interaction is a critical factor in developing effective policy responses
to the issue of young people’s participation in the labour market.

There is a very clear message about the importance of high quality

basic education as a foundation for later participation in education
and the world of work.
53

52 http://www.socsci.ulst.ac.uk/policy/fate/fate.html
53 http://www.ipg.uni-bremen.de/research/yuseder/
54 http://edex.univ-tlse1.fr/edex/
54

Low achievers in reading

(at age 15) on the PISA reading literacy scale ( %)

25 24,1

20 19,4
18,4

15
13,4

11
10

5
Percentage (%)

0
Canada Australia Japan USA EU

Source: OECD, 2007

The research finds that the higher an individual initial education is, the more efficiently,
quickly and effectively he will learn. This has important implications for policymaking
relating to young people and the interaction between employment and education.

However it is also significant in terms of the approach it suggests to policymaking

in this area. Effective patterns of participation in society and engagement with
the world of employment will be nurtured where the successful involvement
of individuals in education is seen as a priority. This high level of initial educa-
tion which supports the young person to engage with the learning process
throughout their life, lays the seeds for their full development as individuals and
as citizens. It also creates a basis for the development of policymaking practices
which are premised on the need to find solutions to societal challenges which
are equitable and value the potential contribution of all young people.

The EMILIE project (“A European approach to multicultural citizenship: legal,

political and educational challenges”)55 highlights the key structural changes
which are necessary within education systems in order to ensure wider levels of
inclusion and the establishment of a basis for the appropriate exercise of citizen-
ship. Education systems need to address issues such as teaching the languages
of receiving country and country of origin, linkages between schools and local
communities and adequate support to teachers and trainers. Citizenship educa-
tion should also cover areas such as social and moral responsibility, community
involvement and political literacy.

55 http://www.eliamep.gr/en/emilie/
The key role of education and an effective collaboration with the world of em-
ployment in developing effective policies to promote inclusion and the partici-
pation of young people in the world of work is considered in the ENTRANCE
project (“Enterprise and its transfer to combat social exclusion”)56. This project
examines the incidence of effective teaching and learning for “at risk” pupils and
the examples provided in enterprise education programmes. Such programmes
are successful because they relate to development of high self-esteem, motivation
to assume responsibility for one’s life, development of positive view of life and the
development of the social skills necessary to turn vision into reality. The research
undertaken sees a key role for enterprise education in providing “at risk” young
people with a suitable context for developing this range of competencies.

Closely linked to the processes inherent in the above areas is the idea of pro-
gressively involving the young person in decision-making. This equips the young
person to participate in other similar processes where he begins to exercise his
citizenship and engage his multiple levels of identity. It is this capacity to transfer
successful solutions from one context to another which is a key factor of suc-
cessful practice of citizenship. Enterprise education, which supports the devel-
opment of individual competencies, is a major contributor to the young person’s
ability to engage with the world of work, but also to his ability to engage in a
positive way with the society in which he lives. These are the cornerstones of
successful patterns of engagement with society and also contribute to the ability
to engage with practices of citizenship at a wider European level.

3.3.4 Individual and structural approaches to the development of citizenship

Throughout the projects an apparent tension can be seen between initiatives at

individual and structural levels to supporting the participation of young people
in the labour market. This also influences the approach taken to structuring
their participation in society as citizens. The tension is heavily dependent on the
broader social and political context in which policy is developed.

This is a clean difference between countries with a social democratic tradition such
as the Scandinavian countries and those countries with a more liberal oriented ap-
proach to economic and business development. The former find it easier to look at
broad system-wide responses to societal issues, while the latter places more store on
the contributions which individuals themselves can make to improve their chances
of gaining employment and their participation in society. The importance of context 55
in defining the approach is addressed in the Social Construction of Employment
project where the research underlines the importance of the cross-sectoral legisla-
tive framework in addressing issues of participation in the world of work.

56 http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/projects/027_en.html
56

The logic behind such an approach is also evident in the CASE project (“Social
exclusion as a multidimensional process”)57 when it emphasises the importance of
developing responses to exclusion issues at an infrastructural level. The provision
of infrastructure either to avoid social exclusion or to cope with it, provides better
results than approaches supporting individuals. Many of the projects surveyed
reason in similar terms. Policymaking should look holistically for solutions which
are of major importance for the stability of society. Such solutions will set a high
value on engagement with all key actors and the provision of structured opportu-
nities to ensure their participation at each stage of the policymaking process.

The participatory approach is also clearly stated in the CHICAM project (“Chil-
dren in communication about migration”)58 where the research emphasises the
important role that migrant and refugee children should play in decision-making
at local, national and EU levels in relation to policies that impact on them.

The research findings stress the importance of policymaking with

young people rather than for young people.

The CIVICWEB project (“Citizens and Governance in a knowledge-based society”)59

explores the role of the Internet in supporting the practice and sense of citizenship
among young people. It is working particularly on the issues of supporting young
peoples’ participation and exercise of democratic citizenship, enhancing informa-
tion, promoting volunteering and a greater understanding of the different forms of
civic engagement which are possible within societies. Online and offline participa-
tion in civic and political actions are strongly correlated and complementary to each
other, rather than substitutive. Thus, engagement still begins and ends offline, with
the Internet sustaining and contributing to this.

The UP2Youth project (“Youth - Actor of social change”)60 considered the find-
ings regarding volunteering as a way of developing citizenship, and found these are
somewhat ambivalent. Some studies claim that traditional engagement and political
participation are being replaced by new short-term and project-type forms of en-
gagement while others conclude that only a very low percentage of young people
are involved in volunteering (paralleling adult experience). Volunteering is no longer
chosen on the basis of a particular issue but also as a means of developing further

57 http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/projects/006_en.html
58 http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/projects/156_en.html
59 http://www.civicweb.eu/
60 www.up2youth.org
competences and improving the volunteer’s CV. This practice restricts volunteering
to those with high formal qualifications who benefit from non-formal experiences
in addition to formal credentials. It is very rare that disadvantaged youth can balance
their lack of formal qualifications by non-formal experiences and competencies.

However it is impossible to argue that there is a uniform view on the appropriacy

of responses at an infrastructural level to issues of exclusion and participation in
society. Many of the projects examined opt for an approach which is structured
around the individual and the development of supportive measures to enable him
or her to cope with the challenges faced in gaining access to the labour market or
in participating fully in society. These projects identify responses which are premised
on the importance of policies to support the ongoing education and training of indi-
viduals; so that they develop the skills necessary to gain access to employment and
to cope with the levels of change which are a feature of the Knowledge Society.
These responses have ranged from the importance of enterprise education to the
development of lifelong learning education policies in shaping such policies.

The question to be asked therefore is whether there is an optimum response?

Is one approach to be preferred over another? The answer is dependent on the
context in which policy is developed. Each social and political context will produce
its own best patterns of policy development, practice and implementation. The
key message which emerges is the need to take stock of local circumstances
in developing policy responses. Holistic approaches, which involve all the key
stakeholders, which see young people as active partners in the policy develop-
ment process and which build on cultural and contextual practice are the most
likely to produce results which make an incremental difference in relation to
levels of participation in the labour market.

The key question is how approaches premised on infrastructural level responses

as distinct to individual level responses make a difference in terms of the practice
of citizenship. The overwhelming response emerging from the projects is that
citizenship is enhanced where the individual is seen as the key protagonist in the
development of societal responses to exclusion issues.

Policymaking with young people, engaging with their realities and developing
structured approaches to exclusion issues produces a laboratory where each as-
pect of one’s identity as a citizen, of a region, a country or the EU may be fully
engaged with and explored. Citizenship is enhanced where individuals are valued.
Where the policy approaches developed to address the specific needs of young 57
people in danger of exclusion work with them as key actors in the development
of responses, young people will engage with society and recognise their role not
only at a local level but also at wider national and European levels.
58
4. Ensuring policy usefulness:
messages for policymakers
4.1 Importance of context in policy formulation

Policymaking is closely related to the context in which it takes place. Context

is influenced by issues of history, tradition, culture and social realities within a
particular society. Similarly contextual issues will to a large extent determine the
success or otherwise of policy implementation. Appropriate solutions to policy
problems are only possible when the complexity of context related issues is reco-
gnised and policies formulated in ways which build on this realisation.

The key messages may be summarised as follows:

The successful integration of young people in the labour market depends not
so much on their individual levels of commitment as on the conditions which
particular societies impose on their participation in the labour market.

When examining examples of successful policy implementation in other coun-

tries it is important to consider carefully the role played by national and/or
regional structural and cultural circumstances in the implementation. This is
of particular importance when examining the potential for transfer of suc-
cessful solutions to common problems across regional, national and European
contexts.

Common frameworks at a European level, such as those suggested by the Lis-

bon Strategy, and in particular the Open Method of Coordination as applied
to the Youth policy area, will be successful where they provide an impetus for
a reform process within Member States which is capable of recognising the
inherent cultural and social realities in specific local contexts.

National or regional level legislative programmes which derive from specific

European recommendations may be quite different in terms of content and
scope when implemented in specific countries. Successful implementation of
EU recommendations will require an appropriation and interpretation which
fits specific Member State circumstances.

59
60

4.2 Drivers of success: concern for social cohesion and inclusion

Social cohesion

Policymaking relating to young people must be premised on the concern to ensure

socially cohesive societies. Responses developed should enable all the actors in
a given policy context to find their place and to feel an engagement with
the social and economic reality of the society in which they live.

Social cohesion and the development of participative and open societies where
young people are able to participate fully as members of society is a key policy
objective in all advanced societies. Key findings of interest in a policymaking
context are:

Individuals need to feel a sense of engagement with the society in which they
live, regardless of their social condition, geographic origin or age. The research
evidence shows that European citizenship is enhanced where young people
experience a sense of engagement with their national and local citizenship.

Policies which look holistically at issues of participation of young people in the

world of work and which promote cooperation between project organisers
and businesses and enterprises will be more successful in promoting sustainable
approaches to social cohesion within societies.

Enterprise education has a key role to play in providing “at risk” young people
with the kinds of skills which will enable them to develop the patters of parti-
cipation and engagement with the world of work which are the hallmarks of
socially cohesive societies.

Policymaking which works with “at risk” populations including migrants and
disadvantaged groups and involves them in identifying solutions will be more
successful in ensuring cohesion than “top down” policies which do not involve
them in the policymaking process.
Inclusion

This is closely related to the question of social cohesion. Here we are concerned
with developing policy responses which promote the inclusion of all young people
in the practices of policy development, as well as seeing inclusion as the essential
end result of policy development processes. Inclusion is also closely related to the
notion of equity and creating societies where all citizens are equally valued.

Inclusive societies tend to be those where citizenship practice works well. There
are important lessons for policymakers who are working at national as well as
European levels. Among these are:

Inclusion and exclusion are two closely related concepts. Some policies which are
targeted at promoting inclusion may have the opposite effect. This is particu-
larly true of education, where policies aimed at increasing access to education
may lead to increased incidences of exclusion because of lack of education.

Exclusion risks may be higher in those countries which do not traditionally favour
system-wide infrastructural responses to inclusion issues particularly in relation to
education. The research examined shows that the tendency to exclusion among
youth is higher in liberal regime countries than in the social democratic countries.

Policymakers should look to alternative ways of supporting young people in the

difficult-to-help bracket. Such approaches which look at issues in newer and
more creative ways are important in order to avoid the danger of a small but
significant number becoming permanently excluded within societies.

A focus on the dynamic interaction of inclusion and exclusion concepts may

help to create the right congruence of circumstances to support innovative and
creative policy development which is responsive to individual needs.

4.3 The policymaking process: multifaceted and complex

The process of policymaking is characterised by a dynamic interplay of factors

which include key actors (officials, those who implement, target public), tradi-
tions within a particular culture or country, and an anticipation of the results of
particular initiatives, both intended and unintended.
61
There is a tendency for elite-driven reform processes to exclude the masses and
particularly young people. The process of policymaking needs to actively involve
young people in identifying solutions, formulating policies and exploring imple-
mentation issues.
62

Policymaking should be seen as a process which works with people rather than
for people. This implies a key role for the subjects of policymaking, whether
young people in danger of exclusion or children of migrants, to be actively
involved in decision-making processes which are related to them.

Policymaking needs to be seen as a dynamic process which is not reactive to

developing circumstances but which tries to proactively shape circumstances in
order to best respond to needs.

Partnership

Partnership is at the core of the policymaking process. Policymakers should not

operate in a vacuum or in a context where they only meet other policymakers.
Stakeholders, those who will be the subjects of any policies developed, are key
partners in the development of policies which are capable of responding effec-
tively to issues identified within societies.

The projects analysed highlight the importance of partnership approaches in de-

veloping well conceived and well targeted approaches. Key messages here are:

Policies aimed at promoting the employment of young people should be develo-

ped through a partnership process which includes young people, businesses and
enterprises as well as officials with policymaking responsibilities within a country
or region.

Partnerships between the world of education and work are crucial if the issue of
transition of young people to the world of work is to be facilitated. Despite dif-
ferent time scales in these two sectors it is essential that they work collaboratively
in identifying appropriate pathways for young people into the world of work.
 Policymaking needs to create spaces for encounter between key actors – those
who are formulating policies and those who are the projected target public for
a particular policy. Such spaces which create a context for a dynamic two-way
communicative process will also involve key stakeholders at each stage of the
continuum between education and active participation in the economic and
social life of a society.

Young people should be key actors in decision-making processes which are

characterised by effective social partnership and the involvement of key stake-
holders in the policymaking process.

Planning

Planning for success needs to be an integral part of every policymaking process.

This entails not only the development of a response to a particular issue, but also
an anticipation of intended as well as unintended results of the implementation of
specific policies. Planning for effective policy implementation should be seen as a
holistic all-embracing process focused on outcomes. Planning is also closely related
to how policymakers envisage their work within its broader structural context.

Key messages emerging from the projects are:

Effective planning should take account of the multi-faceted nature of the issue
of young peoples’ involvement in the labour market. It is a question of developing
practices which enable issues to be viewed from a multiplicity of standpoints and
to explore how to most efficiently develop appropriate support mechanisms to
help young people in the transition from education or training programme in
order to permanently lift them into full participation in employment.

In order to be successful, planning strategies need to adopt a broad-based

approach which combines concepts drawn from the field of social psychology
with an emphasis on notions of belonging, trust and accessibility of resources,
and political theory which introduces new degrees and levels of participation in
decision-making processes.

Planning strategies need to adopt a holistic approach which views issues in their
full complexity and which explores policy options from a number of perspec- 63
tives with a view to ensuring suitable coverage of all the potential outcomes.
64

Flexibility

Policymaking must strive to respond flexibly to emerging issues rather than adopt
approaches which may exacerbate particular problems rather than provide solu-
tions. Flexibility is achievable where policymaking is developed through partner-
ship approaches based on structured forums for dialogue and engagement of the
subjects of policymaking in the process of developing solutions.

Flexibility of approach is also a key characteristic of the kinds of planning approaches

referred to above. Flexibility also is a key end result of policymaking processes.
Among the conclusions which are discernible in the projects surveyed we find:

Policy formulation relating to the training and guidance of young people needs
to pay more attention to the necessity of having multiple and flexible options
for young adults even in cases where the range of choices and/or options may
fall outside particular programme objectives.

Policy approaches adopted in response to specific social issues need to be

flexible and constructed in ways which make the policy adaptable to the needs
of individual young people.

Integrated transition programmes (ITPs) should be developed in ways that per-

mit the development of models that have the in-built capacity to respond to
a variety of needs and social contexts. Flexibility should be at the centre of
the policymaking approach.

Approaches targeting individuals or structures

This is an inherent dilemma in policy development relating to inclusion and exclusion

and supporting participation in the labour market. The material examined provides
examples of successful use of both approaches, but it is difficult to discern a prefer-
ence for one approach over another. It may be important to look at both approaches
and to see where they can be combined in order to ensure optimum results.

Both approaches are highly dependent on context and the socio-political policy-
making traditions in a country. The key messages are as follows:

Policies which are specifically designed to support young peoples’ independ-

ence are seen as a specific end result of social policy in some countries. This is
particularly true of policies designed to support transition from education and
training into the labour market.
 Some lifelong learning policies may be of limited value in supporting transition
to the world of work because of outmoded ideas about the content of educa-
tion and vocational education and training within certain education contexts.
Too narrowly conceived lifelong learning policies may not result in the trans-
versal skills which are necessary for successful participation in employment in
a globalised, knowledge and service-based economy.

Initiatives which are driven from the top and supported by a clearly visible infrastruc-
tural arrangement have tended to be more successful in ensuring the participa-
tion of young people in the labour market.

There is significant evidence that provision of appropriate infrastructure either

to avoid social exclusion or to cope with it, is more effective than approaches
targeted at supporting individuals.

4.4 Evaluation: ensuring effective policies

Evaluation should be an ongoing concern in policymaking. It is not an adjunct to be

considered at the end of the process, but should be present from the initial stage of
policy conceptualisation. The process needs to include provision and methodologies
for testing the validity of proposed responses and examine the different levels of
their potential impact.

Among the important messages of interest to policymakers in this respect are:

The development of indicators and measurement instruments needs to be an

essential part of the policymaking process ab initio in order to ensure that there
is suitable provision of information to support policymaking on an ongoing
basis.

More holistic perspectives on the transition to the world of work and the respec-
tive tools of assessment and monitoring of progress must become a priority in
the European agenda.

Evaluation and monitoring of policy effectiveness should be construed in holis-

tic and qualitative terms rather than on a quantitative basis in order to provide a
full in depth view of what works and the impact of particular policy initiatives.
65
66
5. Supporting successful policymaking at European
and other levels: recommendations for the future

This review identifies a number of recommendations for policymaking in terms

of content and methodology. Some of the recommendations are concerned
with the ways in which policymaking happens in general when addressing
issues of engagement of citizens, avoiding exclusion, and the practices which
contribute to success. Others address the content of policymaking more directly
and provide advice on how to most appropriately address issues relating to
young peoples’ participation in employment, their transition from education
and training to the world of work, and finally their participation in society as
committed and engaged citizens.

The recommendations are presented at two levels:

A first level of recommendations which are directed to policymakers in gene-

ral which identify good practice to inform the policymaking process.

A second level which identifies recommendations of particular interest to

those who are working in the youth policy field and dealing with issues of
exclusion, effective transition to the world of work and citizenship.

5.1 Recommendations to policymakers in general

In order to ensure good practice policymaking should be seen as a process which:

1. involves all the key actors in a given area, stakeholders and those who will be
the target public of the policy.

2. is holistic, involving the consideration of every aspect of a particular issue,

at the levels at which action is required, and considering the impacts both
intended and unintended which are likely to be the end result of the policy.

3. where context plays a crucial role in determining what works and what does
not. Policymakers need to be aware of the role of context when examining
policy models from other countries and ensure that they fully consider the
importance of the cultural, historical, and social context within which they
are operating. 67
68

4. builds on the broader policy context created at EU level through macro level
approaches such as those advocated in the Renewed Social Agenda and the
Lisbon Process, creating an impetus for reform processes within Member
States. Policymakers should act on this impetus and adapt their policies to
suit their local contexts.

5. is creative, all embracing and which anticipates issues rather than one which
is premised on developing a reactive approach to particular problems. Policy-
makers should take a longer term view which sees particular initiatives as part
of a continuum of legislative action.

6. ensures appropriate balance between the development of policies targeting

individual needs and approaches which address broader infrastructural ques-
tions within which social objectives can be achieved.

7. where evaluation and monitoring are seen as a continuing part of the policy-
making process. They should not be based on quantitative data but should
also address the effectiveness of policies in qualitative terms.

5.2 Recommendations to those working with young people

In order to ensure effective policymaking by those working with young people

and their transition from education to work policymakers should:

1. ensure that the voice of young people is heard when formulating policies to
enable them to move from education and training into the world of employ-
ment. Policymaking should be with young people rather than for them.

2. prioritise involving young people in identifying solutions, developing appropri-

ate responses and exploring implementation issues particularly, but not only,
when they are addressing issues of preparing responses to issues of exclusion
from the labour market and society.
3. encourage partnerships between the worlds of education and enterprise in
fostering the transition of young people into employment and in supporting
the development of the competences and skills young people need to par-
ticipate fully in employment and society. Policymakers should promote such
partnerships and use them as a testing-ground when they are developing
policies.

4. adopt flexibility of approach in the identification of options when examining

issues relating to the integration of young people into the world of employ-
ment. This entails examining options and choices which may involve a number
of policy areas which potentially impact on the transition from education and
training to the world of employment.

5. ensure effective transition of young people into active life. This will not hap-
pen in a sustainable way without significant investment of time and resources
in putting in place appropriate system wide infrastructural initiatives which
target social inclusion and the effective participation of young people in
employment.

6. elaborate policies which are aimed at ensuring the effective engagement and
participation of young people in citizenship initiatives at local and national
levels. These have an added benefit of enhancing young peoples’ sense of
themselves as European citizens.

7. take care that enterprise education plays a major role in ensuring that young
people develop the kinds of skills which will enable them to participate
effectively in society and in the labour market.

8. ensure that they are aware of any unintended outcomes of policies to pro-
mote the inclusion of young people in society. There can be a danger that
some such policies may have the effect of excluding significant numbers of
young people because of a lack of education and/or training.

69
70
Annex: list of project titles and websites

7th Framework Programme

CSEYHP – Combating social exclusion among young homeless populations:

a comparative investigation of homeless paths among local white, local ethnic
group and migrant young men and women and appropriate reinsertion
methods (01.05.2008 – 30.04.2011)
http://www.movisie.nl/homelessyouth

EDUMIGROM – Ethnic differences in education and diverging prospects

for urban youth in an enlarged Europe
(01.03.2008 – 28.02.2011)
http://www.edumigrom.eu

EUMARGINS – On the margins of the European Community –

Young adult immigrants in seven European countries
(01.10.2008 – 30.09.2011)
http://www.iss.uio.no/forskning/eumargins/index.html

YIPPEE – Young people form a public care background:

pathways to education in Europe
(01.01.2008 – 31.08.2010)
http://tcru.ioe.ac.uk/yippee

YOUNEX – Youth, unemployment and exclusion in Europe

(01.05.2008 – 30.04.2011)
http://www.younex.unige.ch

6th Framework Programme

CIVICWEB – Citizens and Governance in a knowledge-based society

(01.09.2006 – 31.08.2009)
http://www.civicweb.eu/

EMILIE – A European approach to multicultural citizenship:

legal, political and educational challenges 71
(01.07.2006 – 30.06.2009)
http://www.eliamep.gr/en/emilie/
72

INCLUD-ED – Strategies for inclusion and social cohesion in Europe

from education (01.11.2006 – 31.10.2001)
http://www.ub.edu/includ-ed/

PROFIT – Policy responses overcoming factors in the intergenerational

transmission of inequalities
(01.05.2004 – 30.04.2007)
http://www.profit.uni.lodz.pl

SPREW – Generational approach to the social patterns

of relation to work (01.06.2006 – 31.05.2008)
http://www.ftu-namur.org/sprew/

UP2YOUTH – Youth - Actor of social change

(01.05.2006 – 30.04.2009)
http://www.up2youth.org

5th Framework Programme

CHICAM – Children in communication about migration

(ended 2004)
http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/projects/156_en.html

EUYOUPART – Political participation of young people in Europe –

Development of indicators for comparative research in the EU
(ended 2002)
http://www.sora.at/EUYOUPART

FATE – Families and transition in Europe

(ended 2004)
http://www.socsci.ulst.ac.uk/policy/fate/fate.html

Youth and European Identity – Orientations of young men

and women to citizenship and European identity
(ended 2004)
http://www.sociology.ed.ac.uk/youth/

YOYO – Youth policy and participation

(ended 2004)
http://www.iris-egris.de/yoyo
4th Framework Programme

Balancing Competencies – Balancing competencies enhancing

the participation of young adults in economic and social processes
(ended 2001)
http://www.pjb.co.uk/npl/bp14.doc

CASE – Social exclusion as a multidimensional process

(ended 2001)
http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/projects/006_en.html

EDEX – Educational expansion and labour markets

(ended 2001)
http://edex.univ-tlse1.fr/edex/

EGSIE – Education governance and social integration

and exclusion in Europe
(ended 2000)
http://www.ped.uu.se/egsie/

ENTRANCE – Enterprise and its transfer to combat social exclusion

(ended 2002)
http://ec.europa.eu/research/social-sciences/projects/027_en.html

INTEGRATION SYSTEMS – The Policies of Social Integration in Europe

Systems of Collective Action (ended 2000)

Misleading Trajectories – Evaluation of the unintended effects

of labour market integration policies for young adults in Europe
(ended 2001)
http://www.iris-egris.de/en/uebergaenge/misleading_trajectories/

Social Construction of Employment

(La construction sociale de l’emploi)
(ended 2000)

YUSEDER – Youth Unemployment and Social Exclusion

(ended 2000)
http://www.ipg.uni-bremen.de/research/yuseder/ 73
http://www.nova.no/subnet/Hammer/unemployment.htm
European Commission

EUR 23863 – European Research on Youth

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

2009 – 76 pp. – 21.0 x 29.7 cm

ISBN 978-92-79-11450-2
ISSN 1018-5593
DOI 10.2777/4263

75
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 KI-NA-23-863-EN-C
This publication examines the results of youth-related socio-economic research projects
funded under Research Framework Programmes. This review of projects focused on
youth and how to best ensure their transition into working life, on strategies for social
inclusion of young people and on their full participation as citizens in society. Its main
purpose is to distil some common themes which recur in the projects and which are of
interest to policy-makers. On the basis of this evidence, concrete recommendations are
made to policy-makers as well as to those working with young people.