ALEMAYEHU TEFERRA Cacho Professor of Civil Engineering egns Addis Ababa University Cae and MESFIN LEIKUN Associate Professor of Civil Engineering Addis Ababa University 000823 Faculty of Technology Addis Ababa University 199911 1.2 1.2.1 1.3 2.1 ee 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 oo 8 2.3.4 a 2.4 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 27 ie 2.7.2 2.7.3 CONTENTS PAGE Preface x INTRODUCTION 1 General i Soil Formation 3 Weathering of Rocks Common soil Types INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 3 General - Volume Relationships 6 Void Ratio and Porosity iz Degree of Saturation 8 Weight Relationships 8 Moisture Content 9 Unit Weight of Solids 9 Specific Gravity 9 Unit Weight of soil 12 Relative Density 16 Size and Shape of soil Particles 16 Grain size Distribution 16 Sieve Analysis 17 Hydrometer Analysis 7 Grain Size Distribution Curve 18 Brief Outline of Experimental Procedure for ieratometey Analysis 20 Soil Consistency 24 Atterberg Limits é 24 Engineering Definition of Atterberg Limits 26 Determination of Atterberg Limits 27 Properties of Clay Particles 30 Surface Activity and Adsorbed Layer 30 Colloids 31 Clay Minerals 322.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 12.9 2.10 3.1 3.1.2 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.7 33 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 35 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.8.P 3.8.2 39 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 ii. CONTENT Grain size classification U.S. Bureau of Soils Textural Classification Casagrande Classification System. ‘Examples Exercises. SOIL WATER AND SEEPAGE Soil Water Classification of Soil Moisture Permeability General ee Laboratory Measurement of Permeability, Sources of Errors in the Determination of Permeability Coefficient Factors Affecting Permeability Coefficient of Permeability Value Field Measurement of Permeability Permeability of Natural Deposits Seepage Through Soils Differential Equation for Seepage Flow Nets Construction of Flow Nets Determination of Discharge from Flow Net Seepage Through Homogeneous Earth Embankments General Consideration * Analytical Procedure of Determination of Discharge and Seepage Seepage Through Stratified Soils Effect of Core-Wall on Seepage Filters —— seer oe Effective and Total Stresses in Soils General Derivation of Formulas Critical Hydraulic Gradient Seepage Forces ‘Uplift Pressure Examples Exercises 33 34 35 37 46 110 119iv CONTENT 41 4.2 43 44. 4.5 4.6 47 4.8 5.3.5 3.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.5 5.6 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL> Stress due to Soil Weight Stress due to Concentrated Surface Loading Stress due to Uniform Line Loading Stress due to Uniformly Distributed Surface Load Stress due to Non-Uniformly Distributed Surface Load Stress due to Uniformly Distributed Load by Approximate Method Examples Exercises COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS Compressibility of Soils General Measurement of Compressibility Void ratio-Pressure Diagram Coefficient of Compressibility Compression Index Swelling Index Modulus of Compressibility Influence of Time on the Development of Strain Consolidation General Mechanics of Consolidation General Outline of Terzaghi - Froelich's Theory of Consolidation Mathematical formulation of Terzaghi - Frohlich's Theory of Consolidation General Description of Consolidation Test and Determination of > Time Settlement Parameters i Settlement of Structures General Settlement Analysis Correction of Settlement Examples Exercises 122 122 122 126 126 130 137 139 152 154 154 154 155 157 158 163 163 167 168 168 169 172 176 186 186 187 199 204 2136. 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 6.7.1 6.7.2 6.8 6.8.1 6.8.2 TQ 7.2.2 7.2.3 SHEARING STRENGTH OF SOILS General General-Consideration of Friction between Solid Shearing Strength of Granular Soils Shearing Strength-of Cohesive soils Shearing Strength of soils with both Cohesion and Friction Shear Tests Direct Shear Test Triaxial Compression Test Unconfined Compression Test Shear Characteristics of Granular soils Angle of Internal Friction Saturated Granular Soil Shear Characteristics of Clays Normally Loaded Clays Precompressed Clays Stress at a Point General Derivation Mohr Circle Mohr Strength Theory Relationships Derived from Mohr Strength Theory Application of Mohr Diagram to Conventional Shear Tests Triaxial Compression Test Direct Shear Test Unconfined Compression Test Drainage During Shear _Examples Sean ne Exercises EARTH PRESSURES General Earth Pressure Theories Rankine' s Earth Pressure Theory Influence of Wall Friction on Rankine Theory Coulomb's Earth Pressure Theory vy CONTENT 217 217 218 219 3 221 221 222 223 226 227 227 234 230 230 230 230 231 233 235 236 238 238 239 240 240 245, 253 256 256 260 260 275 275vi CONTENT TA 7.2.5 7.2.6 ae aoa 7.31 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 TA 75 7.6 8.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.1 8.2.3 8.3 8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.5 8.6 91 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.2 9.2. 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 Culmann's Graphical Construction Semi-Graphical Methods for Determining the Passive Resistance in Soils Tables for Active and Passive Pressure Earth Pressure at Rest Sheet Piles General Types of sheet Piles Graphical Methods of Analysis Comparison Between Free Earth and Fixed Earth Support Methods Arching Effect Examples Exercises STABILITY OF SLOPES General Slope Movements Soil-Creep Mass Slides Flow Slides Factor of Safety Methods of Analysis Infinite Slope Simple Slope Examples Exercises BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS General Ultimate Bearing Capacity Allowable Bearing Capacity Bearing Capacity of shallow Foundation General Failure Zones Below Smooth Base: Footing Loaded at Ground Level Failure Zones Below Rough Base: Footing Loaded at Ground Level Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation 279 282 290 292 292 292 293 301 301 303 309 333 cage 337 337 338 338 338 339 340 346 365 375 377 377 377 377 380 380 381° 381 38293 94 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.4.1 10.4.2 eels pseaeisceae 10.5 10.5.1 10.5.2 10.6 10.6.1 10.6.2 10.6.3 il 11d V1.1 11.1.2 ae W114 1.1.5 11.1.6 11.1.7 11.2 113 11.3.1 11.3.2 11.3.3 _ Asphalt Stabilization _ Examples Exercises EXPANSIVE SOILS General Origin of Expansive Soils Distribution of Expansive Soils Mineralogy of Expansive Clay Soils Kaolinite Illite vii CONTENT Identification and Classification of Expansive Soils Identification of Expansive Soils Classification Methods of Expansive Clays ~ Swelling Potential and Swelling Pressure General : Factors Affecting Swelling Potential Laboratory Testing Methods for Determining Swelling Potential IMPROVING SOIL CONDITIONS AND PROPERTIES Soil Stabilization General Compaction Excavation and Replacement Mixing of Different Soils Lime Stabilization Cement Stabilization Injection and Grouting Dynamic Stabilization Vibroflotation Blasting Compaction Piles 415 433 436 436 436 438 438 438 438 440 440 442 442 447 447 449 452 458 458 458 459 465 466 467 467 468 468 468 469 469 469viii. CONTENT 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 Precompression Drainage Example Exercises REFERENCES SUBJECT INDEX 469 470 471 472 473 480PREFACE This text-book evolved from teaching materials originally prepared by the authors for the use of civil engineering students at the Faculty of Technology. After having used ‘the teaching materials for several years, the authors found it necessary to upgrade them to a text-book. Hence, the preparation of this book came into being. The text-book tries to present the fundamentals of soil mechanics as clearly as possible so as to enable the student to grasp the basic concepts. Subject matters are logically arranged and developed for the benefit of thé students of civil engineering and practicing engineers. Some topics have been treated in great depth so-as to be also of use to. graduate students in the geotechnical area. Topics falling in these categories are those found in chapter 3, 7, 8.and 9. Chapter 10 has been devoted to expansive soils which are rarely treated in other soil mechanics text-book. It is hoped that the inclusion of this chapter will serve as an introduction into special geotechnical problems that have drawn a lot of attention here and in other countries as well. At the end of each chapter ample examples have been worked out and additional exercise have been assigned. : _ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to express their gratitude.to Research and Publication Office of Addis Ababa University for granting financial assistance for the preparation of the book. Sincere thanks are due also to Wiro Almaz Aberra and Wiro Emeyu Yoseph for word processing the manuscript and Ato Daniel Abebayehu for the preparation of the diagrams, Last but not least the authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to their families for their understanding and encouragement throughout the arduous task of preparation of this text-book. Alemayehu Teferra Mesfin Leikun September 19951. INTRODUCTION 1.1 GENERAL In engineering, soils are considered to include all organic and inorganic earth materials occuring in the zone overlying the rock crust. ‘They are usually non-homogeneous porous _ Material whose engineering behaviour is greatly affected by changes in moisture content and density, The engineering definition of soil is quite different from the agronomtist definition of the same. According to this decipline, soil is considered as the earth mold capable of supporting plant life, In geology-soil has different connotations and may simply be stated as a material found in the relatively thin surface zone. Soil Mechanics is the science which deals with the engineering properties and behaviour of soils under stress. By applying the laws of mechanics and hydraulics, it aitempts’to give solutions to Civil Engineering problems such as (@) the determination of allowable soil pressure under buildings or bridge piers etc. (Fig. 1.1 a,b,c) (b) _eValuation of the magnitude and distribution of earth pressures against various structures (Fig.1.14,e) (©) __ prediction of water movement through soil. (4) evaluation of stability of dams and embankments. (Fig. 1.1 f,g) (e) analysis and design of dams. (improvement of soil properties by chemical or mechanical methods. 1.2. SOIL FORMATION 1.2.1. Weathering of Rocks Soils are formed from igneous or metamorphic rocks by many processes of nature, both physical and chemical. Mechanical weathering is the fragmentation of rock by physical2 SOIL MECHANICS forces, in which the crystal structure of the material remains unchanged. Among the many physical forces responsible for the degradation of rock (or mechanical splitting) the following may be cited. @) Temperature changes Temperature fluctuations cause unequal expansion and _contraction within the rock mass resulting in the spalling of the layers of rock and disintigration. (b) Freezing action of water Water that enters the pores and small cracks freezes during cold periods. As the water freezes it increases in volume thereby exerting pressure against the sides of the cracks. This enlarges the cracks and losen particles of rock. CEE T-— “ato (a) suicoine DISTRIBUTION (d) RETAINING WALL (e) SHEET PILE (9) EMBANKMENT Fig 1.1 Some foundmental problems in Soil MechanicsINTRODUCTION 3 © Wedging action of plant roots Small rootlets of trees and shrubs may grow into cracks in rocks in search of moisture and plant food. As these rootlets grow, they act as wedges which gradually force the rock segments apart, (d) Impact action © The impact action of flowing water, ice, and of wind-borne sand particles serve to scour and erode rock straia and rock fragments. Chemical weathering is the result of attack on rock minerals by water or oxygen or by _ alkaline or acid materials dissolved in the soil water. Carbon dioxide from the air and organic matter in the top soil are common sources of such dissolved acids. The most - common processes of decomposition in this regard are oxidation (in which oxygen unites with rock minerals), carbonation (in which rock minerals are’ attacked by carbonic acid) and solution. Chemical decomposition (weathering) of rocks go hand in hand with the physical weathering and the two process mutually accelerate each other. 1.2.2 Transportation and Deposition of Soils The soils resulting from the weathering of rocks stay in their Place of formation, in which case they are referred to as residual soils. If they are carried away by such transporting agencies as wind, water, and ice and deposited at another location, they are known as transported soils or sediments. Transported soils are mixed with soils of different origin in the course of transportation. They also disintegrate and alter still further. With the decreasing velocity of the water, or wind transporting them, the coarser particles are deposited first followed by fine particles. Thus transported soils are sorted out according to grain sizes. "1.3. COMMON SOIL TYPES () Sand, gravel, and boulders are coarse-grained cohesion-less soils. Grain‘ size i Tanges are: used to distinguish between them. Boulder refers to sizes greater than 20-30 em. Particles larger than 2mm are generally classified as gravel.4° SOIL MECHANICS (2) 3) (4) 6) (6) Mm Organic silt is a fine grained soil somewhat plastic, highly compressible, relatively impervious. It is a very poor foundation material because of compressibility. Inorganic silts (rock flour) contain only mineral grains and are free from “piganic material. They are mostly coarser than 0.002mm. They may be incompressible depending upon whether they contain bulky or flat grains. Clay is composed of microscopic particles of weathered rock. Within a wide ~Tange.of water-content; clay exhibits plasticity. Organic clay contains some finely divided organic particles, Organic clays are highly compressible when Saturated and their dry strength is. very high. Black Cotton Soils are clay soils which are highly expansive. They contain a Irage percentage of montmorillonite. Because of their expansive nature when in contact with moisture, they present foundation problem. Hardpan is a term often used to describe any hard cemented layer which does Not soften when wet. Peat is composed of fibrous particles of decayed vegitable matter. It is so compressible that it is entirely unsuitable to support any type of foundation,2. INDEX PROPERTIES.AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 2.1 General on ete _ 5 VYG, G, wG, = eS (2.20) For fully saturated soil 5 = 1 .e@=0G,INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 15 2.3.4.4 Submerged Unit Weight a ight of saturated soil mass minus the unit weight of water, It ae the unit weight 0} ; This is defined as is designated by %»- V5 = Ysa ~ Vw Gt %y are a ae) 2.21) . Relative Density by the following relationship. Relative densi Y means of relative density which is expressed ity mostly applies to granular soil, = (2.22) Where I, = relative density (expressed in percent) eux = void ratio of the soil in the loosest possible state Svin = void ratio of the soil in the densest possible state e = A soil in its loosest Possible condition would densest condition 100%. Soils are Formally classified on the basis of their relative density as indicated below = void ratio of the soil in the natural state have a relative density of zero and in its 5 y t i Classification Relative Density, Ip in % Loose Firm Dense Very Dense 0-50 50 - 70 70-90 90 - 100 ] I i ’16. SOIL MECHANICS 2.4 SIZE AND SHAPE OF SOIL PARTICLES The sizes of soil particles vary in general from boulders to that of a large molecule. Sizes larger than 0.06 mm are termed coarse fractions and sizes ranging from 0.06 mm to 001mm are termed fine fractions, These fractions may be separated by mechanical analysis. ‘The shape of Soil particles ranges from spherical to needle like or thin plate like structure. 2.5 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION The sizes of soil particles and their distribution throughout the soil mass are important factors which influence soil properties and performance. Particle size is expressed in terms of single diameter. For the larger particles this is taken as being equal to the size of the smallest square hole of a sieve through which the particle will pass. There are two methods commonly used for the determination of grain size distribution of soil. They are sieve and hydrometer analyses. A sieve analysis is often used for the determination of grain size distribution of coarse-grained materials while a hydrometer analysis is usually employed for detérmining the zrain size distribution of the fine grained soils. Che determination of grain size distribution by these methods is known as mechanical inalysis, 5.1 Sieve Analysis ‘or determining the grain size distribution of soil, 2 known weight of dry soil specimen is laced on a set of sieves arranged‘ ing to their size and shaken for about ten minutes 1a sieve shaker. The soil retained on each sieve is weighed. Percentage retained on any ieve is expressed as Wtof soil retained Total weight Per cent retained = (100) he finest sieve used in mechanical analysis is usually the one corresponding to 0.074mm ‘00 mesh) according 10 ASTM.INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF sons 17 2.5.2, Hydrometer Analysis If the soil contains a large portion of grains below 0.074 mm diameter, the grain size “distribution of this fine fraction is *etermined by means of hydrometer analysis or wet analysis. The hydrometer analysis is based on Stokes law which states that spherical grains of different sizes fall through a liquid at different velocities, According t6 this theory, spherical soil particle falling through a liquid will have first a velocity increasing rapidly under the influence of gravity, but within few seconds assume a constant terminal velocity which is maintained indefinitely. The terminal velocity of spherical soil particle settling in + water is expressed by Stoke’s law as: te Ye ps 2.23) 18p ve where % = unit weight of soil grains ‘Yo = unit weight of water # = viscosity of water diameter of the spherical particle velocity of the spherical particle . Im practice soil particles are never iruely spherical. To overcome this, particle size is defined in terms of equivalent diamter. Any particle which sinks in water with the same velocity as an imaginary sphere of the same unit weight and of diameter D, will be said to have an equivalent diameter D. 2.5.3 Grain Size Distribution Curve ‘The results of grain size analysis are usually presented in the form of grain size distribution curve » known as gradation curve, on a semilogarithmic plot. The ordinate of this curve represents the percentage finer than any given diameter D, while the abscissa represents the size, D (usually expressed in mm) in a logarithmic scale, The shape and slope of gradation curve ‘indicate the type of gradation, A steep or broken Slope indicates poor gradation for most engineering purposes, A gentle or even slope indicates good gradation. A soil is said to be well graded if all Particles are represented fairly well while a soil is poorly graded if there is a deficiency or excess of certain sizes. Typical forms of gradation curve are as shown on Fig.2.3.SAIN VOIINGHISIP azIs-UTRID €°Z “BIT (wu) a*azis NIVuD z ot 70 tO z0 Od £00 200 e000 = Z000 _ : 3 : $ x el Ie s 3 ELIS ( T Ct 8 D : g i a asuyoo mniaan erry 3809 Wha awa > $ NWS Tis wt s on oz of os 09 on oF oot (hk) AHOIEM AG HINIG INFDURdINDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 19 Curve I represents good gradation. Such material is relatively stable and resistant to scour or erosion. Tt can readily be compacted to a very dense condition and will develop high shearing resistance and bearing capacity. Curve II represents poor gradation. Such specimen 4s primarily composed of particles of single size (uniform soil). It will easily be displaced under load and has less supporting power. Curve III shows skip-graded material. This is also a form of poor or uneven gradation because the specimen is lacking in particles of certain sizes. To quantify the grain size distribution the following parameters ate used. Uniformity Coefficient In order to determine if a material is well graded or poorly graded, its coefficient of uniformity is determined. Uniformity coefficient, C,, is defined as the ratio cf “he diameter at the 60% finer point to that at 109% finer point on the gradation curve (Fig.2.3). c= Pa (2.24) “ D, 10 Where C= uniformity coefficient Dio = diameter corresponding to 10% finer by weight which is also known as effective size. Duo = diameter corresponding to 60% finer by weight = I, usually indicates a soil in which the grains are practically of the same size (uniform soil). A large coefficient represents a well graded soil. Concavity Coefficient (2.25) D. U, = ‘Bas Other measures of uniformity are: (2.26) 2.2720 SOD. MECHANICS Peover 24 £ L Arse g I 2.5.4. Brief Outline of Experimental Procedure for Hydrometer Analysis m Aton Pop? ‘According to Lambe [17] 50 grams of soil passing sieve No.200 are agitated with water and dispersing agent in 1000 c.c. jar. The specific gravity of the suspension is then measured with a stream lined hydrometer at given intervals of time. “The hydrometer reading, r, is observed at the ‘surface of the fluid on a scale:on the stem and this indicates the specific gravity of the suspension. Readings are usually taken at intervals of %,'4,1 and 2 minutes~ with the hydrometer remaining in the suspension all the time. For longer intervals, that is 5, 10, 20 etc. minutes the hydrometer is put in the suspension just before each reading and semoved after each reading. Ifa soil particle of size ,D, falls hrough a distance z in time, t, its velocity will be given as: Using Stokes"Law, s7%» pp (2.28) p= |¥i8e _ |_182 & (2.29) Ys" Yw ¥s-Yw After a time, t, all particles of diameter equal to and larger than D have settled through a depth z,. All the remaining particles finer than D are still in suspension and their concentration need to be determined. Equation (2.29) applies to early readings taken between ‘4 and 2 minutes intervals. For the readings taken at intervals of 5, 10,20,etc. whinutes, emersion correction is applied to equation (2.29). - oe Wheh the hytrometer is placed in the jar,it displaces its own volume as shown in Fig. 2.4. Asa result, the surface of the suspension rises. If the hydrometer has a Volume = V, and the jar a cross-sectional area A,,then the surface of the suspension as indicated on the above figure will rise by . We realize that the hydrometer measures the specific gravity atINDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 21 1.00 1.01 CENTER OF VOLUME OF HYDROMETER [-- SUSPENSION oF Zee H+ bony 4 Tete Beste Hy % ae Wha _ . h 4 :22 SOIL MECHANICS the center of its bulb. The liquid now at the center of the bulb was previously at a lower level (ie. before the insertion of the hydrometer). Since the displacement below the center of the , “ y, bulb is due to half of its volume, the liquid now at the center must be lower by a Therefore, actual distance of settlement is: 2.30) 2.31) 2', can be obtained from the calibration curve which is a plot of 2’ against hydrometer readings. ‘The corrections that need to be applied to hydrometer readings are miniscus and temperature.corrections. Having known the limiting diameter D after t minutes, the concentration can be determined as follows: Mass of solid in suspension = W (gm) Mass of solids per unit volume of suspension = z (gmiem’) Volume of solid per unit volume of suspension - a 4 % GV é Volume of water per unit volume of suspension = 1- = % (em)INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 23 Mass of water per unit volume of suspension, -—_¥ 3 WO Grr (gm/cm*) = - v Density of suspension, y, = © + {t- or } (gm/em*) The percentages of particles N smaller than D __weight of solids per cm? at depth z, after time 1 (100) weight of solids per cm? in the original suspension Weight of solid finer than D per unit volume of suspension after time 1-5¥ v NW GV Weight of water per unit volume =, ~ Unit weight, G, NW - NW = GV (y- ¥) NW (G,- i) = OV GY - w)where Y_ = unit weight of water at temperature of hydrometer calibration (usually 20°C). 1 = hydrometer reading in suspension 1,= hydrometer reading in water at the same.temperature as suspension For combined analysis (i.c. sieve analysis’ + hydrometer analysis) NW Nie W, total weight of “cy soil passing sieve No.200 total weir» dry soil used in the sieve analysis. WwW Ww, " 2.6 SOIL CONSISTENCY Soil Consistency is a term often used to describe the degree of firmness of soil and is expressed by such terms as soft, firm or hard. Tt usually applies to fine grained soils whose condition is affected by changes in moisture content. As the consistency of soil changes, its engineering properties also change. Such soil properties as shearing strength and bearing capacity vary significantly with consistency. . 2.6.1. Atterberg Limits The Swedish scientist, Atterberg, developed a method of describing quantitatively the effect of varying water content on the consistency Of fine grained soils. He established the four states of soil consistency (Fig 2.5) which are callled the liquid, the plastic, the semi-solid, and the solid states. He algo proposed a series of tests for determining the boundaries known as Atterberg limits between the physical states of soil. Each boundary or limit is defined by the water content that produces a specified consistency.INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF'SOLS 25 The liquid state is produced when a fine grained soil is mixed with a large quantity of water. In such state, the soil behaves like a liquid. ‘That is, it flows freely like a liquid and has no Tesistance to deformation. If, however, its water content is Sradually reduced, it will begin Strength to a very small strength is the liquid limit. ‘This limit is defined by moisture content of the soit at the point and is designated by a, Ata moisture content lower than its liquid limit, the soil is in a plastic state. ¥f the sample is subjected to a further decrease in moisture content, it will eventually lose its Plasticity. ‘The moisture content at which the sample, when it is tolled into a thread, starts to crumble Tather than distort plastically, is called its Plastic limit and is designated by wp After the plastic limit, the soil displays the properties of Semi-soild. With a further decrease in moisture content, the soil sample will finally reach a point where it can no longer change in volume. At this point, the soil is said to have reached its shyinkage limit designated by as, . ~The limits described above are all expressed by their Percentage water contents, VOLUME OF SAMPLE. Liquin state PLASTIC state 1 i 1 i i 1 1 i 1 i | 1 1 ! i i i : ' ' t i 1 ' 1 1 t 1 I { t 1 1 t 1 t 1 1 T SEMI-SoLiD 1 state i VOLUME oF I Ips PLASTICITY INDEX. SOLIDS ! Cc Wp wy WATER CONTENT. Fig. 2.5 Consistency limitsen 36 SOIL MECHANICS 9.6.2. Engineering Definitions of Atterberg Limits The Liquid Limit is defined as.the water content at which a moist soil in a special cup cut by a standard groove closes after 25 taps on hard rubber plate. ‘The Plastic Lirait is the water content at which the soil begins to break apart when rolled into a thread approximately 3mm(1/8 in) in diameter. The Shrinkage Limit is the water content at which further lose of moisture does not cause 2 decrease in volume. ‘The Plasticity Index is the range of water content over which the soil exhibits plasticity. i.e the difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit. Tp = OL - or (2.32) ‘The most important use of the Atterberg limits is in classifying fine grained soils. In addition, a number of relationships involving the Atterberg limits are useful in correlating soil behaviour with simple test data. ‘Liquidity Index relates the natural water content of the soil, to the plastic limit and plastic index. 2.33) ‘Where @ = natural water content Relative Consistency is the ratio of liquid limit minus the natural water content of the soil vel its plasticity index. (2.34),INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOLS 27 2.6.3. Determination of Atterberg Limits 2.6.3.1. Determination of Liquid Limit A schematic diagram of a liquid limit device is shown in Fig. 2.6. To Perform the tiquid limit test, a moist soil is placed in the cup. A groove is cut at the center of the soil pat by Plotted on a semi-logarithmic graph paper giving an approximate straight line called the flow curve, The moisture content corresponding to 25 blows (N=25) read from the flow curve gives the liquid limit of the soil ig. 2.6.). Liquid limit can also be estimated from the following empirical equation [17] 0, (N/25)" (2.35) Where N= number of blows in a liquid Timit device for 1.27em groove closure ey ‘orresponding moisture content nn =0.12128 SOIL MECHANICS End square 10mm i 5 Radiusssamm 8 (aus mit, = § 8 10 20 28 30 40 50 . NUMBER OF BLOWS, N{log scale) (d) Fig. 2.6 Determination of liquid limitINDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS * 29 2.6.3.2. Determination of Plastic Limit A paste of soil is rolled into a thread on a smooth glass piate until the diameter is 1/8 in (0.32cm) in diameter. As soon as the thread shows signs of cracking, the operation is Stopped and the moisture content of the cracked portion of the thread is determined. A minimum of three trials are made with the same soil and an average of the resulting moisture contents is determined to give the plastic limit of the soil, 2.6.3.3. Determination of Shrinkage Limit A container of volume V, (Fig. 2.7) is filled with a soil paste ina saturated state. The weight of the saturated soil is determined. The specimen is dried gradually, first in air and then in an oven kept at a temperature of 105°C. . Fig.2.7a represents the saturated soil in a container of volume V, Fig.2.7b represents the air ried soil at shrinkage limit and Fig. 2.7c represents the dry soil after oven drying. Reduction in moisture content beyond the Shrinkage limit does not cause any reduction in the total volume of the soil mass. Hence, the volume in Fig. 2.7b and Fig. 2.7c are the same. . The total volume of the dry soil is determined by immersing the pat of the dried soil in mercury and determining the volume of mercury displaced. ‘The weight of the pat is also determined. The shriknage limit , ws, in per cent is given as, oo, = Me MH) = Wh =D 466) 2.36) W, W, W, = weight of saturated soil V, | = volume of saturated soil W, = weight of dry soil Vz = volume of dry soit ‘Wy = weight of water in the soil mass at the shrinkage limit30 | SOIL MECHANICS Fig 2.7 Determination of shrikange limit 2.7 PROPERTIES OF CLAY PARTICLES 2.7.1 Surface Aciivity and Adsorbed Layer The surface of fine fraction of soil carries negative electric charge, whose intensity depends on the mineralogical character of the particle. The physical and chemical manifestation of the surface charge is called surface activity, In nature, soil particles are normally surrounded with water. In the immediate vicinity of the soil particle, the negative charges attract the positive H* of the water. Asa result water molecules in the neighbourhood:are arranged in a definite pattern defining a certain zone of influence. The water located within the zone is called the adsorbed layer. In this layer the properties ofthe water are different from normal water. In every clay particle the absorbed layer contains ions (positive charges) which come from the water molecules since water also dissociates to a certain degree from H,O to H*+ OH’. Since the caly particles are negatively charged, the positive charges ie., H* go to the clay Particles and base exchange takes place to form the adsorption complex (Fig. 2.8)INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOS 31 pot ns | Le | i | | | ABSORPTION COMPLEX Thickness -soulp To vs Sou Laven” 05 A | . ! | SSeF ater boo LJ NFtveNce viscous Liquip Fig 2.8 Schematic diagram of the adsorbed layer Due to the property of the adsorption complex, the very fine soil fractions possess cohesion which contributes resistance to the soil during shearing deformation. The magnitude of this resistance may be reduced to 2 considerable degree by disturbing the adsorption complex, say by kneading the soil. “However, the soil regains its strength back if allowed to stay for some time at the same moisture content. This phenomenon is called ‘Thixotropy 2.7.2 Colloids If the particles of any substance are so small that the surface activity has an appreciable influence on the properties of the aggregates, the substance i said to be in a colloidal staie and the particles are called colloidal Particles. The properties that are due exclusively to the influence of surface activity are known as colloidal properties. Because of the variations Of the intensity of the surface activity for different particies, the upper limit for a colloidal size ranges between 2p and O.1u. At O.1y every solid substance 18 in colioidal state.42 SOIL MECHANICS 2.7.3 Clay Minerals with the help of X-ray techniques three main groups of clay minerals are identified. ‘These are Illite, Kaolinite and Montmorillonite. 2,7.3.1 Mite ite is medium activemicatike-clay-mineral and: is a predominant constituent of many shells. The composition of the complex illite group may be written as follows [14] K, ALlFe, Mg, Ma, (S,,, 41) % @.37 Note: The y subscript varies between 1 and 1.5. 2.7.3.2 Kaolinite Kaolinite is least active of the three and occurs in soils in high temperature and humid tropical regions. Its general'chemical formula is [14] Al, (Siz0s) (OH)s (2.38) 2.7.3.3 Montmorillonite Montmorilionite is more colloidal than kaolinite and is an active clay mineral. By taking water molecules into"its space lattice it swells considerably “Tt has the following general chemical formula [14]: Aly [Mg] (SicQy) (OH). + XH 2.39) Montmorillonite is the dominant clay mineral in bentonite. For example, calcium-bentonite absorbs water from 200% - 300% while sodium-bentonite absorbs from 600% - 700%.INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 33 2.8 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS A soil classification system is an arrangement of different soils into groups having similar Properties. “The purpose of soil classification is to make possible the estimation of soil properties by association with soils of the same class whose properties are known and to Provide the engineer with accurate method of soils description. There are several methods of classifying soils. The most widely used classification Systems by engineers are described hereunder. 2.8.1 Grain Size Classifications The grain-size classification system is based on Srain size of the soils and is essentially useful for classifying soils in which single properties are of importance. The classifications that are in common use are the following: Silt Coarse | Medium | Fine Clay 2 06° 02 0.06 0.02 0.006 0.002” (mm) 7 Clay 0.02 0.002 (mm) Gravel 0.05 0.002 (mm)34 SOIL MECHANICS 2.8.2. U.S. Bureau of Soils Textural Classification ‘This classification is based on a triangular chart shown in Fig. 2.9. A soil with known percentage of sand, silt, and clay sizes ig represented by a given point on a triangular chart of this type. ASS INGLIS AWD PEORIA PSK ENE AAG AO NUN ANA AA IN ATAALARAA o. 10~C«siH HO SILT (0.05mm- 0,.005mm) 9 100 CLASS @SAND | %SILT | CLAY 4 SAND g0-100 | 0-.20 0- 20 2. SANDY LOAM 50- 80 | 0- 50 o- 20 3 LOAM 30- 50 |30- 50 | 0- 20 4SILTYLOAM |: 0- 50. | 30- 1007" 0 20 5-SANDYLLAY LOAM | 50- 80 | 0- 30) 20- 30 6 CLAY LOAM 20- 50 | 20-50 | 20- 30 7 SILTY CLAY LOAM 0- 30 50- 80 20- 30 8 SANDY CLAY 50-70 | 0-20 | 30- 50 9 CLAY o- 50 | 0-50 | 30-100 wsitycray | 0-20 | 50-79} 30- 50 Fig. 2.9 The triangular soil classification chartINDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 35 2.8.3 Casagrande Classification System (Univied System of soil Classification) ‘This system employs visual inspection, grain-size analysis and Atterberg limit tests in classifying soils, ‘The coarse soils are classified by their grain size and fine grained soils are classified with the aid of groups are as follows Main Soil Types Course grained soils Fine grained soils Organic silt & clay-0 ~ Peat --- Pt Gradation Liquid limit Well graded -w High tiguid limit - Ht Poorly graded -P Law liquid limit - L The symbols indicated abe- ‘0 form the group symbol, The plasticity chart (Pig. 2.10) is a plot of plasticity index ve, medium and high plasticity following the criteria outlined below. wes timil, Fine-grained soils are sub-divided into soils of low, Low plasticity wy, < 35% Intermediate plasticity ca, = 35% - 50% High plasticity ow, > 50% The division between inorganic clays and ‘organic silts is by an empirival Line (A-line) having the following equation: Ip = 0.73 (w, - 20) (2.40) Clays fall above the A-line and silts below itSOIL MECHANICS 36 wey Aonseld O12 “Bla ey wry pind o9 OF ov of oz Cl] ° Horo + mis pup eis ‘620u) puo "W ONY 10 vy sown 70 spuds Aus oun ais 2ebI0 mE uo sKoj9. 9]uDB.o! ANDi waIpEH 0 ke (ofp 9]uDBs0u1 HIS 21uDBbu]—2148DIdl skoip Apuos jo: > han, aus [2 \€ , los 09 Auusold (92) xepurINDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 37 -2.9 EXAMPLES E.2.1 A moist sand sample has a Volume of 644 cm? in natural state and a mass of 793 gm. ‘The dry mass is 735 gm and the specific gravity of soil grains is 2.68. Determine the void ratio, the porosity, the water content and the degree of saturation. SOLUTION o,- 8-75 - Ye Vey V,(L0) 35 ¥, 2.68 = 735 V,= >= =274cm> 2.68 V=644 -274 =370cm? 370 =135 27438 | SOI MECHANICS vy, 58 =a 28 (100) =157 Sao 379 100 = 15.7% ’ B.2.2“A soil sample with a degree of satuaration 100%, has a moisture content of w and specific gravity of solid particle G, is given. Express the void ratio and the dry unit weight in terms of the given quantities. SOLUTION - METHOD I Vw Water | Ww Vs | Solids | W, Vie T . W,=0.W, (since o = W,/W,) oW, o.W, ene ve, LAA =0.G, YY GeyINDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 39 For y= 1 METHOD II METHOD IIT Ve =e | Water | o ‘ V, =1 | Solids | G,40 SOM MECHANICS £.2.3 A sand sampie has porosity of 30% and the specific gravity of solid of 2.7. Compute: (a) Dry unit weight of sand (b) Unit weight of sand if S = 56% (©) Unit weight of saturated sand (d) Effective unit weight of submerged sand SOLUTION y, Assume V = } cm’; 0.30" Vv, = 0.30 cm* V, = 1-0.3 = 0.7em* W,=V,G,7,=O.D2NDU) =1.89gmINDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICARION OF SONS 4) V,, =(0.56)(.3) =0.168cm? W, = Vy, =(0.168)(1) =0.1682m 1.89 +0,168 (by Yocet =2,058 = 06 gmicm? =20.6kNjm? When fully saturated V, = Vv, = 0.301) = 0.3gm ~ 189 +03 i tay =2.19 gmfem} =21.9kNjm? Ye = You Vw = 249-1 = 1.19gmjcin? = 11 9kNJm4 E.2.4. A soil sample has a water content of 30% and specific Bravily of solids of 2.7 Its unit weight is ISkN/m’, Determine its . (a) void ratio (b) porosity (c) degree of saturation SOLUTION Consider v = Im Ww = ‘ISKN w= Mw42 SOIL MECHANICS W, =o W, = 03 Wom tw 1S =W, + O3w, w= -1155N - 413 0.3)(11.5) = 3.45kN Wy, eS 943m) Gry 2TH) V, = 11 - 0.43 = 0.57mi! V, Wy =—” (100) = 1% ©) $=-7% (400) = [* (100) =INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 43 E.2.5 An undisturbed sample of sandy silt is found to ie @ weight of 45.4N. a total volume of 2830 cm? and a specific gravity of solids of 2.7, It is found in the laboratory that the void ratio of the ‘material in 1ts.toosest condition is 0.8 and in its‘densest condition is 0.3.Compute the relative density and classify the material in nature as loose, medium or dense, SOLUTION Snax ~€ ty a ‘x ~ rain W, = 45.4N V = 2830cm? w, at 4 et sem? GsYy 2.70.01) V, = 2830 - 1681.5 =1148.5cm? 0.8 -0.68 ie 100) = 23.4% 298-03 1 The material can be Classified as loose,44 SOIL MECHANICS aaa DIN-Standard | Retained on Cumulative Cumulative mesh opening sieve retained passing (finer) =| We | Waw | Wee Worw | Wer Weenw mm gm(cN) | % / gm (CN) | % gm(cN) % ee 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 200.00 100.00 a a ee oaeee saan eget 98.58 1 5.66 2.83 8.50 4.25 191.50 95.75 0.5 46.04 23.02 54.54 27.27 145.46 72.72 0.2 44.00 22.00 98.54 49,72 101.46 50.73 : eee 0.1 34.90 17.45 133.44 66.27 66.56 33.28 0.064 63.16 31.58 196.60 98.30 3.40 1.70 a 3.40 1.70 | 200.00 | 100.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 SOLUTION The result of the sieve analysis is plotted in Fig. E2.1. The degree of uniformity is calculated using the following Parameters : Dy? (0.09292 Q= U, = — 2 - 0.092)" 94 Deg Dio. (0.30)(0.07) =u, -¢ 2.055 65 ys 0.088 . ; U, = isonet v.19 5 [DieDi VOONO82)INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS ° 45 (wu) ‘3zIs NIVED sishqeue aaays Jo ynsoy T°7 H “SLL 4 ro 0 ro 700° 00 200 loro £000 ..200°0 1000 LLL ° rt a oz +} +} TTT TT of oy os 1 09 oe og 6 004 aSuvoo NIG ELE ‘3SuvOD waG3H ELIF] iv GNVS ls (le) LHOISM AQ YaNI4 LN3DURd46 SOIL MECHANICS 2.10 EXERCISES Derive the following expressions @v,= ( 1 jv yo If the oven dry weight of 28,000cm’ of soil is SOON, calculate @ the volume of soilds (b) the volume of voids (c) the porosity and void ratio Assume G, = 2.7 e+l < A moist sample of soil weighs 0.24N on a tin lid, which itself weighs 0.15N. After drying in an oven for 24 hrs. at 105°C, the tin and the sample’ weigh 0.20N. Determine the moisture content. A moist sand sample has a volume of 644cm’ in natural state and a weight of 7.93N. The dry weight is 7.35N and the specific gravity of solids is 2.68. Determine the void ratio, the porosity, the water content,and the degree of saturation. Given, = 21.6KNi? wo =10% ~ G,=2.7 é Find the unit weight, the degree of saturation, and the void ratio. A sample of sandy soil was found to have a moisture content of 25% and a unit weight of I9kN/m’. Laboratory tests on the same material indicated that the void ratios in the loosest and densest possible states were 0.90 and 0.50 respectively. Compute the relative density and degree of saturation of the sample. : Take G, = 2.7.INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 47 In a hydrometer analysis, the following observations were taken:- 4 minutes, r = 1.015. The weight of solids used in suspension of 1000 cm? was 0.5N. Assume G, = 2.6 Calculate the coordinates of the point on the grain size plot. Other particulars of the hydrometer and the jar are as follows. V, = 50.cm®, pw = 10x10" N seciem?,.h = 20cm, H = 23m A; = 50 cm? A soil, in which the water content is 38%, has @,=45% and w= 34%. In what state of consistency does this soil exist?. The shrinkage limit of a clay soil is 25%, Its shrinkage and plasticity indexes are 15% and 20% respectively. Calculate the liquid and plastic limits of the soil. If the natural moisture content of the soil is 34% in what state of consistency does it exist? The Atterberg limits of a particular soil are reported as uy, = 60%, @, = 40%, and ws = 35%. Are these values reasonable?. Explain. Derive an expression for the bulk unit weight of partially saturated soil in terms of specific gravity of the particles G,, the void ratio e, the degree of saturation S and the unit weight of water »,. A sample of clay has a void ratio of 0.73 and a specific gravity of solid particles of 2.71. If the voids are 92% saturated, find the bulk unit weight and the water content. What would be the water content for complete saturation, if the void ratio is kept the same? A sample of soil having a volume of 1000 cm? weighs in its natural state 17.3N, the degree of saturation being 61.6%. After drying in the oven at 105° C, the sample weighed 14.4N. Find (a) the specific gravity of the solids (b) the natural water content (c) the void ratio (d) the wet unit weight, the dry unit weight, the saturated unit weight and the submerged unit weight.Aodhan: lgse 3 SOIL MECHANICS fe 133 «CA, fully saturated clay sample weighs 1.52N and is 86cm? in volume. Determine the void ratio, porosity, water content, dry unit weight and bulk unit weight of the soil, if the specific gravity of the clay particles is 2.72. 14 A clayey soil has a natural moisture content of 15.8%. The specific gravity of. solid grains is 2.72. Its degree of saturation is 70.’ 8%. The soil is allowed to soak up in water increasing its degree of saturation to 90.8%. Determine the water content of the soil in the auet case. 15 How many cubic meters of fill can be constructed at a void ratio of 0.7 from 191,000m? of borrow material that has a void ratio of 1.27. 16 The volume change of a soil mass at the liquid limit is 80% and at its plastic “=. |imit 28%. Plastic limit determination gave the plastic limit of the soil as 24%. If the plasticity index of the soil is 35%, determine the liquid and shrinkage limits of the soil. 17 A soil specimen has an effective size, Dio of 0.1mm. and a uniformity coefficient of 2.5. Determine the probable classification of the material using the MIT Classification System. 18 A sample contains 15% gravel, 32% sand,33% silt and 20% clay. Classify the material by means of Triangular Classification System. 19 A sample of soil has 98% of the particles by weight finer than 1mm, 59% finer than 0.1mm, 24% finer 001mm and 11% finer than 0.001mm. Draw the grain size distribution curve and determine the approximate percentage of the total weight in each of the various size ranges according to MIT size __ Classification. Determine the effective size and the uniformity coefficient for © this soil. Classify the soil using the triangular chart. 20 A moist soil with a total volume of 50 cm? weight 95 cN. It is dried out and found to weight 75 cN. The specific gravity of the solids is 2.67. Find e,n,w,S and y.21 22 23 24 25 INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 49 A soil smaple taken from a depth that is located below the ground water table | has a volume of 75 cm’ and weighs 120 cN. It is dried out and:found to weight 75 cN. Compute its weight, w,¢,n and G,. A sample of silty clay was found to have volume of 15.8cm? . Its weight at the natural water content vas 30.85 oN and after oven drying was 26.54 cN. ‘The unit weight of the solid constituents was 2.70 cN/em?. Calculate the void ratio and the degree of saturation. A saturated soil has a water content of 50 per cent and a unit weight of 18.5 kN/m’. Find ¢, n and G, A soil has a unit weight of 20.5 kN/m? and a water content of 15 per cent. What will be the water content if the soil dries out to a unit weight of 19.5 kN/m? and the void ratio remains unchanged, A sand sample has a porposity of 40 per cent and a specific gravity of solids of 2.67. a. Calculate the-void ratio of the sample b. Calculate the unit weight if the sand sample is dry Calculate the unit weight if the sand sample is 30 per cent saturated 4. Calculate the unit weight if the sand sample is saturated A soil has a unit weight of 17.5 kN/m' and a water content of $ per cent. How much water in liters should be added to each metre cube of soil to raise the water content to 15 per cent? Assume that the void ratio remains constant. sand sample with a minimum void ratio of 0.45 and a maximum of 1.00 has a relative density of 40 per cent. The specific gravity of solids is 2.68. a. Find the unit weight (i) if the sample is dry ii) if the sample is wet. b. How much will a 2m, stratum of this sand settic if the sand is densified to a relative density of 65 per cent? ©. What will be the new dry and saturated unit weights?7 SOIL-WATER AND SEEPAGE 3. 31 SOIL-WATER 3.1.1 General soil engincerséafe interested in ground water because of its effect on soil behaviour and construction operations. Ground water affects many engineering structures adversely by reducing the bearing capacity of the soil, Deep excavation can be difficult because of large inflow of ground water. The presence of water in the soil above and below the ground water “able tay be-a-controlling factor. in many engineering studies and foundation design. Before taking up the types of soil moisture, it is important to briefly review the hydrologic gle. Moisture vapour in the clouds condenses under the influence of temperature changes and falls to the earth as rain, snow, hail etc. A part of this precipitation may not reach land surface but evaporates in the air while falling or may evaporate from leaves or roofs etc. Most of the precipitation, however, falls on the land. This water is disposed of in three ways. Itis evaporated directly from the soil, runs off the surface (runoff) or soaks into the soil, Of interest to soil engineers is the portion of precipitation that soaks into the soil to form ground water. Ground Water is the continuous body of sub-surface water that fills the soil voids and fissures and is free to move under the influence of gravity. The upper surface of this water is called the water table or phreatic surface. 3.1.2 Classification of soil Moisture Soil mgisture is classified as adsorbed, capillary, or gravitational water. A brief discussion under each of these headings is given below. < 5051 3.1.2.1 Adsorbed Water This is water held on the surface of soil particles by forces of adsorption. Soil Particles under natural conditions normally have a net electrical charge at their surface. Water molecule as “a single unit may be considered electrically neutral and negative Sharges of its However, its construction js such that the centers of the positive idual components do not exactly coincide. In consequence, it has in effect two poles, in like a small bar magnet (Fig. 3.14). Water molecules close to electri ly charged surf 2.3.1b. & ) of soil particle are strongly attracted to and held by the soil particle ( — (a) Dipole symbole (bo) aa He. 3.1 Onienation of water molecules about charged soil particles52 SOIL MECHANICS Water adsorbed on the surfaces of soil particles is referred to as adsorbed water or because of its immobility, as bound water. The amount of water held by adsorption depends on specific surfaces which in turn depend on particle size, shape, and gradation. A relatively fine well graded material will normally have much greater adsorption power. ‘Adsorbed water’ reduces the area available for free flow. In fine grained soils the pore passages may be small and the thickness of immobilized water films constitutes a significant part of the pore diameter. Adsorbed water may be removed by evaporation (oven drying of soil). 3.1.2.2 Capillary Water Capillary phenomenon is one which enables a dry soil to draw water to elevation above the water table. It also enables a draining soil to retain water above the atmospheric line. The movement and retention of water ‘above the ground water table is similar in many respects to the rise and retention of water in capillary tubes as demonstrated in Fig. 3.2(a). Water pressure varies linearly both below and above the water table as shown in Fig. 3.2(b). At level BB the water pressure is yh, Total pressure at level BB is y,h, + P, Where P, = the atmospheric pressure. The negative water pressure at level CC is - hry Hence the total pressure at level CC would be P, - hyy». Like adsorbed water, capillary water may be removed by oven drying. 3.1.2.2. Capillary Forces and Surface Tension In fine grainéd soils or in capillary tubes, water can rise to a certain height and remains there indefinitely. This forces which support the column of water is called capillary force.SOIL WATER 53, (a) Copiiiary rise (b) Stress in water in (e) Height of copiltory rise coplllary tube Fig. 3.2 Capillary rise of water in a tube of uniform bore In order to visualize the mechanics of capillary force, consider the rise of water in a capillary tube as shown in Fig. 3.3.a. At the base of the column of water having a capillary rise of h,, which has the same elevation as the free, water level outside, the hydrostatic Pressure is zero, The shearing stress around the cylindrical surface is also zero and yet the water is in equilbrium. This could only happen if the mechanical properties of the upper most layer of the column of water are different trom those of ordinary water. This upper layer called surface film or meniscus keeps the element from sinking and be visualized as a membrane from which water is hanging (ig. 3.3.b). The meniscus joins the wall of the tube at an angle a called the contact angle ~~ 7 The surface film is in a state of two dimensional tension parallel to its surface. This is the » the magnitude of which is 0.075cN/em at 20°C for water [30]. The tensile stress in the miniscus may be calculated by referring to Fig. 3.4. surface tension,54 SOIL MECHANICS SURFACE FILM Ts. hh. (MENISCUS) (b) HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE = 0 Fig 3.3 Mechanics of capillary force The total force developed along the perimeter is F=2nrT,cosa The capillary stress U would then “e 1 2nrT,cosa _ 2T,o: 7 cosa 2T,cosa a r The maximum capillary stress occurs when a = 0. 27, Hemet U yyy = - e1U jean From Fig. 3.4 (c), f = T_ COS @ WATER HANGING ON THE SURFACE FILM GB.) (3.4)SOM WATER 55 To establish a relation between the capillary stress and the radius of the miniscus, the value of r is substituted into Eq.(3.2). 2T,cosa 27, F,,008,, (3.5) (ay (b) (ed UNDER ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE -heaw Pa UNDER VACUUM. ce Fig 3.4 Rise of water in capillary tube 356 SOIL MECHANICS 3,1.2.2.2. Rise of Water in Capillary Tube of Uniform Internal Diameter ‘When a thin glass tube open at both ends is dipped into water, the water will rise in the tube toa certain height as shown in Fig. 3.3(c). The capillary rise can easily be related to the surface tension by considering the equilibrium of capillary column. Let the surface tension per unit perimeter = T, and contact angle & Force acting upward = 2zrT, cosa Force acting downward = hey. 77 + or equilibrium condition hh, ya? = 2arT,cosa ae je cucce (3.6) Ve For chemically clean water and clean tube, @ = 0. Hence Fe QT, nh, pad i: (G.7) rhe Where h, = height of capillary rise Asis evident from the above equation, the height of capillary rise increases as the diameter of tube decreases. It can be deduced from this that capillary is more pronounced in fine grained soils than in coarse grained soil 3 Capillary Movement of Water in a Column of Dry Sand € If the lower end of a column of dry sand contained in a vessel perforated at the bottom is immersed in water, the water rise in the same manner as in a capillary tube (Fig 3.4¢). The capillary rise in time,t, is given by the following equation:SOM WATER 57 G.8) Where k = coefficient of permeability As the capillary water fises, air becomes entrapped in the Pores and hence variations are included in both h, and k, From laboratory tests, Taylor found that for z/h, < 20%, the “ degree of saturation is relatively higher and the above equation is considered valid, Approximate formula for determining h, is also available [30] — c (3.9) Ls Dy C = empirical constant varying between 0.1 and 0.5 (cm?) & = void ratio Dy = effective diameter (cm) ‘Typical values of cupillary rise h, 10¢ different soil types are given in Table 3.1 * Table 3.1 Typical Values of Height of Capillary Rise [11] Soil type Height of Capillary Rise, h, em Coarse sand ettiee Sand Sel peeroeeeeee : Fine sand aS. 70 Silt 70 - 150 Clay > 1505g SOIL MECHANICS 3.2.2.4 Effect of Surface Tension on a Soil Mass ‘tall points where moisture menisci touch soil particles, surface tension forces act, causing a grain-to-grain pressure within the soil and contribute to the shear and stability of the soil mass. However, this induced strength is.only temporary in character and may be destroyed entirely upon Eull saturation of soil. Since complete saturation eliminates interface menisci, contact pressure reduces to zero. —y-E-2-s Factors Affecting: Capillary-Rise-in-Soils———— Positions of the Ground Water T: ‘As the position of the ground water table fluctuates so does the capillary rise. This causes saturation of surface soils or subgrades at certain periods. It is for this reason that it is necessary to install drainage systems to hold the water table to a certain minimum level. b) Evaporation Opportunity ‘There is a certain amount of vaporization of the water at the upper level of the capillary zone. Water removed by evaporation is replaced by upward flow. For given conditions the degree of saturation at certain level remains fairly constant. If evaporation is prevented (e.g. by sealing) saturation in the ground will gradually increase above the normal upper limit. Thus certain gravel roads which had given satisfactory service for years, start giving trouble when paved, because of weakening of the subgrade by saturation. ¢) Grain Size of the Soil Capillary is more pronounced in fine grained soils than in coarse grained soils. 3.1.2.3. Gravitational Water This differs from adsorbed and capillary water in that it is completely free to move through or drain from soil under the influence of gravity. ‘That is, the flow of gravitational water in soil is caused by the action of gravity which tends to pull the water downward to a lower elevation. In many respects it is similar to free flow of water in an open channel or conduit,SOM WATER 59 ‘The gravitational pull acts to overcome resistance to Movement or flow of the water. In soil Such resistance is duie to viscous drag along the side walls of the pore spaces In soils the nature of ground water flow may be either laminar or turbulent, For practical Pitposes, however, only laminar typeof flow is usually considered. Lamina flow is to exist when all particles of water move in parallel paths and the lines of flows are not inter-twined as the water moves forward. 3.1.2.3.1. Discharge Velocity and Seepage Velocity The discharge velocity is defined as the quantity of fluid that percolates through a unit of total area of the porous medium in a unit time, As flow can occur only through the pores, the velocity across any section must be thought in a Statistical sense (Fig. 3.5) If m is designated as the effective ratio of the area of Pores A, to the total area A, then A mak 3.10) A The flow quantity becomes: O=maz (3.11) where m¥_ is the discharge velocity and 7 is the seepage velocity. If A, (2) is designated as the area of pores at any elevation z (Fig.3.5), then m(@) = He fet60 SOIL MECHANICS Fig, 3.5 Section through porous medium ‘The average value of m in the entire cylinder would be, m= 1h ['m@)de 6.13) Multiplying the right hand side of the equation by A/A. a m=1/Ah [ "Am(2) de G.14) ¥, =UV{."A, (de =n G.15) _. where V = the total volume. f a. ‘The expression within the integral is the volume of voids, Hence the average value of m is the volume porosity n. ie, v,=n¥ (3.16) Hence, discharge velocity is equal to the porosity multiplied by seepage velocity. In Engineering work, we shall be mainly dealing with discharge velocity.SOIL WATER 61 Darcy’s Law For laminar flow condition, Darcy's law states’ that the rate of flow of ground water is proportional to gradient. Q = kia where Q = the discharge: passing through the total cross-sectional area of the soil, A, per unit time i = the hydraulic gradient k = Darcy's Coefficient of permeability which is usually called coefficient of permeability The driving force which causes water to flow may be represented by a quantity known as hydraulic gradient, i. This is defined as the drop in head divided by the distance in which hy -h. —— _. The drop in head or difference in head at two L the drop occurs (Fig. 3.6). points, generally referred to as lost head, Tepresents energy lost through viscous friction as the water flows around the soil particles and through the irregular void passages 3.1.2.3.3 Range of Validity of Darey’s Law The proportionality in Darcy's law is valid for laminar flow up to a certain critical gradient, i, , at which the discharge velocity is critical, v, (ig. 3.7),Peete 62. SOIL MECHANICS DISCHARGE VELOCITY (¥) HYDRAULIC GRADIENT(:) ¢r LAMINAR FLOW TURBULENT FLOW 1 VC YT Fig 3.7 Validty of Darcy’s Law Beyond point L, where i > i,, , the flow is turbulent. Jn the turbulent region the discharge velocity can be approximated by, veC\i (3.18) where C = coefficientSOIL WATER” 63 To determine the laminar range of flow one uses the Reynolds number, R, which is defined vas: R = ¥Pe G.19) where Vv = discharge velocity, cm/sec D = average of diameters of soil particles, em p= density of fluid, g /em', Hy = coefficient of viscosity, g-sec/em’ The critical value of Reynolds number at which the flow in the soil changes from laminar to turbulent flow has been found by various investigators to range between 1 and 12, However, it is sufficient to accept the validity of Darcy's law when Reynolds number is taken as equal or less than unity, Bd 2 sl Hy (3.20) Substituting the known value of p and y. for water into Eq.(3.19) and assuming a conservative velocity of 0.25em/see, one gets D = 0.4.mm which is representative of the average particle size of coarse sand. It can thus be concluded that in natural flow the equation of Darcy is valid. 3.2 PERMEABILITY 3.2.1 General Permeability is a soil property which indicates the ease with which water will flow through the soil (i.e. through the voids, or spaces between the soil grains). It denotes the capacity of soil to conduct or discharge water untler a given hydraulic gradient. The permeabilities of soils vary greatly. Coarse sands and gravels are highly pervious and have correspondingly high permeability coefficients. Such high permeability creates difficulties in deep excavation in sands because of the large inflow of water. Clays on the other hand are relatively impervious and hence have low permeability coefficient,A sO MECHANICS « building founded on clay soils results in slow consolidation settlement, because clays are , vtaively impermeable and hence a very ong time is needed for the water between soil pores io be squeezed out. permeability characteristics of soils are used in: 4) the corapiltation of seepage through earth dams and irrigation ditches. b) estimating of pumpage capacity requirments for dewatering excavation below a water table. ¢) the determination of the rate of settlement of a structure resting on a soil foundation. 3.2.2 Laboratory Measurement of Permeability ‘The various types of equipment used for determining coefficient of permeability of soils in the laboratories are called permeameters. The two main types commonly used are the constant head type and the variable head type. Water supply —— Porous plate Graduated cylinder Fig. 3.8 Constant head permeameterSOM WATER 5 3.2.2.1 Constant Head Permeameter The set up for constant head Permeameter is shown in Fig. 3.8. A constant heaq -Permeameter consists of a vertical cylinder containing the soil sample (disturbed o- time in which it ig ‘The coefficient of permeability is then determined using Darcy's Law, Q=kA G.21) B.22) The coefficient of Permeability, k, is conventionally reported at a standard temperature of 20°C. Tests carried out at different temperature should be corrected as follows [17]: Kg =k LE (3.23) Hao where kK. = coefficient of Permeability at test temperature Hr = coefficient of viscosity at test temperature T He, = coefficient of viscosity at 20°C The constant head permeability test is more suited for Coarse soils such as gravelly sand and Coarse and medium sand where the time required for Permeability is relatively short, 3.2.2.2 The Variable Head (Falling Head) Permeameter The arrangement of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 3.9. In the conduct of the test, the water * passing through the soil sample causes water in the standpipe to drop from h, to hy ina measured period of time. h is the head at any intermediate time, t. In any increment of time66 «(SOL MECHANICS at there is a decrease in head equal to dh. Let t, be the time required for the water level to fall from hy to h,. For a very small interval of time, the rate of fall is dh/dt. ‘The sate of flow = -a dh/dt (the negative sign indicates the fall of head with time). Where ais the cross sectional area of the stand pipe. Fig 3.9°Fallihg head permeameter Applying Darcy’s Law, ot =KA=k HLA (3.24)SOIL WATER — 6 Integrating between limits hy to hy, and ty to 3.25) One finally sets z ; (3.26) a Changing to common logarithm G.27) If the test is carried out at a different temperature’ from 20° C, a correction should be made according to Eq. (3.23). The above method is more suited for fine sands, silts and clays where the time required for permeability is elatively long. 3.2.2.3 Horizontal Permeability Test A basic sketch of a horizontal permeameter is presented in Fig. (3.10). The discharge, Q, head loss, h, temperature, T, the filteration length, L, and the cross-sectional arca Perpendicular to the horizontal direction of flow are determined. The coefficient of permeability, k,is then calculated as: vu 2._Q_ (3.28) Ai ACh/b) i If the test is carried out at a different temperature from 20° C, a correction should be made according to Eq. (3.23). The horizontal permeability is well suited for sandy soils.68 SOIL MECHANICS 1S INFLOW VERFLOW Fig 3.10 Horizontal permeameter 3.2.3 Sources of Errors in the Determination of Permeability Coefficients The main sources of error are: a) the formation of filter skin of fine material on the surface of the sample. b) the formation of air bubbles in the soil. . i The error in (a) may be reduced by measuring the loss of head between two points in the sample. The error in (b) may be removed by saturating the test sample completely. 3.2.4 Factors Affecting Permeability It can be shown that the coefficient of permeability may be expressed in a general form according to the following empirical equation [27].SOIL WATER 69 Ye & k=Di-* 2. (3.29) Sy dee where D, = average grain size te x properties of pore fluid n C= shape factor of the soil grains £— = void ratio effect lee Examining the above relationship, the influence of each parameter on the coefficient of permeability may be assessed. 3.2.5 Value of Cucfficient of Permeability A very useful table has. been compiled by Casagrande and Fadum [ 4 ] which is given in Table 3.2 s 3.2.6 Field Measurement of Permeability For soil condition where stratification is erratic, the laboratory methods of determining the coefficient of permeability do not give reliable results. A more appropriate test for such a case is the field permeability test. Field measurement of permeability is carried out by means _ of pumping test. In this test the water is pumped out from a test well. The Pumping of water causes a drawdown (sinking) of the water table. The charige in water table! is measured and from that the permeability can be calculated. The detailed outline of this operation is as indicated below. eee“SaNtTiquautied Jo yustoyJo09 Jo soneA Z"E 21qe,L [6] wnpos-3'y pup apuniBosog'y sayy *a3uINDaY 3ONgIY ~34X3_-318VU3OISNOD + a1aWITa¥"S1S31 NOI -VOIIOSNOD 40 SLinsaY NOG3SV@ NOILViNdNOD l [ ST3AVED ONY SGNYS SS3qNOISTHOD NV319 OL AINO 378 VIIIddV¥“NOILNEIY + 4SI0_321S NIVUD WOUd_NOILYLNaHOD aaui AUYSS393N SONS Siav| — 39NSIYIdKS THROISNOD “Jie VITaY AUIVd "UBLENVEWEd OVSH-ONITIVS | NVITaUNN HaLaWVSN = Mad GV3H-SNITIVS InDau ‘azunoau| | 430 HONW, 3ONIU3dX3 JTLLN | INOUYE L30 -378V173u “Ua13NVan ‘aUON Tuad QvRH-ONITIVE | O3uINDaY SON SNIMRdXS i ~aawindaw ! BONSIYAdX3 37 VU3GISNOD -G319NONOD AT Lied 1 -Y3d0Ud JI 3IGVITAY *S1S3L ONIdWNd~NOIL! |NOLYNINUGIIC I [-SOd WWNISINO SU NI OS 40 ONILSAL L93uI0 suid ONTEBHLVSM ; ] ONY NOIWL393A 40 $193333 | AB Q31dIDOW STIOS .SNOIAYIdHI., B \ 33 ' ONINSHLV3M | SLISOd3G AVI) GaII1u1S "TL i SadAL 40 3N0Z #0138 ‘WIDW19"AV1D ONY LS ONYS | 10S BD 'SMO3NIDOWOH JO S3UNLMW'SLUS SINVDUONT JZAVES ONY GNYS ' '2"S10S,,SNOAMAAWI,,| “ONY SINVOUO'SGNVS 3NLY AUBA, NV310 ‘SONVS NV319 | AVEO NV3T9. Ee SNOIRANT APIVOOVEd wood] 009 BovNived aera t T T T t T T 7 7 acca eerearaa: i 0b Ob ob ob 20 (31V9S 901) “93S Yad YP NI ALIIGV3NY3d 40 1N319129309 | are 70 ‘SOIL MECHANICSSOIL WATER 7. a) A test well having a perforated casing is sunk through the water bearing soil to an underlying impervious stratum as shown in Fig. 3.11 b) Observation wells are bored at various'radial distance from the test well. ©) . Initial elevations of the ground water table are recorded. 4) Pumping is started at the test well at a known uniform rate and continued until a steady state of flow into the well is achieved and the wate? table at the observation wells become constant. ©) The drop in elevation of the water table at the observation wells, and the rate of discharge from the test well provide the necessary data for computing the coefficient of permeability of the sgil within the zone of influence of the test well. Ferrero core +r, Tost walls | 7 Observation el Ground surface =~ veiie” \ Wei rs eer Drawdown [_Resius of intiuence- __| Fig. 3.11 Field permeability test72 SOIL MECHANICS ‘The flow towards the test well is considered to be radial. Area of soil through which water flows towards the test well = 2ath, Using Darcy’s Law, Q = kiA =k Ronrh : 6.30) Refering to Fig. 3.11, [0 B= 28k fh 3.31) nor QS aie amavE imtegrationgives;~—~———~ === - = --—— ~ Qlog,2! : a (3.32) n(h?-h) k can also be expressed in terms of influence radius and the radius of the test well R Qlog, * ee fe T) (3.33) n(H? -h3) Ifthe maximum drawdown Spa, is known, the coefficient of permeability may be expressed as a function S,. . Sax = H-ts (3.34) But Heh? = (HOF hg) (HS hy) = (HF 5) Sipe em (3.35). = z Noting that fis = H - Sys (HP -?) = (2H - Spus)Smax (3.36)SOIL WATER 73 Finally, & ogg ee 3 k x @H-5__Jie G.37) Approximate values of the radius of influence is given in Table 3,3, Table 3.3 Radius of Influence in Various Soils (14) eseeeeertttte . pe Soil “| Radius of Influence Description Particle Size R m Coarse gravel 1500 Medium gravel 500 - 1500 Fine gravel 400 - 500 Coarse sand 200 - 400 Medium sand 100 - 200 Fine sand 50 - 100 Very fine sand 10 - 50 Silty sand Seed wl 3.2.7 Permeability of Natural Deposits : . Natural deposits generally show stratification. In themselves different layers may be homogeneous. The coefficient of permeability to be used for flow through such a deposit depends on the direction of flow. : Derivation of permeability coefficient in stratified soil for horizontal and vertical flow is as shown below.74 SOIL MECHANICS 3.2.7.1. Flow Parallel to Bedding Plane Consider a stratified soil layer with thicknesses of Hj, Hy... H, and the corresponding permeability coefficient parallel to the bedding plane (x- direction) ka, ka... Kw The flow - through each layer is designated by qh, dz... Ge- A, 3.41) k,.i(H,+H,+... + H) = kai, +kiH, +... ~(B.42) Kaglhy + kygHy +k gy thy 6.43) H, +H, +H,..+H, The general equation may be written as; «, k= re, G.44) " DaSOM WATER 75 3.2.7.2 Flow Normal to Bedding Plane Taking the same cross section as before but changing the direction of flow to be normal to the bedding plane (v-direction), and using the principle of continuity of flow, the average coefficient of permeability k,, may be derived as follows. .45) (3.46) G47 | h (3.48) Q,2k,,2.A nie hy, neln GA > (3.49) Let the total head loss be h,. Then, fy = hy + hy + ths + hy, (3.50) From Eq. 3.46, 3.47, 3.48 and 3.4916 SOIL MECHANICS hy pee O° FH, +H,+H, QH, +H, + Hy. H,) hy= One may write, Ah, = 2 kA where H_ = total thickness k, = average coefficient of permeability Then, G51) 3.52) G53) @G.54) @.55) G.56) 6.57) 3.58) ~ G:59) 3.60)Som WaTER 77 ‘The general equation is éxpresed as, xr [2 G.61) 3.3. SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS 3.3.1 Differential Equation for Seepage All methods of estimating seepage are based on Darcy's Law and assume that the soil consists of relatively incompressible material.. In order to compute the rate of flow of water through such soils, it is necessary to determine the intensity and distribution of the neutral stress, Suppose it is desired to. compute the quantity of water that percolates from position (1) to position (2) for condition given in Fig. 3.12a. Consider cubic element from the soil mass Where seepage occurs. Since the flow system extends in three dimensions the actual velocities should be presented as indicated in Fig.3.12b. However, in many problems of ground water, the movement of the water is considered to be planar and for the problem at hand one considers two dimensional flow Gig. 3.132). Noting v, = component of discharge velocity in the x direction is a (hydraulic gradient in the x-direction) Y, = component of discharge velocity in the 2 direction 9 = =~ ~~ i = oh " es aaa i. atti m (hydraulic gradient in the z-direction) h ‘= hydraulic head at place occupied by the element under consideration. “The quantity of water that enters the element per unit of time is: v,dz.dy + v,.dx.dy .62)78 SOIL MECHANICS ‘The quantity that leaves is a vey ceed oy day + 5 ecedy 3.63) If the liquid is perfectly incompressible and volume of voids occupied by water is constant, the quantity of water that enters the element should be equal to the quantity that leaves. ov, ox Wdeay+ OY, di.de.dy+y,di-dy + deds.dy) 6.64) ~(v ,dz.dy +v, de.dy) =0 Pervious Layer Impervious Layer (a) Fig. 3.12 General consideration of seepageSOL WATER 79 From here dv, ee eg : (3.65) oxo From earlier discussions: vy 7h, h oe (3.66) ox v, = bi, =, 2b G.67) az If Eq. (3.66) and Eq. (3.67) are differentiated with respect to x and z, respectively, they attain the following; ay, ox (3.68) Oy, tap oz (3.69) oN Then Eq. (3.65) becomes: k— +k, 3.70 Ox? "az? oo Ifa homogeneous material is assumed, the coefficients of permeability in the x and 2, direction will then be the same. i.e.ky = ky = k. Then Eq. (3.70) will be: Aa, 2%]9 em . Ox? az? Eq. (3.71) may be formulated in a form that is familiar to engineers by letting @ = k.h LP ap Shs < Ox? x? Oe ae90 SOIL MECHANICS (a) i Piezometers Number of flow ‘Channel s TIE Equipotentiat NumberZot potential, ace lines Drops Impervious : (v) Fig. 3.13 Mathematical representation of seepageSon WATER Fo hh _ oy (.73) gt east az From Eq. (3.65), 2 74.4 - 6.74) Ox? az? Eq. (3.74) is Laplacian equation and governs the flow of incompressible fluid through Porous material for two dimensional flow condition. Graphically the equation can be Tepresented by two sets of curves that intersect at right angles known as flow net. The curves of one set are called flow lines, whereas the curves of the other set are known as equipotential lines. The flow line is the path which a particle of water follows in its course of seepage through a saturated soil mass. Along each flow line there is a point where the water has dissipated a certain portion of its potential. A line connecting all such points of equal head is the equipotemtial line. At all points along an equipotential line, water would rise in a piezometric tube to a certain elevation obeying the general rule of Bernoulli (Fig.3.13b). 3.3.2. Flow Nets 3.3.2.1 General A flow net is a pictorial representation of the paths taken by water in passing through the ground, dams etc. It greatly facilitates the study of gravitational flow and the computation of seepage quantities through ground, dams and levees. A flow net consists of flow lines and equipotential lines, which intersect each other at 90. degrees. (Fig.33744) . oo 81Fig. 3.14 Flow net of seepage beneath a concrete dam.SOIL WATER A flow line represents the path which a particle of water follows as it travels from point ‘0 point in a soil mass (Fig. 3.14a). Through a soil mass a large number of flow lines and equipotential lines may be drawn (Fig 3.14a). The space between two adjacent flow lines is called the flow path. The space between two adjacent equipotential line is known as an equipotential space and represents a definite increment or drop in head. 3.3.2.2. Methods for Constructing Flow Nets There are several methods for constructing the flow nets. The common methods are: }) Principal stress analogy. Curvés are obtained analytically or by means of photo-elastic observation on models. it) Electrical analogy (using electrical models). The equation is of the same form as that for the flow of an electric current through a conducting sheet of uniform thickness. The solution of this equation is represented by a set of orthogonal lines, one set being equipotential and the other flow lines. iti) Graphical and computation method. This could be either a) by relaxation method by using the principle of finite difference, or b) by sketching ie., trial and error. OF the above listed methods, sketching, being short and uncomplicated, is the most common method used for constructing flow nets, 3.3.3. Construction of flow nets Before a flow net can be drawn, the boundary lines of both the floy lines and equipotential lines must be established. Having done this, the following: points should be noted in the actual drawing of the flow nets. a) Flow lines must be drawn parallel to each other. They must be spaced in such a way that the quantity of water flowing in each flow path will, 83 be the same. It is adviseable to keep the number of flow lines drawn to’ a minimum,84 SOIL MECHANICS b) __Equipotential lines are drawn such that they cross the flow lines. at right-angles. It is a requirement of true flow net that the geometrical figures formed by the two family of curves must be essentially squares. In practical cases the figures cannot be true squares. However, they must _ have right angles at the corners and the two median dimensions of each 90° as in Fig. 3.18 (b), it drops vertically into the rockfill toe. The ratio of od a+ for various values of o from 30° to 180° is given in Fig. 3.19 To determine the discharge and outcrop point, for slope angle, a less than 30° , the method of Schaffernack/Casagrande is applied [14]. Referring to Fig. (3.20a), the discharge through any cross-section per unit time will be, Q-kAi =k. oka (3.91) Noting that at the outcrop of the seepage line z=h=asina (3.92) and & stana (3.92a) Eq. (3.91) may be expressed as Q=kasina. tana ( 3.93) between the limits x = 0 and x = acos a. = acos a and d (Fig. 3.20a ) becomes ha Co) 3.94)‘SOL WATER 93 Dischorge Face vu Top Flow Line N Basle Porobola Impervious Boundory =~ i (a) Basic Parabola ‘Top Flow Line Discharge Face Rock- Fill Toe impervious Boundary. (b) 3.18 Seepage line exit for sloping discharge limits94 SOIL MECHANICS The solution of Eq.(3.94) after simplification becomes =H -a?sin’a) (3.95) 2(d-acosa) 30° 60° 90° t20° 150° 10° Slope angle of discharge tace, in degrees Fig. 3.19 Relation between slope of discharge face and ratio b/a+b “By the principle of continuity of flow, the discharge quantities on both sides of the outcrop height, h, must be equal, i.e. Q=ka sina tana = From the above we get, @ sin? a - 2ad sina tan a + H? = 0 (3.97) The solution of this equation gives the length, a, which determines the outcrop point, S, of the seepage line at the down stream slope of the earth dam. (Fig.3.20a)SOW WATER 95 Fig. 3.20 Determination of the outcrop $ for a less than 30°96 SOIL MECHANICS (3.98) pased on this analytical approach, the outerop point S may be determined graphically according to the following procedure (Fig. 3.20b): a) < ‘Extend AB to intersect line OS extended at C. b) Draw a semi-circle with diameter OC. ©) Locate point G by drawing a line from B parallel to AO. d) ‘With center 0 and radius OG draw an arc cutting the semi-circle at J. _-¢}-——Using point C as center and CI as radius draw an are cutting CO at S which is the outcrop paint. ‘The proof of the graphical construction may be shown as follows [14] Noting that CIO = 90°; 0G = 01;C) = CS But (cor + (CIP = OCP (3.99) 0} = 0G = Zs (3.100) cs = & -a (3.101) oc = & (3.102) (3.103), (3.104)SOIL WATER 3.5 SEEPAGE THROUGH STRATIFIED SOILS Natural soil deposits generally show stratification resulting in larger permeability in the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction, or vice versa. When such situation exists, itis necessary to transfrom the scale of the cross-section ofthe soil mass before Starting to sketch a flow net. When k, > ky, the transformation is made by dividing the horizontal dimensions of the cross-section by Jk, where ee k, = the coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction and k, = the coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction, After the scale transformation has been completed, a flow net is drawn in the normal manner on the transformed section. The final flow net is obtained by retransforming the cross-section including the flow net back to its original scale through multiplication of each horizontal dimension by vk.Jk, . The flow lines and equipotential lines obtained by so doing will not intersect at right angles, nor will the figures be squares being elongated in thé horizontal direction. Fig. 3.21 (a) shows a square in transformed section. Considering the effective permeability as k' the discharge can be written as, Qk’ Aha.) =k’ ah (3.105) 1 In the transformed or restored section shown in Fig. 3.21(b), Ah is the same, but the horizontal length of the field will be a, oe 4 Vikn7 ky Fig. 3.21 Section transformation 97ae 98 SOIL MECHANICS /ijik,a, The effective pereambility in this section is k,. The discharge for the restored section can be expressed as, G1) =kyk, Oh 3.106) Equating the discharge from the two sections yields, e=\BE, Therefore, the effective pernieability is Jk,k,. . The seepage discharge in stratified section is given by, Q=/BR, waa 3.107) 3.6 EFFECT OF CORE-WALL ON SEEPAGE Consider seepage through an earth dam (or rock fill dam) shown in Fig. 3.22(a). A section through an earth dam shows that the dam is usually constructed from different materials divided into zones: The core of the dam or the central zone is usually made of impervious material (clay) while the rest is constructed with semi-pervious or pervious materials. In the course of seepage, water passes through sections of the dam with coefficients of permeabilities of k, and k, as shown in Fig. 3.22(b). Assuming that the soil in each zone is isotropic, the flow lines as well as the equipotenial lines deflect as shown in- Fig. 3.22(b). The flow lines CDE and FGH cross the interface at angles of approach and departure 0, and 6, respectively. The flow channel formed by these two flow lines has a-width-of Ab; in-zone-(1)-and-A,in-zone-(2).—From-Fig. 3:22(b); it is apparent that Ab, a Ab, (3.108) DG = (cos8, cos6, In addition to the flow lines, three equipotential lines are also indicated whose potentials are h, h+ah and h+2ah. The distances between the potential lines in both zones are 4S, and aS,. From the figure it is apparent that,SOIL WATER 99 ASA! sin6, sind, KG = (3.109) By dividing Eq. (3.108) by Eq. (3.109) the following relationship is obtained. Ab, Ab, 3 —tan8, = rane. * (3.110) eee eat § For the discharge Aq in the flow channel, Ah Ah Ag=Ab,.k,* = Ab, k,. 3.111 ae as,” ake AS, oo From which it follows that Bog = Ae 3.112) Asal ass If Eq. (3.112) is compared with Eq. (3.110) the following is obtained. sl ec B13) : “%, tand, From Eq. (3.112) it follows that if a square flow net (Ab, =4S,) is sketched in zone (1), rectangular flow net with a side ratio ky/ky will emerge on the Side of zone (2). If it is desired that all the flow nets in zone (1) and zone (2) be squares, then the relationship required between head drops would be: @.114) The above derived expressions are applicable for cases where the ratio between k, and k, should not be greater than 10. If the ratio is greater than 10, then the flow in the two zones may be considered to be indpendent from one another. If there are stratification in the dam and the same stratification ratio holds in both zones, then the same procedure may be used for unzoned sections,400 SOIL MECHANICS (a) Zoned Section of an Earth Dam Flow lines : (b) Flow and equipotentia! tines at the interface AB Fig. 3.22. Seepage through zoned sectionsSOW WATER 10} 3.7, FILTERS Near the downstream toe of an earth dam there is a continuous flow of water which at times develops a high hydraulic gradient. This high hydraulic gradient causes the finer "particles of the dam to be washed out and create a condition of failure. ‘ To prevent this erosion or piping, internal drainage systems are constructed at the toe of the dam from selected materials known as filters. ‘The drainage system is governed by the height of the dam, permeability of foundation, availability of porous material and the cost of construction, The drainage system must — be chosen in such a way that it carries away the anticipated flow with great margin of safety. Simple drainage system are shown in Fig. 3.23. DRAINAGE (FILTER) ~~ IMPERVIOUS & = 90° DRAINAGE (FILTER) IMPERVIOUS 90 > Or < 180 DRAINAGE (FILTER) Oy = 180° Fig. 3.23 Simple, drainage systems402. SOIL MECHANICS ‘The two principal requirements of the filter material for a satisfactory drainage system are that it must be more pervious than the protected soil so that water may percolate freely through and that it should be fine enough to stop the particles of the protected soil from passing through its voids. ‘Through experience and experimentation, Terzaghi gave the following design criteria for filter material [31]. a Eisen, (3.115) ee iy ggg pee G.116) D,,soil ‘The geometry of the filters affects the pattern of the flow nets as indicated in Fig. 3.24. 3.8 EFFECTIVE AND TOAL STRESSES IN SOILS 3.8.1 General If an element inside a loaded soil mass as found in a natural state is considered, the Stress imposed on the element will be partly transmitted to the intergranular contact points and partly to the water in the voids. Imagine a small element in a soil mass which is completely saturated (Fig. 3.25 a). Except for the infinitesimal areas of grain to grain contacts, the water pressure acts over _ the entire area. The water pressure in the pores is called the neutral stress. It has a magnitude Of +72 if static water condition prevails. It is important to note that neutral Pressures act on all sides of particles and do not cause particles to press against adjacent Particles. They do not have shearing components, The pressure in the integranular contact points is called the effective stress and has normal and shearing components. The sum of intergranular or effective and neutral stress is known as combined stress or total stress.et SOIL WATER 103 IMPERVIOUS SOIL Fig. 3.24 Flow nets for earth dams with different drainage systems104 SOIL MECHANICS 3.8.2. Derivation of Formulas “the stresses developed in the different constituents of a soil may be studied with a help ofa figure whick represents qualitatively a typical cross section through two soil grains in contact (Fig. 3.25b). The total area of the soil subjected to a load P is A. Contact areas of grain to grain, grain to liquid and grain to air are given as A,A, and A, respectively Let the stresses in solid, liquid and gaseous phases be 0, , 0, % respectively. Now considering the balance of forces in the vertical direction. P=0,4,+0,A,+9,Ag - G.17) Dividing both sides by A Fad-20,+Bo,+(-#-P)9, @.118) where o = total stress over the gross area A p= 4 and (1-a-B) =A a The parameter is related to the degree of saturation of the soil. By carrying out certain algebraic simplification the following equation is obtained o = a0, + (l-a)o, + (1-a-B) (a - o% ) (3.119) If the soil is completely saturated, then (1-a-8) = 0 (3.120) Equation (3.119) becomes ¢= a0, + (l- ao, G.121) Under the present condition of interest, the ratio « will be very small, so that the term (1 - a) approaches unity. However, o, is.very high and probably equal to the yield stress of the material at the surface. The product aa, does not become equal to zero but toa quantity which is called the effective stress in the soil skeletion, ‘o . It can thus be writen: o=c+0 (3.122)SOIL WATER 105 SOIL GRAIN CONTACT POINTS PORE (a) SOIL ELEMENT IN THE GROUND TOTAL LOAD.P GROSS AREA AREA OF FLUIO- SOLID — CONTACT nw AREA OF GAS-SOLID CONTACT (b) SOIL ELEMENT MAGNIFIED Fig, 3.25 Study of effective stress406 SOIL MECHANICS ‘The parameter o, may be written as oy = ut au 3.123) where u = steady-state pressure in the pore water au = isa transient pore water pressure excess over the steady-state pressure. cy 3.9 CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT Critical gradient, i,, is a gradient that is associated with heave or boiling of unrestrained Fig. 3.26. Water is percolating upawards through a sand of thickness L and cross-sectional area A. As the water emerges into the atmosphere at the top of the sand, the head loss through the sand is h. At the bottom plane of sand, the total downward force is equal to the saturated weight of the sand. From Eq. 2.19, The upward force at the same plane is the pressure of water under a head of (n+L) on an area A and this is equal toy, (h + L)A. If these two forces happen to be equal, the net downward force on the bottom plane will be nil and there will be no force preventing the outflow of sand from the container. For this condition to occur, G,+e) Ite 1yLA=1,(h+ LA G,+e) lve 1LA-y,LA=7,RA 4, Soh 124) Le ise tySOIL WATER Fig 3.26 Critical hydraulic gradient is the criti a hydraulic gradient. It is a gradient through the soil at which the effective pressures on a horizontal plane in the soil are reduced to zero, The sand-water mixture in this condition behaves as a liquid without a shear strength. ‘The soil behaves as though itis weightless and highly unstable. ‘The soil in this condition is described as Guick or quick sand. A solid of larger unit weight than the sand-water mixture placed on the surtice of sind will sink to the botiom of the container when the critical hydraulic gradient conditions are reached. If the gradient is slightly more than critical, @ mixture of sand and water will start flowing out of the container. 3.10 SEEPAGE FORCES Seepage forces exist in all cases of gravitational Now through soil, Seepage water flowing through soit exerts a force on the soil mass in the direction of flow. ‘This force is proportional to hydraulic gradient. Let b be the head dissipated in moving the water through an element of soil of length d and cross sectional arca A(Pig. 3.27a). The Seepage force exerts pressure in the direction of flow, whiich is equal to h teh. 107108 SOIL MECHANICS The volume of soil element is A.d. Then the seepage force/unit volume will be: hy,A Ad iv, (3.125) ‘Seepage force F Resultant body force (a) Vector Diagram Fig. 3.27 Seepage forcesSOW WATER 109 It will be seen from Eq.(3.125) that the seepage frorce has the dimension of unit weight. Consider a cylindrical element of length dé and area dA subjected to seepage in axial directions as shown in Fig. 3.27b The total weight of the cylinder W = dA dl.y,, where +, is the saturated unit weight Of the soil. The force of buoyancy, B = dA.dl .-y, and the seepage force F Sin dad The vector diagram for these forces is drawn in Fig. 3.27. The weight of the element is W and the buoyant force acts directly opposite to it. Therefore the net effective weight is the submerged weight =(W-B) The seepage force, F, acts along the axis of the cylinder. The resultant body force is obtained as a vector sum of (W-B) and F. Another approach to the problem involves the determination of the total neutral or water force, U. This is obtained as a vector sum of B and F. The combination of W.and U again gives the same resultant body force, R. 3.11 UPLIFT PRESSURE When free water is in contact with a structure, such as a bridge pier or a masonary dam, uplift pressures are exerted against the base of the structure. If the water is static the uplift pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure. If seepage water is flowing beneath the structure, the uplift pressure. at any point can be estimated from the appropriate. flow net. The total head at any point in flowing water is equal to the sum of the velocity head, the pressure head and the elevation head. In practically all cases of flow through soil, velocities are so small that velocity heads are negligible. Total head is, therefore, considered to equal to preassure head plus elevation head. Elevation head is the vertical distance of a point from a datum plane, which is usually chosen as_ the elevation of the tail water. The total head at any point on the base of a structure can be determined from the equipotential line that intersects the base at the-point. Then the difference between the total head and the elevation is the pressure head which may be multiplied by the unit weight of water to obtain the uplift pressure. .110 SOIL MECHANICS 3.12 EXAMPLES © 3.1 A cylinder of soil 15 cm in height exhibiting an effective ratio of the ‘area of pores that varies as cos ph , where z and h are as given in Fig. 3.1. Determine: a) the volume porosity of the soil sample by the-votume porosity if the-cytinder is 30 in height. SOLUTION b. The volume porosity is independent of the height. E. 3.2 A soil sample in a constant head permeameter is 4 cm in diameter and 15 cm long. Under a head of 20cm, the discharge was found to be 60cm? in 15 minutes. What is the permeability of the soil.SOM WATER 111 SOLUTION th kid =k LA e ic L=15cm h=20em 2 24cm? /min Azarts 2 4 k= GE. _ O15 _ 03. 30)10-2em/min or (39.82)10-4 cmjsec nA (20)12.56 E3.3 A soil sample in a variable head permeameter is 10 cm in diameter and 12cm high. The permeability of the sample is estimated to be 10 x 10% cm/sec. If it is desired that the head in the stand pipe should fall from 20cm to 10 cm in 4 minutes, determine the size of the standpipe which should be used. SOLUTION _2.3aL Ka log ohdhy KAt qo 2.3L log ghJh, nee i 10°M 10)10-(—— (10)10°%¢ 4 ) (4x60) “23x12 log,,20/10 ee112. SOIL MECHANICS 2 22 =2.268¢m The required size of the standpipe = 1.70cm E.3.4 A pumping test was made in a medium of sand and gravel to a depth of 15m where a bed of clay was encountered. The normal water level was at the surface, Observation-holes were located at distances of 3m and 7.5m from the pumping well. Ata discharge of 200 liters per minute from the pumping well, a steady-state was attained in about 24 hours. The drawdown at 3m was 1.7m. and at 7.5m was 0.4m, Compute the coefficient of permeability of the soil. K(k; - A) 4 7 bg, r,=7.5m hy = 15 -0.04 = 14,6 13m hy = 15 -1.7=13.3m. oe Qlog,— Tn (Ay -hj) (200) 1000087 58362.464 213.16 - 176.89 3.14(14.6°- 13.3) = 1609.1 Lem/min =26.82cm/secSOW WATER 113 E.3.5 A sand mass with a void ratio of e = 0.70 and G, = 2.66 is given. Determine: a) the critical hydraulic gradient b) the safe hydraulic gradient for the given flow system with a factor of safety = 3, SOLUTION pi = Set 266-1 lve 140.07 ii) The safe hydraulic gradient: =0.976 E.3.6 An excavation with a system of sheet piling as indicated in Fig. E 3.1 is given. Evaluate the possibility of quicksand conditions in the excavation. SOLUTION s From Darcy's Law, vokickt on” Se sop” 79-9928) 10"*em/sec 1 0.001- 114, SOIL MECHANICS hy eee =(9.9928) 10+ =? 22 = (3.5974) 107 em =0.36em A ‘The possibility of quick condition exists for the excavation. ¢ EXCAVATION he5Q0em COARSE, SAND Ks 1.0 emisee 8S LPS % AVERAGE SEEPAGE LENGTH IN THE FINE SAND L372 500 em FLOW OIRECTION Fig. E.3.1 Excavation problem E.3.7 For the soil profile given below, sketch the diagram showing the total, neutral and effective vertical stresses in the deposit.SOIL WATER “Lis CAPILLARY Rise 0.35 3 = 265 re IMPERVIOUS a- SOW PROFILE : 2(2K1.96) = 392 tim? ae (2008.6) = 38.2 kNym? | Woo [3.92 ](8)¢2.22) = 16.76 tm? 39.2 N/mm? 6 167.6 KN m 16.68 t/m2 166.8 N/m? | 2.68 tym? | | (i) total stress ¢ (1) neutral stress .u ettective stress & b- STRESS DISTRIBUTION Fig. E.3.2 Soil profile and stress distribution .116 SOIL MECHANICS SOLUTION e | Water ‘| en, e | Air 1 | Solids | Gy. 1) Solids | Gv. Saturated S=1 Dry S$ It shall be assumed that above the capillary rise, total dry condition exists. Below the capillary rise total-saturation exists. yng ote | =f 2-65-2035 ro lee 1.35 | (1) = 2.22¢/m3 or 22.2kNim3 Yay = = (1) = 1.9641? oF 19.6kN/m? Fee « we a The vertical pressure distribution is given in Fig. E.3.2b. E.3.8 A gravity dam and a wier shown in Fig. E.3.3 is given. Coefficient of permeability k = 0.0003 cm/sec and the length of the dam perpendicular to the direction of seepage 200m. Determine: ¢ & The total quantity of water that seeps out of the dam (Fig. E. 3.3a). b. The hydraulic uplift pressure distribution under the wier Fig. E.3.3b) c. The seepage force per unit volume at the toc of the wier and check the danger of piping . - Given, G, = 2.65 and ¢ = 0.72; Dormers my HPT Vf co = eae118 SOIL MECHANICS SOLUTION Using the procedure outlined earlier, the flow net under the dam is constructed. From the sketch ny = 10 and n, = 4 nm : ny <, "Seepage per metre = k.h,—* b. 4 = 0.000024 m?/sec = 0.0864 m? /hr Total Seepage = 00864 (200) = 1.728 m? /hr~ 1.73 m'/ar From the flow nets ,ny = 10 and ny = 3 The water pressure, in a still water, follows that Au=y,,.z However, when the water is moving , this law does not apply and the Pressure must be computed from flow charts. The total head h at a point is given by the equipotential line. If the elevation of that point is z then, the pressure head is h - z. The water pressure is u = y, (h-z). The pressure head at any point at the base of the dam can be calculated from the relation: Pressure head = total head - elevation head Point A: i Total head = = 0.55h = (0.55)(15) = 8.25m elevation head = -2m Pressure head = 8.25 -(-2).= 10.25m Uplift = (10.25) 10.0 = 102.5kN/m? Point B: Total head = = 0.30h = 0.30 (15) = 4.5m Elevation head “= -3.5m Pressure head = 4.5-(-3.5) = 8.0m Uplift = (8.00)(10.0) = 80.0kN/mSOiL WATER (119 Point C: Total head = 0.20 h =(0.20)(15) = 3.0m Elevation head Pressure head sm 3.0 (3.5) = 6.5m Uplift = (6.5)(10.0) = 65 kKN/m? Point D: Total head = 0.32h = (0.32)(15) = 4.8m Elevation head 2m Pressure head 4.80-(-2) = 6.80m. Uplift = (6.80)(10.0) = 68.0 kN/m? sates By subdividing the net, the uplift pressure curve for the whole wier could be plotted. (Fig. E.3.3c) Head drop in the last square = 0.10h = (0.10)(15) = 1.5m. Minimum length of seepage path = 3.5m . 1. i la u 2 BR 3 x aw 1.65 _ 2 = = = 0,96 +0.72 1.72 Since i< i, , no danger of piping, 3.13 EXERCISES 1 A. block of soil is 12 cm long and 6cm? in cross- section. ‘The water evel at one end of the block is 20cm above a fixed plane, and at ihe other end,it is 3cm above the same plane. The flow rate. if 2c.c in 1.5 minutes. Compute the soil permeability. 2 A sample of coarse sand, 20cm in height and 5 cm in diameter, is tested in constant head permeater. Water percolated through the soil under a hydrostatic head of 50 cm for a period of 8.0 sec. The discharged water is 450 cm? .120 sow MECHANICS test was conducted at a temperature of 40°C. a. What is the coefficient of permeability at test temtperature? b. If the test temperature is 30°. what would be the coefficient of permeability at 20°C? A falling-head permeater test was performed on a clay sample. The * diameter of the sample was 5.0 cm and its thickness, L, was 2.5em. At tube the start of the test, the water in the 1.5 mm inner diameter glas standpipe was at an elevation h,=35 cm. Six minutes later it dropped to 30cm. Compute the coefficient of permeability of the clay at 20°C, if the In order to determine the average permeability of a bed of sand 14 m thick overlying an impermeable atum, a well was sunk through the sand and a pumping test was carried out. After a certain interval, the discharge was 12.4 liters per second and drawdowns on observation wells at 16m and 33m from the pumping wells were found to be 1.787m and 1.495m respectively. If G.W.L. was originally 2.14m below ground level, find the permeability and an approximate value for the effective grain size. A horizontal stratified deposit consists of three layers each uniform in itself. The permeabilities of the layers are 8x10* cm/sec,50x10 “em/sec and 15x10“cm/sec and their thickness are 6m,3m and 18m respectively. Find the effecitve average permeability of the deposit in horizontal and vertical directions. A dam to be constructed on a sandy soil which has a coefficient of permeability of 14x10“cm/sec in horizontal direction and 4x10* cm/sec in vertical direction. ‘The dam is expected to impound water to a height of 10m. In drawing a flow net it is found that the number of flow channels is 5 and the corresponding number of equipotential drops is 14 Calculate the seepage loss per meter length of the dam, if water on downstream is Im. If the soil layer under the gravity dam shown in Fig.E.3.3 a has k, = 0.0005 cm/sec and k, = 0.0020 cm/sec,SOIL WATER 12) 2 determine the seepage in m*/day for 100 metre length of dam, b. estimate the total uplift under the dam. ¢. check the possibility of "boiting” at the toe of the dam. 4. suggest an appropriate filter if the soil has the following gradation Dinmm}2 1 105 |0.25]0.064 0.05 | 0.02 0.01 ]o.005 9,001 Pin% 1100/97] 94 | 90 | 75 70 | s0 35 [x 8 An earth dam similar to the one shown in Fig 3.23 has the following dimension;- Slope m = 1:20 water side, 1:25 dry side Crest = 6 meters Height of impounded water from the base = 10m Free board = 2m \ k = 0.003 cm/sec ‘ @ = 120° Height of outcrop from the base = 3m a. Construct the basic parabola and determine the phreatic line, b. Estimate the seepage in m’/day if the total length of the dam is 200m. If in Problem 7, k, = 0.0001 m/sec and ky = 0.0009 cm/sec, estimate the seepage in m’/day for the total length of dam. A sand deposit with e = 0.6, G, = 2:65, is 5 m deep and under it is a 4m deep clay layer with e = 1.10 and G, = 2.80. Draw the total, neutral and effective Stress distribution in the soil strata, if a. ground water is not present. b. ground water is at a depth of 4m from the round surface and the expected capillary rise is two meters, ae . ground water is at the surface. A foundation trentch is to be excavated in a clay stratum 6m thick underlain by sandy stratum. The water table is observed in a bore hole to be 1m below the Bround level. Find the depth to which the excavation ¢an proceed without the danger of blow. Take the specific gravity of clay particles to be 2.65 and the Water content of the clay soil in a saturated condition equal to 37%.4. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS 4.4 STRESS DUE TO SOIL WEIGHT ‘The vertical stress at any point in a soil formation with the horizontal surface due to only soilweight is a function of thickness and the unit weights of overlying materials. Ina _ level ‘mass of homogeneous soil having unit weight -y,the vertical stress at any depth, h, due to soil weight is given by o, = yh. If the soil consists of strata, each with different thickness and unit weights, then the vertical stress at any level is expressed by ow = 1h + yh; +. oa aie - - entical stress due to soil weights at depth h, +h, +.. ‘yvte = unit weights of overlying formation 1,2,.. hh, = thickness of overlying formations 1,2..... In making the above calculation, it is the effective (intergranular) stress which is of practical interest. This is especially true when calculations are made for settlement analysis. 4.2 STRESS DUE TO CONCENTRATED SURFACE LOADIN A load applied at the surface of soil mass induces stresses within the entire mass. These stresses decrease with increasing depth and distance from the loaded area. A knowledge of distribution of these stresses is essential for predicting the settlement of structures duc to compression of layers burried beneath the surface. For determining the stress distribution in soils, the soil medium is assumed to be an elastic half-space. The bases for determining stresses in the interior of an elastic half space is given by Boussinesq, where he considered the simplest form of loading- an isolated point load acting on the surface (Fig.4.1) lf €o, = the radial stress O7 = the vertical stress a = the tangential stress or horizontal circumferential stress 122Fig. 4.1 Stress im the interior of an elastic half-space and 7, = the shearing stress on the ra plane, their magnitudes are 3cos*y.sintye (1 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 123 ay) ig Pecos yr y calculated frona, (4.2) (4.4)| ie 124 SOM MECHANICS where 41 is the Poisson’s ratio and varies between 0 and 0.5, It will be noted that the vertical stress, 0,, and the shear stress, 7,, are both independent of x. The above equations may also be written in terms of r and z. (4.8) Relerence to the above equations shows that the stresses a. directly proportional to the load, P b. inversely proportional to the square of the depth, z ¢. proportional to a function of the angle or of the r/z ‘Therefore, any of the stresses given in the above equations may be written in the form (4.10) Sincg. the vertical stress, o,, is important in settlement calculation, either Eq.4.3 or Eq. 4.7 is considred. ‘This may be written as, (4.11) The value of i, for different = ratio are given in Table 4.1STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 125 Table 4.1 Coefficients for determining the vertical stress at depth z for point and line loads. POINT LOAD P LINE LOAD P £ x 2 0.00 | 0.47746 0.63662 0.62405 0.2 | 058860 0.3 | 0.53086 O4 47311 0-5 0.40865 0.27138 og | 0.34419 0.18001 07 0.29065 _| 013863 fea 1 0-8 0.23670, Nom” 0.9 | 0.19793 1.0 0.15916 0.06788 wt 3305 2 | 0.10683 0.08980 | a's 0.07266 | o.orsss | 0.06145 0.05134 1 13 14 15 16 | 0.01997 | 1.6 0.05023, Ww 18 1:3 2.0 13 0.0 17 Toor | 0.04282 0.03541 0.03046 0.02546 2.0 0.00854126 SOIL MECHANICS 4.3 STRESS DUE TO UNIFORM LINE LOADING The stress due to a line load applied at the surface is obtained by replacing P by dp and by do in equations 4.2 to 4.5 and integrating. By so doing the vertical stress due to a line Joad will have the following form (4.12) This equation may be written as (4.13) Where i, is Boussinesq's cofficients given in a tabular form (Table 4.1) 4.4 STRESS DUE TO UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED SURFACE LOAD Loads are never applicd at a point in actual structures. They are spread over a certain area On the basis of Boussinesq’s equation for point loads, there are two possible approaches for evaluation of stresses at different depths. The first approach which is relatively approximate involves the division of the loaded urea as shown in Fig. 4.2. into smaller areas so that no. dimension of such smaller areas is larger than 0.3 times the depth at which the stress intensity is to be evaluated, The total load ng on cach small area is then assumed to be concentrated at its center and the effect of all these concentrated loads is determined by Boussinesq's point load equation. ‘The total load on each small area equals to p.ab and acts at the center of the small area. po Fig. 4.2. Stress distribution by point load formutaa STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 127 The second appraoch consists of carrying double integration of Eq.4.2 to 4.4 both in the x “and y directions. ‘This gives the stress at a point which has been given in a tabular form by Steinbrenner (Table 4.2) and in a form of chart by Newmark ( Fig 4.3.). While the values given in a tabular form by Steinbrenner are valid for rectangular loaded areas, the influence chart given by Newmark can be used for both regular and irregular geomeitie shapes. Procedure sor using Steinbrenner's Table The table of Steinbrenner is used to calculate-the vertical stress at any depth z under a corner of a rectangular loaded area. ‘This table could also be used for determining. the vertical stress for any other point inside or outside the loaded area. In both cases, the rectangular area will be segmented so that the point under consideration form the comer of each segment (Table 4.2). ‘The coefficient i for each segment is then calculated. The summation of the coefficients for each segment gives the coefticient for the loaded area. Procedure for using Newmarks Chart (@) Draw the foundation on a tracing paper to such a scale that the depth x at which the stfess 0, is to be computed will be equal to distance AB of the chart. (b) Lay the tracing of the foundation over the chart in such away that the surface point N beneath which the stres g, to be computed coincides with the center of the chart. (c) Count the number of blocks covered by the foundation area (4) Multiply the number found by counting by the influence value of the chart and the distributed load P. The product thus obtained gives the value o, for that particular.point. That is, a,=Inp 1 = influence value of the chart = number of blocks P = distributed surface load.128 Soll MECHANICS Table 4.2 Coefficient for determining the vertical stress at a depth z under a corner point for a rectangular loaded area [26] (a) POINT INSIDE THE (b) POINT OUTSIDE THE {c) POINT OUTSIDE THE LOADED AREA LOADED AREA LOADED AREA corricient 1: £2 DEPTH a ebeenied WioTH ve Sees Lane ton ee £ Brio | Bers |Se20 0.25 0.2473 | 0.2482 | o-2483 | 0. 2484 | 0. 2485 | 0. 2486 | 0. 2485 0.50 0.2325 | 0.2378 } 0-239: | 0.7397 | 0.2398 | 0.2399 | 0.2399 0.75 0.2060 | 0.2162 | o-2217 | 0.2234 | 0.2239 | 0.2240 | 0.2240 1-00 0.1752 | 0.1936 | 0.1999 | 0.2034 | 0.2044 | 0.7046 | 0.2046 1-50 0.1210 | 0.1481 0.1561 | 0.1638 | “) or 1670 2.00., [40.0840 | 0.1071 | 0-1202 | 0.1316 {0.1374 | 0.1374 2.00 0.0447 | 0-0612 | 0-0737 | 0- 0860 09-0987 | 0 -0990 4.00 0.0270 | 0-0383 | 0-0475 | 0- 0604 0-0758 | 0-0764 6.00 0-027 | 0-085 | 0-0238 | 0- 0323 0-0506 | 0-0521 8-0 0.0073 | 0-0107 | 0-0140 | 0- 0195 +0367 | 0-039% 10-00 0-0043 | 0-0070 | 0-0092 | 0.0129 09-0279 | 0-0316 12. 00 0.0033 | 0- 0049 | 0-o065 | 0 0094 0-219 | 0 -0766 18 00 0.002 |0-0031 | 0- 0042 | 0: 0061 0-018 | 0-027 0-0015 | 0-0022 | 0-0029 | 0-043 | 00069 | 0-018 | 0.0177 0.0012 | 0-0018 | o-0024| 0- 0035 | 0- 0057 | 0: 0099 | 0-0159es STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 129 Circe ne | GE 7a, "2 Example Fig. 4.3. Influence chart for vertical pressure (Atter Newmark) Hin =2.54em130 SOIL MECHANICS 4.5 STRESS DUE TO NON-UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED SURFACE LOAD Independent attempts have been made by various authors to determine the stress under a given int, where the variation of the surface loading is not uniform. Such cases are presented in Fig, 4.4 to Fig 4.11 and Table 4.3 to Table 4.5. For detailed treatment of stress in soils refer to Teferra /Schultze (28). -( B-sin B) vies “gg ol : : -Po SIN 20 e tal Re BEER AT Xeq 2 fie Se Fig. 4.5 Stresses for a triangular load-right triangle [2]STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 13} Fig. 4.7 Stress for trapezoidal load {2] fees132 SOIL MECHANICS 4 Xa (EE BS (FE in yg 2 ° @ G 7 : a ? 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Pf BH CUED WE Nay t 7 zpp-u Fe ziqgo 9 i + 301s YaTYHS 24 38 SAVY GINOHS HLOUA HL 'HIOIM OL Hid30 NOHV13¥ 3HL NI | 134 SOIL MECHANICS135 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL Cer] 4 uatoyyoos aouanyuy pp age — 7 T Ty9c0-0° 2670-0" zeu0-0" creo 0821-0 T T 8600 -0' trio al giz0-0! 1920-0 2941-0 011-0! O-s $700 04,0400 0 0210-9 9910-0’ EyZ0-0 oBE0-0 490-0 490-0 gzzt-o @sel-0 o1e-0, o-% 7900-0 2400-0 %210°O 7L10°0 6520-0 6140-0, ssz0 $900 -0: €010-0. 4210-0 $720-0' 9s£0 -0. oss0 +0. 6z66- 9990-0 S80L-9 6idi-0 e01z-0 O-8 501-0 2051-3 teat -0 eyOZ-0 eezz-~o z/L trzb-0 S£91-0 EzEt-o z912-0 gsez-0 EL G10 +0 0910-0 0920-0 160-0 0870-0: 00L0-0 601-0 LOrs begi-o 6rte-0 a sf 4410 “0 87200 OLE0 0 B970°0 2190 0. Or80-OF EELI-O BESL-O EEGI-9 4:2 -0 BEL -0|9r02-0. OL/L : : i ® : i ot Po sf Sire OEUe Giedio een |es? Orley 3ais ta 2 a ze wz uz 2 ° a EPS) 2 PE A ow)» HE sy gzteeh-8 2-0 | tae ¢ 3015 BITS HL 3a SAVATY fates GQINOHS HIOIM IHL “HIGIM OL Hid30 NOILYT3M 3HL NIPea 136 SOIL MECHANICS abt cot 8 = TRE OF TORDING a Tai TRINGULAR poe 0 00 +0, 0000 60.3183 0.0000 0.75 10,0868 0.2128 20.125 0.50 20.115 20.1671 0.0908 0.75 20-1070 | 20-0967 400604 1,00 +0. 0908 +0-0683 40-0405 1-50 | 40-0604 20.0376 +0-0208 2.00 | «0.0637 | 0.0405 | +0. 0231 0.0123 a.oo | -o-0318 | +0,0208 | «0-010 +0 -0087 4.00 20.0187 | 40,0123 +0, 0064 40,0033 6.00 + 0+ 0086, ee 0087 t.00 | +0.0049 } -0.0033 10.06" | 30-0032 | +0. 0021 v.00 | +0-0022 | +0. 00% 15.00 60+ 0014 i 20.0011 18.00} +0. 0010 | 0.9007 20.00 + 0+ 0008 | +0..0005 ‘Table 4.5 Influence coefficients i,, and i,y for u = 0.5 [7]‘STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 137 4.6 STRESS DUE TO UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD BY APPROXIMATE METHOD & The stress distribution at successive depth beneath a footing due to distributed surface loa can be determined by approximate method or by what is known as the Sixty-Degree Approximation. ‘This method assumes that stress increment at successive depths beneath a footing is distributed uniformly over a finite area. ‘The finite area is defined by planes descending at a slope 2:1 (2 vertical and | horizontal) from the edges of the footing. ‘The planes descending from the edges of the fyoting area, A, , at each Gepth define the area, An over which the stress is uniformly distributed as shown in Eig. 4.12 Thus the stress increment at any depth is assumed to be equal to the total load P on the footing divided by the area A; defined by the planes. The 60” approximation is satisfactory for individual spread footings of relatively small area, Stress at depth z,0,= z 2 + For square footing, A, = ( B+Z)?~ For rectangular footing, A, = (B+Z)(1.4 Z) Fig. 4.13 shows the comporison of vertical stress computed on the basis of 60° - approximation with that determined using Boussinesq’s equation- 138 SOUL MECHANICS Fig. 4.12 approximate method for computing vertical stress _Boussinesa’s Method Approximate Method Fig. 4.13 Comparison of vertical stress distribution by Boussinesq and approximate methods,a STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 139 4.7 EXAMPLES E.4.1 Refer to the soil profile shown below. Find the effective pressure at depth 8m below the ground surface. SOLUTION At Elev. -3,00 oy = yh, ae YF a Bay = APH? (2.68) (10) = 16, 8akw/m? 0, = 16.84 (3) = $0.52kN/m? nO ere eee EEE Sond and Gravel G=2.65 Clay —— Elev. - 8.00 G=2.55 6m 00.95 Blew —t09 aa 140 SOIL MECHANICS At Elev.-5.00 y pene 1.651029 31 kN/m = 19. 42kN/m? At Eley.-8.00 Gaocieeeee( 2) oSaye(to)ie = S32 195. 2 (at aece Tos 7. 9SkN/m 9, = 7.95(3) = 23. 85kN/m? " Effective pressure at 8m below the ground surface: = 50.52 + 19.4223.85 = 93.79kN/m 0.00 | 2 -3.00 —+. 50.52 KN/m?_ So esan nee ere 50.52 419.42 = 69.94 KN/m?_ -8.00 69.94 +2385 = 9379 KN/ntSTRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 141 E.4.2. A concentrated load of 20KN acts on the surface of a homogeneous soil mass of large extent. Find the stress intensity at a depth of 10m (a) directly under the load. (b) at a horizontal distance of Sm. SOLUTION ee Stress at point A, is given by o_— 442. SOIL MECHANICS 222 (0.477) =0.0954kN/m? ateaoe 95 Aime : eee 20 He. Stress at point, 0,-— > 4, 0.5, i,=0.265 22 (9.265) =0.053KN/m? =53N/m? 102 nae E.4.3 A square footing 2m by 2m carries a uniformly distributed load of JKN/m?, Find the intensity of vertical pressure at a depth of 4m below the center of footing using (a) Boussinesq’s solution for distributed load. (b) the Approximate method (c) Steinbrenner method. SOLUTION. (a) Boussinesq’s Solution a_2 42.2220.5>0. 5>0.3 Point load equation is not applicable, hence divide the area into 4 equal parts having sides of | 1m each.STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 143 tue 4 =0.25<0.3 4 Point load equation is applicable. Load acting on each square = 1x1x300 = 300kN. ‘The load acts at the center of each square. ‘The distance from the point of action of the load to the center of footing is given by z= ¥(0.5)?+ (0.5)? =0.707 £0,707 | 4 For £ 20.177, Z #0.44 Stress at 4m depth due to one loaded square, Stress due to loaded square = 8.25 (4) = 33kN/m?144 SOIL MECHANICS (b) Approximate Method (i) 60° - method P=2(2)(300) = 1200kN [ae marh+s ae 1200 asa)? =33.33KN/m?*From Table 4.2, ie a, li)Steinbrenner Method wie b nis 1 tL tb, +l, 0.2704) = 0,108 Lp 0.108 (30U) — 32.4dkN/mé 1 = 0.0270 Determine 4A point {line} toad as shown in Fig 4 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 4s E421 is given a) the variation of the vertical stress along AB b) the variation of the vertical stress along CD SOLUTION a) Variation of the Vertical Stress along AB POINT LOAD ‘The variation of the vertical stress along AB (r = 0) for a point toad is given by: oO, o ATIAGr 146, SOIL, MECHANICS LINE LOAD ‘The variation of the vertical stress along AB (r = 0) for a line load is given by vbe _ ~The results are given in Table b) Variation of the Vertical Stress dlong CD POINT LOAD ‘The vertical stress distribution is given by ono LINE LOAD ‘The vertical stress distribution is given by 6 Taking an interval of Ty horizontal! . in Table E.4.2 ‘calculation”is compiled-——STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 7 Table E41 Vertical stress distribution along AB 7 Point Load Line, Load P = 1000 kN P= 200 kN z ze o.-0 oO, 0.8466 : a Wess reireieee m m Nii kN/mi 0 0 © & 0.50 0.25 s1910 255 | 1.00 1.00 478 127 Uso 2.25 ay 8s 2.00 4.00 118 ot 2.50 6.25 To >t 3.00) 9.00) 33 42 4.50 12.25 x0 x6 4.00 16,00 0) | 4) | ian |148 SOIL MECHANICS Table E.4.2 Vertical stress distribution along CD Point Load Line Load P=1000 p=200 = i oO; rio) |Z . le i; = Z ir ~ nm mf. - fe _.j. kN/n? kN/m? 0.00 0 0 0.47746 | 0.63662 119 64 1.00 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.274544 | 0.40865 69 ol 2.00 | 2.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.08442 0.15916 21 16. 3.00 1.50 ] 1.50 | 0.02556 | 0.06145 6 6 4.00 2.00 | 2.00 | 0.00854 0.02546 3 24 . STRESS DISTRIBUTION LN SOIL 149 Pe 004M (POINT LOAD) D+ 200eK/m (LINE LOAD) 2m <= — POINT Lon —— ume oxo Fig. 4.1 Vertical pressure distribution along AB and CD for point load and line load Sytamsaz) Fig. E.4.2 Vertical pressure distribution under P, and P,150 SOW MECHANICS £.4.5 A surface loading of 200 KN/m? covering an area of 32m? (Fig. E.4.2) is given. Determine the vertical stress distribution under Points P, and P; SOLUTION a) Vertical Stress Distribution under point P, In order to make P, form a comer point, one divides the area A B D E in two pasts. Namely, A P, FE and P, BD F. ; In order to use Table 4.2, one should first know a/b. In this particular case j a calculate only the coefficient for part AP, FE. The calculation is tabulated below in Table 13.4.3 and plotted in Fig. B.4.2 b ="4m, hence, a/b = 1. “Sinice the case is symmetrical one needs to Table E.4.3 Vertical pressure under point P, i z z 2b i 2A o, = 2.i.p m : | ; ; kN/m? 0.0 0.0 0.2500 0.5000 100 10 0.25 0.2473 0.4946 99 2.0 0.50 0.2325 0.4650 93 3.0 0.75 0.2060 0.4120 82 4.0 HEL OUteuaieaieer| Onl 79 2.ac | 0.3504 | 70 6.0 1.50 0.1210 0.2420 48b) STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 151 Vertical Stress Distribution under point P, Since P, lies outside the loaded area, one determines the coefficient by considering areas AP, CE and BP, CD. The calculation is shown in Table E.4.4 and the result plotted in Fig. Table E.4.4 Vertical pressure under point P, 2 Area AP, CE Area BP, CD a=9 a=4 b=4 bel i o, = pi afb =2.25 ab = 4.00 z 2 fi : iy D 3B m - - - - - N/a? 0 | 0.00 | 0.2500 0.00 0.2500 | 0.0000 0 1.0 0.25 | 0.2483 1.00 0.2039 | 0.0444 9 2.0 0.50 | 0.2392 2.00 0.1339 | 0.1053 21 3.0 0.75 | 0.2221 3.00 0.0910 | 0.1311 26 4.0 1.00 | 0.2008 4.00 0.0658 | 0.1350 21 6.0 150 | 0.1580 6.00 0.0377 | 0.1203 24152. SOIL MECHANICS 4.8 EXERCISES 1 Find the neutral and effective stresses at a depth of 15m below the ground surface for the following conditions. The water table is 3m below the ground surface. G, =2.65, e=0.7, average moisture content for soil above the water able = 5% 2 A point of 1500 KN acts on the surface of the ground. What is the intensity of vertical stress due to the load, at depths of 2, 4, 8, 10, metres directly ————~—--below-the load?. - - ~ 7 What is the intensity of the vertical stresses at the same depths at a horizontal distance of 5 metres from the line of action of the point load? 3 Repeat problems 2 with a line load of Soo KN/m. 4 A foundation 5x5 m. exerts a pressure of 150 KN/m? at the surface of a sand layer with unit weights of 17.5 kN/m? and 20.0 kN/m! when dry and saturated respectively. Below the sand layer, al a depth of Sm, is a clay seam that is 2m thick and has a unit weight of 16.8 kN/m when saturated. a. Show the variation of vertical stress under the center of the foundation as a function of depth. b. Show the variation of the effective stress in the soil as a function of depth. ‘The water table is at a depth of 3m. = Show the variation of the vertical stress at the center of the clay See Stratum _as_a function of the horizontal distance from the center. Jine of the footing. 5 If the earth dam of problem 3.7 has an average unit of 19.0 kN/m’, show the vertical stress variations along a horizontal plane x-x 1 metre below the dam.STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL 153 If structures A and B are erected on clay layer with an average bearing Pressure of 100kN/m? and 200 kN/m? respectively as shown below, calculate and plot the variation of the vertical stress distribution under P as a result of structures A and B,F 5, COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 51 COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOILS 5.1.1 General The compressibility of soil is indicated by its change in volume per unit of load increment. Any structure built on the ground causes increase of pressure on the underlying soil layers. ‘The soil layers being confined by thé surrounding soil strata adjust to the new pressure mainly through deformation. As noted in the earlier discussion, soil may be considered to be a skeleton of solid grains enclosing voids which may be filled with gas, liquid, or a combination of gas and liquid. The vertical compression of the soil mass under increased pressure is thus made up of the following components. a. A compression of solid matter, which under usual loadings accounts for very small compression. b. A compression of the pore fluid, which may be considerable where the pores contain air, but negligible when the pores are completely filled with water. c. Reduction of the pore space by expulsion of pore fluid, which forms the major component of the compression. A honey comb structure, or in general any structure with high porosity, is more compressible than a dense structure. A soil in remolded (disturbed) state may be much more compressible than the same soil in natural state. Soils show some elastic tendency to a very sinall degree. ‘That is, when the pressure on a soil is increased in all directions, the volume decreases. However, if the pressure is later decreased to its previous value some expansion will take place, but the expansion (or volume rebound) will not be so great as the preceeding compression, A study of compressibility of soil is necessary to be able to forecast the probable settlement of structures on different types of soils. 154Mi. COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOULS 155 5.1.2: Measurement of Compressibility As has been mentioned earlier, the interest of engineers in compression is mainly in relation with settlement. In this regard, the engineer is usually concerned with one-dimensional vertical Compression of soil under structure. Although there is generally little lateral displacement, the volume change is assumed to take place through change in thickness, To simulate field conditions in the laboratory, compression tests are conducted in ring-type amples cut from natural Compression device called consolidometer using undisturbed formation, Loap / COMPRESSION DIAL GauGE LOADING PLaTe -* METAL RING POROUS STONE Fig. 5.1 Consolidation apparatus The metal ring provides lateral confinement, Porous stones are fited at the top and bottom to allow the escape of air and water without the loss of fines during compres ion, To obtain a reasonably correct idea of the in-situ soil properties (soil in Us natural state), it is P Necessary to test undisturbed soil sample. Undisturbed soil samples are cut from natural formation and trimmed to fit exactly the testing device.156 SOIL MECHANICS ‘After placing the sample in the testing device, it is then subjected to loads in increments. Each increment is applied instantaneously and is maintained at constant value until compression ceases at which time the reading of the dial is noted. Observations of compression dial reading and time are made for each load increment. Compression of Jaterally confined specimen is measured in terms of change of thickness. However, the test result is presented graphically in the form of pressure versus void ratio curves. This essentially means that the change in thickness has to be converted to change in void ratio. The two conventions used in plotting the curves (i.e. ¢-p curves) are (a) the use of natural scale for both co-ordinates (b) plotting the void ratio on a natural scale and the applied pressure on a logarithmic scale. Each point on a pressure versus void ratio curve represents pressure due to applied load and void ratio of the specimen after an equilibrium under the load has been reached. In an actual experiment a curve of compression versus time is obtained for each increment. To accomplish this, compression dial reading has to be taken at a given time interval until compression ceases. For every load increment, there is one final void ratio, and from the whole series of loads, a curve between pressure and void ratio can be plotted. Knowing the specific gravity, G,, of the sample, and its initial height and diameter, the initial void ratio can be determined, if the dry weight of the sample is also known. Once this is done, the following relationship between change in void ratio and change in thickness is established to determine the final void ratio. Let V, be the total volume at the beginning of the test and V, the total volunie at the end of the test. Thefi aV = V, - V, Since change in volume, aV, is brought about by change in volume of voids only, the above relationship can be expressed as, aV = aV,=(V,),-(V,)2 where V, is the volume of voids. But V,=e V,EN COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 157 Hence, AV =(Vee, - Vse,)=Vs Ae 6.1) But v,=—4 Bee: 62) Where. . V, = total volume at the beginning of the test initial void ratio & = final void ratio Substiting Eq (5.2) into Eq (5.1), the following is obtained e Ae Aven Tee, Since no lateral strain is assumed, the change in volume is caused by the change in thickness. aV = (A) (sH)and V, = (A)(H). Then he Anen, OS 1 6.4) A. = cross sectional area initial thickness AH = change in thickness which can be determined from the final compression dial reading. The final void ratio, e,,can be obtained by subtracting A, from e,. For each load increment the above computation is repeated. 5.1.3 Void ratio-pressure Diagram The sample is first loaded to pressure intensity P, and then the load is completely released. This cycle of compression and expansion is shown by curve I (Fig.5.2). The sample is again reloaded. Curve II indicates recompression. A little beyond P,, it coincides with the extension of Curve I. ab is referred to as virgin compression curve, and be is referred to as expansion or rebound curve. cd shows the effect of re-loading. Fig. 5.3 shows void ratio versus pressure on a semi-logarithmic plot. The convex portion of the curve is known as recompression curve. It indicates that the sample has earlier been subjected to compression. In an e-log P curve, convex curvature indicates an earlier compression or precompression. OS)acero 158 SOIL MECHANICS Fig. 5.2 Typical e-p curve 5.1.4 Coefficient of Compressibility This represents the rate of change of void ratio with pressure. It is numerically equal to the slope of pressure void ratio curve on a natural scale (Fig.5.4a) =f orf (5.5) a, has a dimension inverse of pressure. As the e-log p curve is nota straight line, a, is not Constant but decreases with increasing pressure. At any point on the curve,the slope of the tangent with the horizontal gives the value of a, for that point.COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 159 19 20 40 60 80100 200 406 600 1000 p= KPa Fig. 5.3 Typical e-log p curve 5.1.5 Compression Index Compression index, C,, is numerically equal to the slope of the straight portion of the e-log P curve (Fig. 5.4b). Its value is constant beyond the range of the recompression, since beyond _ this point the plot of e against log P is a straight line. Noting that, (5.62) (5.6b) ‘There appears to be an approximate relationship between the liquid limit of a clay soil and the compression index. Skempton has demonstrated that this relationship can be expressed by the following empirical formula:160 SOIL MECHANICS Pressure , P Void Ratlo,e ° t \ 1 i - ' ' ' 2 i ' i hap i “4 i i ‘ Pressure (10g. scale ) Fig. 5.4 Determination of (2) coefficient of compressibility (b) compression index (©) swelling index (b) Void Ratio, 0 (a) Pressure (log scale) (ec | I |ie. ' COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 16} C, = 0.009 (w, - 10%) (5.7) ‘Where «, is expressed in per cent. Thus, a knowledge of the liquid limit alone may enable an approximate estimate of the settlement of a foundation on clay without carrying out expensive and time consuming consolidation test. ‘The compressibility of soil is indicated by the slope of compression diagram. The compressibility of any one soil type varies with density, history of previous loading, handling Prior to and during compression, and with the magnitude of tress increment relative to the existing loading at any point. The more dense a soil is initially the less compressible it will __| be. For remolded specimen of a given material there is not one compression diagram as Tepresented above, but a numerous number of diagrams, The position and slope of each diagram depends on the density of the remolded specimen as originally placed in the testing * device (Fig. 5.5). qe ial a .. --~ sang Nery compact sang, emo: Vold ratlo ,e Pressure ( log. scale ) Fig. 5.5 Effect of initial density on the slope of compression diagram for granular soil.162 SOIL MECHANICS changes in particle arrangement and soil density due to disturbances or remolding, as distinct from those caused by loading, affect the compression. diagram whethere they occur initially or during compression. Sand is particularly affected by shock or vibrations. Very compact sand Pressure (10g scale) Fig. 5.6 Effect of vibration on compression diagram of sand. As indicated in Fig. 5.6 an initially loose sand is compressed under static loading from void” ratio €) to void Tati in volume then occurs without change in loading (i.e.from e, to e;). Then, if vibrations cease and static loading is increased, compression will occur as shown by the flatter curve from e, toe. ;. While-under load-at ¢;; vibrations-are-applied. Significant-decrease Ifa clay sample is removed from a cycle of loading and unloading and is then completely remolded without change of water content, the diagram obtained for the following recompression will be affected. It is distinctly different from normal recompression diagram.COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 63 1.6 Swelling Index C, denotes the slope of an expansion or rebound curve of e-log P plot (Fig.5.4c). -Noting again that, e,-e, *” loge, -logP, (5.8) P, fea ede (5.9) 5.1.7 Modulus of Compressibility - or the void ratio, e, corresponding to the final dial If the relative settlement, s teading for each initial loading in the consolidation test, is plotted against the effective stress & , the compressibility curve is obtained. The shape of the curve depends on the soil type, the geological history and the rate of load increment 22 . The compressibility curve obtained 3 from the consolidation test is given in Fig. 5.7a ‘The curve may be expressed with sufficient accuracy by the following equation: do ene i oo =v (5) (5.10) s In order to make the exponent w dimensionless, it is advisable to make 3 also dimensionless by dividing it by a unit stress o,. Then Eq (5.10) becomes: 3 > 8 yg ye 7 ds! 1 s’ = relative settlement164. ,SOR, MECHANICS < EFFECTIVE MORAL STRESS T a evo" vor RATIO 1 ' . TerrecTive nomwac ‘STRESS, log & (a) LINEAR SCALE (b) SEMI-LOGARITHMIC SCALE Fig. 5.7 Compressibili: curves where G=effective normal stress (kN/m?) o,=unit stress (KN/m?) vand w = coefficients V has a unit of KN/m?. It depends on the void ratio, water (moisture) content and consistency Of the sample. It could have values ranging from 50 to 30000 kN/m?. w is dimensionless. It depends on the soil type. It could have values ranging from 0 to 1. ‘The tangent of the compressibility curve, which is a function of @ , gives the modulus of7 COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 165 compressibility B, (Fig. 5.7a) From Eq. (5.10) Lie ae 3 de vay” a ds!=2 (3) (5.12b) s/= 4) “a 7 (5.13) For the case w#1 te e| wane oS =w) . ooo : 1 oe Defining a => ad k = Lw Eq.(5.13) becomes; slxa(G)*+e (5.15) For the case w = 1 (5.16) : (3.17) Ifaplot s/ versusin @ is made, one obtains a straight line relationship for some cohesive soils. This would mean that the compressibility of the soil is described by Eq.(5.17). Other soils give straight line relationship when the results are plotted on a double log scale (Eq. 5.15). The parameters v, a and k give the value of E,.166 SOIL MECHANICS Instead of the reative settlement s’ ,one can use the void ratio e. It can be shown that in which sand Ae=e,-e are related to the corresponding loading and 4 Ja oete ¢, is the intial yéid ratio of the sample. Similar to Eq (5.10) the following equation may be written. (5.18) since s/=2e-&._®e ._¢_ (5.19) Ite, +e, +e, ds! 1 ide earees ieee CF a+ 82_ 2 = (5.22) Gal En" Tea, "7 Ge (LG) "Ee (148) From Eq.(5.10), Eq.(5.18) and Eq.(5.21) the following expression is obtained. cg oes v ive, (5.22) a ~_de a a, By definition a,= a and m, Ti » from Eq (5.17) Eq (5.20) il fee pee Da ee | (5.23a) a, 1+e, | (8.23b) Where a, = coefficient of compressibility ™, * coefficient of volume compressibilityCOMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 167 5.2 INFLUENCE OF TIME ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF STRAIN An additional characteristic of the void ratio-pressure relationship of soil, which is of great importance in the study of settlement of structures, is the influence of time upon the \ development of compressive strain. In steel and concrete, strains develop instantaneously with the application of stress. The strain in soil, however, develops over a period of time after an increment of consolidating pressure is applied. The main reason for this time lag is the fact that some of the water contained in the voids of foundation soil has to be squeezed out before the volume of the voids can decrease. The rate of outflow of the pore water depends on the permeability of the soil. : a In relatively coarse-grained soils, the pore water can escape rapidly and the time lag between the application of pressure and the development of strain is relatively small. A structure founded on such soil will usually attain its maximum settlement early, and very little further settlement will occur after the structure is completed. On the other hand, if a structure is : founded on a fine-grained clayey soil or if the stratum of such soil is present at some depth beneath, the outflow of water from the voids due to the pressure imposed by the strucutre will be very slow, due to relatively small coefficient of permeability. Therefore, the settlement of the strucutre will develop at a very slow rate and may require many years to be completed, ‘The length of time depends on the permeability of the soil, the thickness of the layer, and on the drainage possibility of pore water. Fig 5.8 shows the influence of time on the development of strain. As can been seen from the figure the major part of the compression in coarse-grained soil takes place almost instantaneously. This is because of high permeability of coarse-grained soils. These soils hardly ever present a long settlement problem under steady loads. In contrast to the coarse-grained soil, the fine-grained soil, as shown in Fig, 5.8, takes a considerable time for compression to take place under a given increment. of-load. As fine-grained soils are relatively impermeable, a long time is required for the expulsion of pore water. It is a well known fact that buildings founded above thick strata of clay undergo settlements that continue for a long period of time at steadily decreasing rates.ee 68 SOIL MECHANICS Consolidation %e © IMPERMEABLE FINE -GRAINED SOIL ) PERMEABLE COARSE -GRAINED SOIL g. 5.8 Time compression curve 3.3 CONSOLIDATION 5.3.1 General ‘nthe discussion of compressibility of soil, only the extent to which the various soils -ventually change in volume under a given loading were considered. That is, how much will igiven soil sample compress under a given loading. No mention has been made about the ‘ate of volume change or about thé factors which influence the rate of Volume change. These ‘actors are.important and are considered under this topic. Consolidation is a gradual process involving drainge, compression, and stress transfer. In seology, consolidation refers to the hardening of soil to a rocklike condition. In geotechnical ngineering, however, it refers to adjustment of soil to an applied loading. It may require ilong time for a soil formation to come to an equilibrium under load. During this time, it 's said in engineering that the soil is consolidating under the given load. | When an *quilibrium condition is reached, it is taken that the soil is fully consolidated. According theCOMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF Sos 169 engineering usage of the term, it simply means completion of adjustment to a particular loaq at which point the soil may stil! be relatively loose or soft, and in the geologist estimate syn) considered as uncolsolidated sediment, The rate at which the volume change or consolidation occurs is directly related to the Permeability of the soil, because the permeability controls the speed at which the Bore water can escape. If a saturated soil is quite pervious (e.g. clean sand),its consolidation under newly applied static load will be almost instantaneous, because pore water has no difficulty in escaping from the voids: However, if the saturated soil is clay with low permeability, its consolidation will be quite slow, because the pore water in the voids will take time to be squeezed out, 5.3.2 Mechanics of Consolidation The process of consolidation may be explained with the help of a piston and spring mechanical analogy as shown in Fig.5.9. The spring is immersed in a cylinder filled with water. Into the cylinder, a frictionless but a tightly fitting piston provided with a vent valve has been fitted. A vertical load (say 20N) is applied on the piston. As long as the vent valve remained closed, the 20N load is carried by the ‘water in the cylinder. When the vent valve is opened, water gushes out of the cylinder and the spring commences to compress. In this analogy, the spring represents the soil grains and the water represents the moisture in the soil. As observed in the analogy, the spring compresses as the load acting on it increases. This same phenomenon takes place in soils. With the iricrease of intergranular stress, the void ratio decreases and consequently compression (consolidation) takes place. Consider a pressure-versus-void ratio plot as shown in (Fig.5.10). Initially, ie., just before the application of an additional pressure, the sample may be assumed to be under conditions represented by point A, where the effective (intergranular) pressure is designated by and the Corresponding void ratio by e. The moment AZ is applied, the total pressure. acting on the sample as a whole becomes @, . However, like with the spring analogy, the void ratio will All be e, since the soil cannot compress instantaneously. 3, cannot be effective within the soilPee 1) SOIL MECHANICS < [on] 15N es | VALE VALVE _OPENE i NO LOAD CLOSED ve openeo | 0 | c ¢ RD CARRIED 20 20 15 10 5 ° BY WATER LAPSED TIME 0 ° ty ty ty ty : DAD CARRIEDE I BYSPRING 0 ° s 10 1s 20 ERCENT OMPRESSION . ° 25 50 75 100 Fig. 5.9 Mechanics of consolidation- Piston and spring analogy4 COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF soms nt Until the void ratio becomes e,. Hence, the pressure in the soil must stil be @, The exces, Pressure AG which would produce a strain represented by e, ~ €, cannot be effective at once and hence does not act on the soil grains immediately. VOID RATIO EFFECTIVE PRESSURE Fig. 5.10 Pressure versus void ratio plot 7 ; Ao is carried by the water in the voids of the soil. The stress existing in the soil water” Produced by the transient condition is designated as hydrostatic excess pressure and ie is represented by u. The initial value.of u is the maximum value and is equal to AG and "is designated by u;, This excess hydrostatic pressure would be zero when the void ratio.> becomes e,. Theoretically no more water is forced out when the pressure in the soil skeleton is ©, , and the sample is said to be consolidated under the stress 3G,r 172 SOIL MECHANICS if the entire sample were completely sealed, then Ao will be carried by the water and no consolidation takes place. If however, drainage is allowed from the top and bottom (say by placing porous stones at top and bottom), the water pressure at the surfaces would be zero, whereas at a short distance inside the sample the water pressure is still 0, - 0. The high gradient causes a rapid drainage of water from the pores near the surface. 5.3.3. General Outline of Terzaghi-Frochlich’s Theory of Consolidation The general outline of Terzaghi-Frochlich’s Theory of Consolidation is explained in reference to Fig. 5.11. Consider a clay layer 2H thick lying between two pervious sand layers and is subjected to a surface unit load equal to o. Under the influence of this load, the caly layer will begin to compress as the excess water from its pores is squeezed out towards the two pervious boundaries. If the clay is homogencous, excess pore water from the upper half of the layer will flow towards the upper sand layer, whereas the excess pore water from the lower half of the layer will flow toward the lower sand layer. Such an arrangement is called double drainage. At the instant the pressure, ¢,is applied (i.e. at time = t) itis entirely carried by the pore water, ie. o=u and o=0 A few instant later, water will start escaping into the sand, so that u at both pervious boundaries will equal to zero. At any time o=u+o . As time goes by, the variation of hydrostatic excess pressure, u, over the depth will successively be“indicated-by the curves ‘ty;tz, as"shown in Fig-S-1.-After-time (t = ©) consetidation will be complete and excess pore pressure will equal zero. (u=0; 0-5) At any time, the area between the curve pertaining to that time and the initial hydrostatic excess pressure diagram gives the load transferred to the soil grains upto that time . For the time interval t,, this area has been shown shaded in the figure. The ratio of this to the area of the initial hydrostatic excess pressure diagram ABCD gives the degree of consolidation at that time and is expressed as a percentage.COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 173 SAND geen tA T T Fae z 4 ey Tee a, cn | | : } j cay : 4 (3 fen Tad : | SAND Fig. 5.11 Progress of consolidation Progress of consolidation process at a given point in the soil is indicated by U, (5.24) where U, = per cent consolidation at a point u, = initial hydrostatic excess pressure u_ = hydrostatic excess pressure at time t. The average per cent condolidation of the entire layer at any timevo 174 SOIL MECHANICS is numerically equal to the percentage change in thickness or settlement. Then, to estimate ee rate of settlement, it is necessary to establish the variation of U with time, Before delving into the mathematical derivation of Terzaghi-Froehlich Theory of consolidation, the following points need to be understood [29]. a) b) Case I shows sinusoidal variation, The insertion of u, in Eq. (5.45) gives the consolidation curve having the following variation 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 0.207 | 0.281 0.371 | 0.488 | 0.652 | 0.933 ©) Case III is a combination of I and II...The consolidation curve obtained for this case is. not different from case I. In conclusion one would say that the case of constant hydrostatic excess pressure u; Tepresentation of typical cases in practice. u, is an adequate 5.3.5 Consolidation Test 5.3.5.1 General Description of Test Procedure As described in 5.12 a small representative sample of tndistrubed soil is carefully trimmed and fitted into the rigid metal ring. ‘The soil sainple is mounted on a porous stone base, and a similar stone is placed on top to permit water which is squeezed out of the sample to escape freely at the top and bottom. Prior to louding, the height of the sample should be accurately measured. Also, a micrometer dial is mounted in such a manner that the vertical strain in the sample can be measured as loads are applied (Fig. 5.1). The consolidation-test apparatus is designed to permit the sample to be submerged in water during the test to simulate the position below a water table of the prototype soil sample from which the test sample was taken. Also, the apparatus may be fitted with a vestical glass tube which is connected with the base and serves as a stand-pipe of falling head permeameter. A petcock is provided between the stand-pipe and the base. The Procedure of conducting a consolidation test is as follows. With no load on the sample and with the petcock to the permeameter stand-pipe closed, record the zero load reading of the compression strain dial. Then apply a suitable increment of load, say 25kPa, to the sample and read the compression dial at various intervals of time.182 SOIL MECHANICS * Readings should be taken frequently at first but may be less frequent as compression under the load increment progresses. When movement of the vertical dial indicates that the sample has virtually reached its maximum compression under the applied load, another increment of Joad is applied to the sample, and the time-rate of strain under this new increment is observed. This cycle of loading and measuring the time rate of strain is repeated until the {otal applied ledid exceeds that to which the prototype soil will be subjected by a proposed structure, "§.3.5.2 Determination of c, Two methods are available for evaluating c, from consolidometer test data. The first called the square root of time fitting method is due to Taylor and the second called the logarithm of time fitting method is due to Casagrande. The two methods are based on the comparison of laboratory and the theoretical time curves. Since the natural scale does not not offer the best representation of time, the square root and the logarithm of time are used. 5.3.5.2.1 The Square Root of Time Fitting Method It has been observed that up to U = 60% the relation between T and U can be expressed as, ry (5.472) Then, i HES pe SS gy ie Hence, the plot of U against 7 would be straight line up to U = 60%. This theoretical curve is shown in Fig. 5.15.Compression Dict Reading COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 33 Degree of consolidation U % [ Lenoratory curve) Fig. 5.15 The square root of time fitting method ALU = 90%, T = 0.848 (form earlier tabulation) If the straight portion of the curve is extended, it will meet the 90% U line at184 SOIL MECHANICS this property of the theoretical curve is utilized to determine a point of 90% consolidation ‘on the laboratory time curve. The straight portion of laboratory curve (compression dial readings against square root of time) is extended backward to cut the yf=0 lineatd,. The point where the straight line cuts the yi=0 line is called the corrected zero point. A straight line is drawn as shown in Fig. §.15 from the "corrected zero point" such that its abscissa everywhere is 1.15 times the abscissa of the straight portion of the laboratory curve. ‘The point where this meets the laboratory curve gives the point of 90% consolidation. The time corresponding to this point is designated by toy (6.48) T= time factor corresponding t0 90% consolidation which is equal to 0.848 ty. = time elapsed corresponding to 90% consolidation as read from the Taboratory curve. H =(H at beginning of increment + H at end of increment)/2 _ 0.84877 6.495 1 ¢ 90 nce between the initial dial The total compression in a loading increment is equal to the diffe reading d, and the one-day dial reading d, i.e dy-d. This consists of three parts, namely: a) _ the initial compression, (d, -<,), due to the presence of air in the pores. b) the primary compression, (d, - dia, Which corresponds to the theoretical compression curve, which is due to the expulsion of pore water. c) the secondary compression, (dw - «), which is a slow additional plastic deformation of the soil not related to the escape of pore water. In general the ratio between primary and total compression is called the primary compression ratio and-is designated-by-r—In-relation-to-the-Faboratory-eurve,- i wowld-be—— ol bo ddd (5.50) 9 d,-d,COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 185 5.3.5.2.2. The Logarithm of Time Filting Method ‘The intersection of the tangent at point of reversal of curvature and the asymptote to the theoretical consolidation curve is at the ordinate 100% primary consolidation. designated by diy. 1 Compression Dial Reoding 50 1 In minutes (109 scale) Fig. 5.16 The logarithm of time fitting method.186 So MECHANICS Jo find the 100% primary compression point on the laboratory curve, the above fact is utilized. To find the corrected zero pont, d,, use is made of the fact that the first portion of the curve is parabolic. Two time intervals, t, and t,, are taken such that t, is equal to 4t,. ‘The difference in ordinates between the two points is marked off as shown in Fig-5.16. A distance equal to this difference is stepped off above the upper point to obtain the corrected zero point. This'corrected point is checked by retrials by using different points on the curve. Having established the zero and 100% primary compression points, the 50% point and its time can easily be determined. The coefficient of consolidation can be computed from the — following — cyt, Ty = 2 (5.51) 0.196? t, S (5.52) d,-d, ree (5.53) dd, ‘i 5.4 SETTLEMENT OF STRUCTURES 5.4.1 General Almost all the structures which engineers build rest on soil and as such cause the soil to undergo compressive strains resulting in the settlement of structures. To understand the settlement behavi May occur during its life, it is necessary to study the stress-strain characteristic of the foundation s6il. Settlement is not necessarily an adverse characteristic of a structure, provided it is uniform ‘and-is not excessive. However, if settlements are unequal serious consequences may result,COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 187 Unequal settlement may cause the floor and the wall of a building to crack badly, door and window frames to bend. This results in an increase in maintenance. cost and rapid deterioration in the value of the building. In extreme case, it may cause the structure to be condemend. If the structure is a tall smokestack, monument etc, unequal settlements Of the foundation may cause the structure to lean in unsightly manner. In an extreme case, it may lean far enough to become dangerously unstable . Settlement of a structure resting on soil may be caused by shear failure of the foundation soit and compressive strain of the foundation soil. Shear failure happens when the load imposed Causes shear stresses to develop within the soil mass which are greater than the shearing— Strength of the foundation soil: When this occurs, the soil fails by sliding downward and laterally, and the structure settles and perhaps tips out of vertical alignment. Settlement may also result when the load imposed on foundation soil by a structure causes compressive stress accompanied by strain. ‘This strain is a normal phenomenon and should not be regarded as a failure of soil. 5.4.2 Settlement Analysis In general, the settlement of structures may consist of one or any combination of the following three types of settlements. a) Immediate or Elastic Setilement b) Consolidation or Primary Settlement ©) Creep or Secondary Suitlement Immediate or elastic settlement is caused by the elastic behaviour of the. soil-mass,. This settlement may be calculated by using the clastic parameter of the soil (Pgisson’s ratio, modulus of elasticity) and the rigidity and geometric shape of the foundation structure. - Consolidation settlement is the result of the process of consolidation as already discussed earlier and is calculated using the theoty of consolidation. Creep or secondary settlement is a time dependent settlement which is a result of plastic deformation of the soil. While the above two settlements attain finite values for given stress level, the secondary settlement does not.188 SOIL MECHANICS ‘The secondary settlement for a given time span may be estimated from consolidation test results. Depending upon the type of soil and duration of loading, the relative magnitude of each component varies. In non-cohesive soils, for example, it is the immediate settlement that prevails. Whilé secondary settlement dominates in highly organic clays, consolidation settlement takes place mainly in inorganic clays. The three different components may be identified in a time-settlement curve of a consolidation test on clays (Fig. 5.17). ———within-the-frame work of-this book, it is intended to.limit the discussion on settlements only for the case of consolidation or primary settlement, since it is this settlement that is of primary importance for normally consolidated and pro-compressed inorganic clays. Since the geological history affects the settlement of the soil, it is legitimate at this stage to discuss this case. Basically, soils in situ may have experienced one of the three conditions in their geological history (Fig: 5.18). If the soil has been precompressed, the compressibility curves s* versus log @ will not be straight line. ‘The curve manifests some kind of curvature. The equations derived from the straight line relationships cannot be used for the whole of the compressibility curve. It is, therefore, necessary to determine the value of the precompression pressure, o, ,from the consolidation test. There are various methods for determining 5, . ‘The two common methods are given in Fig. 5.19. Soil subjected to stress conditions h little settlement. ving values less than the precompression pressure show189 *18a1 UONEPIOSUOD-B.JO DAIND JUDWII NES OUNL LIS “Sty “a 25 awanauias Awvanooas ® mt TL TROT 8 LOMaTuaS BALAN 5|® ons Is ananauuias auvmua @) NI Holvaas {s Amamaniize aiviaanme any 193443 omaa3e ()) COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS 117%) UI ty Sop O1#A WOLLWGNIOENOD % O01 “TWOUSWORME ANBNI1L138 Aung + itotg { rm) 3 ! Cy a WIL a Ow 12% >190 SOIL MECHANICS aidures j105 B Jo Asoysty TeoIZojOAH gi's “Bld G3LVOIIOSNOD ATIWiLHWE 0 t> aye Casa AD ae Rg sal NOLLVANOSNOD dos Swans p> 9 TWNIDHO 9 IN3Saud | | | oP cee meet on x G3SS3udMOD Bud 2

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