CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

A. Writing

1. Definition of Writing Skill

Writing is one of the language skills which is important in our life. Through

writing, we can inform others, carry out transactions, persuade, infuriate, and tell

what we feel. However, we know that writing or learning to write especially in a

second language is not simply a matter of “writing things down”. It is one of the four

basic skills that are very complex and difficult to learn.

In Wordreference (2010), Writing is one of the ways to give an idea or

message which is form in writing on a piece of paper or the other area. It is an act of

making marks on certain surface. Specifically, writing is one kind of expression in

language which is created by particular set of symbol, having conventional values for

representing the wordings of particular language which is drawn up visually.

Jim A.P (2010:2: Writing skill in second language), explains that writing skill

is complex and difficult to learn. Requiring mastery is not only grammatical patterns

but also the rule of writing such as high degree of organization in the development of

ideas and information and also choosing the appropriate vocabularies and sentence

structure to create a style which is appropriate to subject matter.

Therefore the write conclude that Writing is making a hand writing where the one

who write gives a form for everything what he or she thinks and whatever he or she feels. A

writer has to be able in using written language to give an idea or message.

 According to Heaton (1975:138), there are four skills necessary for writing.

They are:

a. Grammatical skill : The ability to write correct sentences.

b. Stylistic skill : The ability to manipulate sentence and use language

effectively.

c. Mechanical skill : The ability to use correctly those conversations peculiar to

the written language e.g. punctuation, and spelling

d. Judgment skill : The ability to write in an appropriate manner for a

particular purpose with on ability to select, organize and

relevant information.

2. The Process of Writing

Writing process is a process which writer begins to write down their ideas on

paper which is valuable aid to the whole learning process. According to Wohl

(1985: 2) in almost all kinds of writing the basic structural unit is the paragraph…the

paragraph is basic to all good writing.

Moreover, Wohl (1985: 3) said that there are 3 writing processes:

1. Finding the Topic Sentence

Usually some students find difficulties in recognizing the topic sentence of

paragraph. The topic sentence is usually taken from several things such as: an

experience and from the book. According to Wohl (1985: 9) a good topic
 sentence narrows the focus and points to one particular aspect of the over theme.

The topic sentence usually represents the most general statement of the

paragraph.

The topic sentence occurs most frequently at the beginning of a paragraph.

When the topic sentence does occur at the end, it serves to summarize the

preceding sentence and to conclude the paragraph.

2. Developing Paragraph from Topic Sentence

Some students can write a paragraph without following any formal steps

or using formal techniques such as a topic sentence. Here are some steps to

develop a paragraph according to Wohl (1985:13) :

a. Choose a general topic of interest to you.

b. Narrow down the topic. Select one aspect of the topic and decide what your

main point is.

c. Write down the few facts, believe or opinion that are directly related to your

topic sentence details that will help to support or explain it.

d. Take a second look at your tentative topic sentence.

e. Using the fact and ideas from step three, develop the topic sentence into a full

paragraph. This is your final draft.

f. Think about unity as you read what you have written. Revise as necessary

and then write your final draft.

3. Editing the Finish Product

The final step in completing a piece of writing is editing. Editing is the

checking of one’s written work for various faults in making last-minutes changes
 and correction (Wohl, 1985: 14). Students of English as second language must

check their writing for basic grammatical errors. Basic grammatical errors

include the improper use of tense and aspect agreement articles, word order and

other small but important details.

1. The Students’ Difficulties in Writing

Learning to write in second language is not easy for students. They face some

difficulties, such as (1) how to start writing, (2) how to generate ideas, (3) how to

produce unified paragraphs, (4) how to organize ideas logically, (5) how to make

grammatical sentences, (6) how to beef up students' low motivation in learning

English.

According to Nurgiantoro (2001:298-299) there are some problems which are

faced by students in learning writing. They are:

a. Organizing idea

b. Lack of vocabulary

c. Grammar accuracy

From the problems above, the writer concludes that the students can learn

writing easier if they can organize their idea, mastery of vocabulary, and also

mastery of grammar.

According to Heaton (1979: 138) the writing skill in a foreign language

are complex and difficult to learn not only the ability to use structures but also

conceptual of varied skills such as stylistic and mechanical skill. Stylistic skill is
 the ability to manipulate sentences and use language effectively whereas

mechanical skill is the ability to use correctly those conventions peculiar to the

written language such as punctuation and spelling.

Lado (1961: 248) states the ability to write a worthwhile composition is

not possessed by all the speakers of a language: the ability to write creatively

requires talent special talent and special writing. Writing a foreign language is the

ability to use the language and graphic representation productively in ordinary

situation. It means that writing is one of language skills, another author says: “It

can be used as a means of communication to convey massages by using written

language or symbols. It is able to function as a system of symbols and writing is a

representation or symbols of a language” (Ramelan, 1992: 14).

2. Narrative Writing

Narrative writing tells a story. Creative writing has a plot, a setting

(where and when the story happens), and characters who have motives (respons)

for what they do. Good narrativewriting is more than a list of random events. It

has tension a problem to be solved of a challenge to be overcome. There is a

point to the story.

According to Kahnudin Kurniawan (2003:7-8), there are four kinds of

writing, they are Narration, description, Expisition, and Argumentation. When

we tell a story or relating events in a story, we are to write narration.

3. The 5 Step of Writing Process

On this page you will learn about the 5 steps to writing a good story. It

will show students how to pre writing, write, rivise, proofread, and publishing.
 In SMA N 4 Purwokerto, the writer give some way to order students in

making narrative writing with retell a story which prepare by the teacher. The

POWERS can help students in make their idea. Content of POWER are:

a. P- Prepare

The first the students read the text and Figure out what students are going to

write about, brain storm, doodle, and figre out a climax or high point of the

story.

b. O- Organize

Get all students thoughts organized and put in order they could put the pages

where students written down their thoughts in a binder or stample them in

order.

c. W- Write

Write students first copy or rough draft. The first write up of the story should

put all your thoughts together in paragraph form. Just write.

d. E- Edit

Look over students’ paper and check punctuation, spelling, grammar, etc.

Also have friend look over it. And check it.

e. R- Rewrite

After students done editing, rewrite their story. This is the final copy so make

it nice and pretty.

f. S- Share
 Share students’ story with someone and see how they like it.

4. Assessment

Much of the assessment for these activities will be done informally in the

classroom. Students will be highly involved with self-assessment as they

complete the activities above. The questioning process than they engage in with

their partner will provide them with information about the effectiveness of their

communication.

Burhan Nugriantoro’s writing Scoring System

No. Aspects Score Indicators Criteria

1. Content 4 Complete information, substantive, Very Good

complete in developing writing,

relevant with the problem.

3 Enough information, less substantive, Good

not develops writing problem.

2 Limited information, there is not Fair

substantive, not enough in developing

writing problem.

1 There is not content and problem. Bad

2. Organization 4 Fluent in expressing, clear in expressing Very Good

the idea, complete, well organization,

logic and cohesive.

 3 Less in fluently, un organizing but clear Good

in the main idea, limited in supporting

material, logic but incomplete

2 Not fluently, un regular idea, illogical in Fair

developing idea.

1 Not communicative, un organized Bad

invaluable.

3. Vocabulary 4 Correct in word choice, mastery in Very Good

word form.

3 Sometimes un correct in choosing the Good

word but it doesn’t disturb the

meaning.

2 Limited in using the word, often make Fair

mistake in vocabulary, and it can make

change the meaning.

1 Bad in choosing the word, less in Bad

vocabulary un valuable.

4. Language 4 Effective in complex construction, only Very Good

few in language mistake.

 3 Simple construction but effective, few Good

mistake in complex construction, there

is a mistake but it doesn’t change the

meaning.

2 Serious mistake in sentence Fair

construction, unclear meaning.

1 Not mastery in syntactical Bad

construction, many mistakes, not

communicative invaluable.

5. Mechanic 4 Mastery in writing rule, only some Very Good

spelling error.

3 Sometimes there is spelling error but it Good

doesn’t change the meaning.

2 Sometimes there is spelling error, Fair

uncertain meaning.

1 Not mastery in writing, many spelling Bad

error, unreadable writing, invaluable.

B. Reading

1. Definition of Reading
 Reading is one of four skills in teaching and learning language. There are

some definitions about reading. Finochiaro and Bonomo in Tarigan mention

“Reading is bringing meaning to in getting from printed or written material” (1994:

8). Whereas according to Grolier (1976: 769) reading is defined as the action or

practice of one who reads.

From some definition above, the writer takes a conclusion that reading is

an activity or process to get and to bring meaning and it is also to understand written

language, if the reader wants to get much contribution from their reading, they have

to be familiar with all the words on it. Being familiar with many words, it will make

easier for them to get meaning from what they are reading.

2. The Purpose of Reading

By reading we can get information’s, knowledge and technologies from

books that we read. Reading is also crucial and indispensable since the success of

students as depend for the greater part on students to read. If students reading skill is

poor they are very likely to fail in their study, or at least they will have difficulty

making progress. Because of reading, we can explore countries that have never been

visited before. As usual, readers read a book for purpose.

Furthermore, Tarigan (1994:9) explains about the purpose of reading as

follows:

a. Reading for detail of fact

Read to get detail information of fact

b. Reading for main ideas.

 Read to know the reason of some activities of human being

c. Reading for sequence or organization

Read to understand the stories part by part

d. Reading for inferences

Read to get the final result from the text

e. Reading to classify

Read to find the information about unusual thing

f. Reading for evaluate

Read to for evaluate what the writer explains in the text

g. Reading for compare

Read to compare the contents of a problem

According to William in Lembaran Sastra (1993: 123), the different style of

reading are determined, not by texts, but by the readers reason for reading. In other

words, the purpose of reading determines the approach to reading, that is, the

employment of particular different reading skills. It can also be argued that the

selection of text is also determined by the purpose for reading.

3. Reading Aloud

a. Definition Reading Aloud

According to Jacqueline Briggs Martin (2010: article; entitle what are read

aloud and what can they do for instruction?) Reading aloud is a planned oral

reading of a book or print excerpt, usually related to a theme or topic of study.

 The reading aloud can be used to engage the student listener while developing

background knowledge, increasing comprehension skills, and fostering critical

thinking. Reading aloud can be used to model the use of reading strategies that

aid in comprehension. Multon in Tarigan (1995: 22) states that “Beside using

visual memory and memorizing, reading aloud also use auditory memory and

motor memory. Reading aloud is very difficult skill. Unseen text probably

content new vocabulary item which students will not know how to pronounce.

Reading aloud in learning foreign language is to show the pronunciation activity

and use when the reader wants to get the mechanical skill.

Mechanical skill that is assumed in lower order has criteria are, such as:

introducing from of an article, linguistic elements (phrase, sentences, etc),

correlation between spelling and voice, and low speed in reading.

b. Benefits of Using Read Aloud

One of the most important things teachers can do in preparing students for

success in reading is to read aloud. In Education-word.com (2010) there are

some benefits of using read aloud:

1) Listeners build listening and comprehension skills through discussing during

reading.

2) Listeners increase their vocabulary foundation by hearing words in context.

3) Listeners improve their memory and language skills as they hear a variety of

writing styles and paraphrase their understanding.

4) Listeners develop individual interests in a broad variety of subjects and they

develop imagination and creativity.

5) Reading aloud improves the classroom climate.

From the benefits above, the writer know that in reading aloud the reader

and the listeners increase their vocabulary foundation by hearing words in context

and improve their memory and language skills as they hear a variety of writing

styles and paraphrase their understanding which can improve students’ writing

skill.

c. The Purpose of Reading Aloud

Anderson cited on Tarigan (1994:7) explains that there are 4 purposes of

reading aloud. They are:

a. To differentiate and understanding structure and phonetic in oral language.

b. To find out and introduce pronunciation, word and main idea of the text.

c. Reading aloud helps the students to comprehend the main idea.

d. To interpret the main idea

Furthermore Jim Arnosky at (http://jimarnosky.com) states that reading

aloud can be used to:

a. Introduce lessons

b. Provide an introduction to new concepts and increase science vocabulary.

c. Lower the abstract nature of science textbooks’ explanations.

d. Invite conversation and generate questions for discussion and investigations.

e. Model scientific thinking.

f. Provide content to support hands-on investigations.

4. Silent Reading

Silent reading is the action or practice of one who reads without sound. In

silent reading activity the readers just use visual memory. Cole cited in Tarigan

(1995: 30) points out that silent reading activities push the students to express what

they read, this support the developing of comprehension and their appreciation. And

it is used when the reader wants to get the comprehension skill. Comprehension

skill means in higher order has criteria, such as: understanding about the simple

meaning (grammatical), the purpose of the content of book, can give evaluate of

content and style, and flexible speed in reading.

Silent reading is often ignored because the teachers see reading aloud as a

way of teaching pronunciation. Consequently, the students have to master

reading in order to understand and use English perfectly.

In basic line of silent reading can divide as:

a. Extensive reading

Extensive reading is generally associated with reading large

amounts with the aim of getting an overall understanding of the material.

Readers are more concerned with the meaning of the text than the meaning of

individual words or sentences. Extensive reading is usually used for global

understanding of full-length texts such as novels, magazines etc. According

to Sumiarti cheated in Hill and Lewis (2003: 17) stated that extensive reading

means students have a general understanding of the text without necessarily

understanding every word. It can be argued that the most important tool in

applying these skills is the reader knowledge of grammar.

 Extensive reading divided into two, there are:

1) Skimming

This skill is used in reading to get the main ideas of a text. The

function of skimming is to read quickly to discover the gist to see whether

the text is worth reading or not according to the reader’s purpose. Fry

cited in Letters Faculty of Diponegoro University Press (1992: 126)

investigated that skimming is reading at the fastest speed which a person

which a person can accomplish.

2) Scanning

This skill is used to look rapidly far a particular piece of

information. A reader tries to locate the information that she or he looking

for.

b. Intensive reading

Intensive reading is at least one kind of reading, a slow, careful

reading style that is appropriate for very difficult texts. However, in many

ways, intensive reading is really more of a language study method than a form

of reading. This skill demands understanding the implications of the

information, and the reader may be called upon to give critical evaluation of

the text. According to Sumiarti cheated in Hill and Lewis (2003: 18) they

stated that intensive reading means students are expected to understand

everything they read and to be able to answer detailed vocabulary and

comprehension question.
C. The Relationship between Reading and Writing

Harmer states that “Receptive skills (reading and listening) ang productive

skills (writing and speaking) feed off each other in a number of ways”. What we say

or write is heavily influenced by what we hear and read. Our most important

information about language comes from this input

From the theories above, we can conclude that there is a relationship

between reading and writing. When the students are reading the text, it means that

they are interacting at the text. In other words, they have learned all the roles of the

structure and language system at the text.

According to Subiakto and Nababan (1983: 181) that the effective way of

finding writing skills is by reading comprehension…because, all the roles of the

structures and language system which support the writing skill will be learned by the

reader naturally.

D. Basic Assumption

In teaching English process writing and reading skill are interrelated. As

Krahen cited in Subiakto and Nababan (1993: 181) investigated “The effective of

finding writing skill is by reading comprehension. The focus of reading is done

continuously, all the role of the structure and language system which are support the

writing skill will be learned by the readers naturally” . Reading aloud has two

benefits, they are reader and listeners increase their vocabulary foundation by

hearing words in context and improve their memory and language skills as they hear
 a variety of writing styles and paraphrase their understanding (www.maintools.com).

Silent reading activities push the students to express what they read, this support the

developing of comprehension and their appreciation. And it used when the reader to

get the comprehension skill. Comprehension skill that is assume in higher order has

criteria, such as: understanding about the simple meaning (grammatical), the purpose

of the content of book, can give evaluate of content and style, and flexible speed in

reading

There is a difference between reading aloud and silent reading. Silent reading

is the action or practice of one who reads with making no sound or quite. In silent

reading activity the readers just use visual memory, mean while reading aloud use

visual audio memory.

E. Hypothesis

Based on the explanation in basic assumption above the hypothesis of this

research is formulated as follows: “There is significant difference of the writing

achievement of students who have reading aloud habit and those have silent reading

habit.” the writer sure that silent reading will give better impact to the students’ writing

achievement.