Sensors 2010, 10, 11212-11225; doi:10.

3390/s101211212
OPEN ACCESS

sensors
ISSN 1424-8220
www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Article

Design of a Pressure Sensor Based on Optical Fiber Bragg

Grating Lateral Deformation
Frantisek Urban 1, Jaroslav Kadlec 1,*, Radek Vlach 2 and Radek Kuchta 1
1
Department of Microelectronics, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Udolni 53, CZ-602 00
Brno, Czech Republic; E-Mails: [email protected] (F.U.); [email protected] (R.K.)
2
Institute of Solid Mechanics, Mechatronics and Biomechanics, Brno University of Technology,
Technicka 2896/2, CZ-616 69 Brno, Czech Republic; E-Mail: [email protected] (R.V.)

* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected];

Tel.: +420-541-146-120; Fax: +420-541-146-298.

Received: 7 September 2010; in revised form: 15 November 2010 / Accepted: 7 December 2010 /
Published: 8 December 2010

Abstract: This paper describes steps involved in the design and realization of a new type
of pressure sensor based on the optical fiber Bragg grating. A traditional pressure sensor
has very limited usage in heavy industrial environments, particularly in explosive or
electromagnetically noisy environments. Utilization of optics in these environments
eliminates all surrounding influences. An initial motivation for our development was the
research, experimental validation, and realization of a complex smart pressure sensor based
on the optical principle. The main benefit of this solution consists of increasing sensitivity,
resistance to electromagnetic interference, dimensions, and potential increased accuracy.

Keywords: pressure sensor; fiber optic; fiber Bragg grating

1. Introduction

A pressure sensor presents key technology for the safe operation of different technical products,
systems, and technologies. These sensors can be widely found in medicine as well as in different
experimental, developmental, and diagnostic processes. Designing of a so-called intelligent pressure
sensor has been a burgeoning trend. Intelligent pressure sensors comprise electronic circuits and
passive parts, which are required, e.g., for linearization of a sensor’s characteristics and decreasing its
dependence on temperature and setting of measuring range, zero point, etc. The most powerful
Sensors 2010, 10 11213

microelectronic circuits enable installation of a digital pressure gauge inside a sensor and also
software-control starting of different electronic responses (warning signals, etc.) in accordance with
the measured value. Special pressure sensors exist for explosive environments. Such environments
present very strict requirements for pressure sensor capsules, electronic systems (especially safety of
power buses and securing these signals against unwanted failure sparkling), communication interfaces
and buses to prevent possible hazard states in these extreme operating conditions.
Pressure is measured in a very wide range from 10−12 Pa for an extreme vacuum up to 1012 Pa at the
research pressure of an explosion. In the widest class of pressure sensors an exactly defined
deformation member is used. Its characteristic deviation, or literally deformation, is linearly related to
applied pressure. This mechanical value is converted into an electrical digital signal. The method of
electric conversion determines the metrological and technical characteristics of the pressure sensor.
Contemporary principles for a transmission of mechanical changes to the deformation member of
electric signal are based on the piezoresistive principle [1], inductive principle [2], capacitive
principle [3], piezoelectric principle [4,5], thermo-electrical principle [6], and acoustic principle [7,8].
All of these principles have a large number of technological limitations, which restrict their full
utilization for pressure sensors in environments with intensive electromagnetic interference and
explosion sensitivity.

2. Motivation

The main goal of this project was the development and practical application of a new unique
method for scanning deflection of a deformation membrane. This new method is based on an optical
measuring system using optical fibers. Generally, the main advantages of optically sensing principles
consist of excellent pressure sensitivity, galvanic isolation of the whole sensor via optical fiber, very
good accuracy of static and dynamic measuring, maximum immunity against electrical and magnetic
interference, and the miniature size of the resulting pressure sensor. The attributes of pressure sensors
based on the optically sensing principle also demonstrate optimal characteristics for use in explosive
gas environments and in environments with high electromagnetic interference.
This new pressure sensor unfolds new possibilities for application in very special cases, e.g.,
military or security applications without a threat of electromagnetic tapping. Pressure sensors, in most
cases, use displacement sensing of the deformation membrane, where the level of deformation depends
on the applied pressure. Generally, two basic optical principles are used for displacement sensing [9].
The first is the sensing principle based on the Fabry-Perot resonator [10-14], which uses the
interference effect. The second principle is based on sensing of a light reflection using the fiber Bragg
grating (FBG) [15-18]. Both types of measurement principles are very sensitive and accurate for
displacement measurements, what makes them ideal for pressure sensors. On the other hand, both
principles require highly sophisticated construction of pressure sensing capsules and powerful
measuring electronics or software algorithms. Sensors with optical principles are used for many other
applications with simpler implementation. A good example of the optical sensing principle with FBG
in use is temperature measurement as elaborated in [19,20]. Close to pressure sensors are optical
acoustic sensors [21,22] stress [23,24] or strain [25,26] sensors.
Sensors 2010, 10 11214

Sensing of these physical values by optical principles is simpler than sensing pressure in industrial
environments because they not necessarily fulfill all requirements for high resolution of sensing value
and construction parameters, which are required for automation application. The optical principles are
generally very sensitive and require the stable mechanical construction of sensing unit with parasitic
effect compensation.

3. Sensor Design

The fiber Bragg grating is a device commonly used in telecommunications and sensor technology.
Fiber gratings are formed by a periodic change of the fiber cored refractive index in direction of
propagation of optical radiation. In principle, the fiber Bragg grating acts as a spectral filter that
reflects particular wavelengths of light near Bragg resonance wavelength and the rest of the optical
signal spectrum is being released. The Bragg resonant wavelength is given by:
𝜆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔 = 2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 Λ (1)
where Bragg is the Bragg resonant wavelength, neff is the effective refraction index, and  is the
periodic variation of the FBG.
FBGs used in sensors mostly rely on the spectral analysis of reflected light wavelengths. The Bragg
resonant wavelength is determined by various factors applied on the FBG, which affect effectively
refractive index or grating periodic variation; therefore, it is an indirect measurement resulting from
modifying physical or geometrical properties of the FBG. Among the affected factors we have
temperature, mechanical deformation (e.g., stretching, pushing, bending, and applying shear stress) to
the fiber Bragg grating. In real applications, it is difficult to separate the effects of measured and
parasitic variables that affect the same parameter (e.g., when the fiber Bragg grating deformation is
measured, temperature also affects reflected light wavelengths). Pressure measurement is always based
on the deformation of some sensing part (typically the membrane), which is afterwards measured by
principles described in the first section.
Applied stress on the fiber Bragg grating in the direction of the fiber axis results in the extension of
its physical dimensions and in the change of the periodic variation; however, the influence of
temperature also affects physical dimensions due to thermal expansion. Mathematically, the shift in the
Bragg wavelength Bragg due to an applied strain and temperature change is given by [27]:
𝜕𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜕
∆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑔 = 2  + 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 ∆𝑙 + 2  + 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 ∆𝑇, (2)
𝜕𝑙 𝜕𝑙 𝜕𝑙 𝜕𝑙

where l is the FBG length and T is temperature. Similar deformation tests with FBGs were published
in [28]. FBG spectrum deformation can be also created by applying strain not only to extend a length
of FBG but also by pressing FBG to get an ellipsoidal fiber cross-section shape. This deformation
implies a different effect on the resulting spectrum which splits into two peaks [Figure 1(c)] where the
central frequency distance is equal to the fiber cross-section deformation ratio. Based on the
preconditions FBG is under a loading state of plane strain and the components of strain normal to this
plane are zero (εz = 0) [29,30] the wavelength response of the high birefringence FBG at any point can
be expressed as follows [31]:
Sensors 2010, 10 11215

𝑛02 1 + 𝜐
∆𝑋 = 𝑋 − 1 − 𝜐 𝑝11 𝜎𝑋 + 𝑝12 𝜎𝑌 − 𝜐 𝜎𝑋 + 𝜎𝑌 (3)
2𝐸

𝑛02 1 + 𝜐
∆ 𝑌 =  𝑌 − 1 − 𝜐 𝑝11 𝜎𝑌 + 𝑝12 𝜎𝑋 − 𝜐 𝜎𝑋 + 𝜎𝑌 (4)
2𝐸
where shear stress is ignored and E and υ are the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s coefficient of the
optical fiber, p11 and p12 are the strain-optic coefficients, n0is the refractive indices for the axe, σX and
σY are the stress components in the principal directions, and λX and λY are the initial wavelengths of the
peaks corresponding to the two polarization modes, ∆λx and ∆λY are the wavelength shifts in the axes.

Figure 1. (a) Cross-section of the FBG with marked fiber shape (dashed line) under
pressure. (b) Schematic drawing of the FBG with indicated direction of applied pressure.
(c) Spectral response of the FBG depending on the applied strain and temperature.

Temperature effect

Applied pressure effect

Intensity
F

Y Y

X Z X

Wavelength

(a) (b) (c)

Various types of FBG-based sensors have been developed, i.e., [25,26,32] however the majority of
these tests or described pressure sensors use the longitudal FBG’s deformation principle, which results in
bigger optical signal wavelength displacement (FBG central frequency moves from 10 to 30 nm) unlike
our method of pressing the FBG laterally, to obtain an ellipsoidal fiber cross-section shape, which
generates a maximum of 300 pm spectrum peak spread. On the other hand, measured peaks` distance
is not influenced by temperature effects. Designing a pressure sensing capsule with longitudal FBG
deformation and temperature compensation of all parasitic material temperature expansions including
the parasitic temperature effects on the measured value is admittedly challenging, moreover for
pressure sensing capsule targeted on the automation field. From this reason a lateral deformation of the
FBG and more robust sensor capsule became an acceptable way for our sensor capsule design and the
subsequent manufacture and assembly process. Lateral deformation of FBG by applied pressure is
described in [33], but in fact lateral deformation of coating material around FBG is transformed into
longitudal mechanical stretching of FBG along its axis. A crucial factor for applying pressure to FBG
is uniform stress along the entire length. This was one of most important parameters during the process
of designing our pressure sensing capsule.
In our newly developed sensor this parasitic temperature influence is eliminated by the proposed
measurement principle and by the optional use of a second FBG as a reference. This reference FBG
senses only temperature not applied stress from deformation membrane. Measured capsule temperature
Sensors 2010, 10 11216

can be used to compensate for the thermal expansion of mechanical components in the sensing capsule
and possibly to alarm users when the operating temperature exceeds allowed limits. However, this
method brings additional financial costs due to necessity of a second FBG, and a more comprehensive
sensor capsule mechanical solution. Temperature compensation of the FBG sensor can be solved by
special thermo-package design, which is also described in [20], but in our sensing principle we have
used this parasitic temperature influence to measure pressure capsule temperature. From this value we
are able to compute the pressure sensing capsule`s thermal expansion and thus minimize this parasitic
effect. Therefore there is no more need to solve temperature compensation of FBG sensor itself.
According to theoretical expectations applied pressure and temperature indicate different effect on the
output signal characteristic and do not interface each other.
For the purposes of our experiment, we have designed a pressure capsule with two sensing FBGs.
The primary FBG, which senses pressure, was built inside sensing capsule together with the second
FBG for parasitic temperature calibration. The second temperature measurement FBG is placed inside
of our sensor as well to verify homogenous temperature distribution inner pressure sensing capsule,
however is not necessary for the final application. In fact, the secondary FBG doubles the temperature
measuring functionality of the primary pressure sensing FBG. A general pressure capsule designed
with incorporated measuring FBGs can be seen in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Design pressure sensor that is used for computational model, and subsequently in
manufacturing process.

4. Measurement Test-Bed

The measurement setup consists of a optical signal source, in this case a 1 mW fiber coupled super
luminescent diode Q Photonics QSDM-1550-2 with a central wavelength of 1,535 nm and spectral width
(FWHM) of 35 nm, optical path with the single mode fiber and polarization insensitive mini fiber optic
circulator NS-3-131-A9 from New Span Opto-Technology Inc., our developed pressure sensing capsule
with incorporated 2 cm long FBG from O/E Land Inc. with central wavelength 1,534 nm and 0.1 nm
bandwidth, high resolution (resolution bandwidth FWHM65 pm) spectral analyzer EXFO FTB-5240
with connected PC for data post-processing, and precise pressure controller/calibrator PPC3-DHI from
Chell Instruments Ltd. A complete diagram of the used measurement setup is given in Figure 3.
Sensors 2010, 10 11217

Figure 3. Complete measurement setup with super luminescent diode as the source of
optical signals, optical path components and spectral analyzer for evaluation of reflected
optical signals from the sensing FBG. The red line shows the optical signal trace and the
blue arrow the direction of an applied pressure.

Fiber Fiber Pressure

Circulator Membrane

SLED FBG
Sensing

Fiber
Temperature Capsule
SLED controller FBG sensor

Spectral
PC
analyzer

5. Stress Analysis of Pressure Sensors

The aim of stress analysis was the verification of our pressure sensor design. The stress limit of the
optical fiber is a crucial factor, which is a limitation of using this pressure sensing method, based on
the fiber Bragg grating deformation, whereas lateral deformation of optical fibers is desired for exact
operation of the pressure sensor. The mechanical design of the pressure sensor (Figure 3) was used for
verification of the computational model’s (Figure 4) applicability to a pressure sensor.

Figure 4. (a) Global and (b) detailed FEM computational model of pressure sensor based
on the fiber Bragg grating deformation.

Pressure

Upper fiber presser

dy

Optical fiber
dx

(a) (b)

The ANSYS software, which comes from the finite elements method (FEM), was used for
computational modeling in [34-41]. The stress analysis was divided into two computational parts. The
first part is targeted to global stress analysis. The result of the first analysis was used for the second
Sensors 2010, 10 11218

computational simulation, which was targeted to the detailed analysis of optical fiber deformation.
Properties of the used material are:
 Steel—elastic modulus 210,000 MPa
o Poisson's ratio 0.3
 Optical fiber—elastic modulus 73,000 MPa
o Poisson's ratio 0.17
o Strength limit 1,100 MPa
The global stress analysis is aimed for the determination of stress and deformation of the
membrane, as shown in Figure 5 and calculation of the force, respectively line load, by means of
which the optical fiber is loaded. The membrane is loaded by pressure in the inner space of the sensors.

Figure 5. (a) Von Mises stress distribution and (b) X-direction deformation in the
membrane for pressure of 2 bars.

The detailed stress analysis of optical fiber deformation was made for the calculation of cross
deformation, which is used for pressure evaluation using a sensing method based on the fiber Bragg
grating deformation. The symmetry of geometry was also assumed, so only one quarter of the optical
fiber was modeled [Figure 4(b)]. The effect of fiber-end loading was neglected, so 2D analysis
was assumed.
The loading was applied to an upper fiber presser, where the value of force loading the optical fiber
was determined from the previous global analysis. The simulation result is the distribution of stress
and level of deformation. The cross displacement ratio of axes dx and dy is more important in terms of
pressure evaluation possibilities using a sensing method based on the fiber Bragg grating deformation.
For an optical fiber safety factor of 1.5 a maximal stress level up to 733 MPa is permitted
(Figure 6). This corresponds to a line load of 2.25 N/mm. A maximal pressure of 2 bars can be applied
onto the sensor, when the length of the pressed fibers is approximately 19 mm. The maximal allowed
pressure value was determined using the global analysis [Figure 4(a)]. The computational simulation
was solved for determination of the pressure corresponding to a line load on optical fiber
of 2.25 N/mm.
Sensors 2010, 10 11219

Figure 6. Relationship of maximal Von Mises stress in the optical fiber on an optical fiber
line load with respect to a strength limit of 1,100 MPa and safety factor of 1.5.
1400

1200
Strength limit

1000
Stress (MPa)

800
Safety factor

600

400

200

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Line load (N/mm)

The relationship of the cross displacement ratio of axes dx and dy on the line load is nearly linear;
therefore, it is possible to derive the following equation from the FEM simulation results:
Rd  10.88  ql (5)
where Rd is the cross displacement ratio of axes and ql is the line load on the optical fiber. Equation (5)
was determined using the detailed stress analysis [Figure 4(b)], where the simulations with several line
loads were calculated and the cross deformation of axes was evaluated. The maximal line load was
of 2.25 N/mm, as mentioned above.
The results of the FEM simulations can be used for pressure sensor design and mainly for algorithm
design of sensing methods based on Bragg grating deformation. The pressure range of sensors can be
extended using longer optical fibers, which is suppressed between pressers. However limiting line load
is necessary to verify this.

6. Results

This optical measurement principle is based on an interaction between applied pressure and
mechanical deformation of the used FBG, resulting in changes of the shape of reflected spectral
characteristics. The reflected spectrum is spread into two peaks whose relative position determines the
level of the FBG deformation. Relations between the FBG deformation and distance of two spectral
peaks of reflected light is not linear but can be described by second order polynomial function:

f x   a  x 2  b  x   Bragg  (6)
2
where a and b are constant, Bragg is fiber Bragg grating central wavelength and  is fiber Bragg
grating spectral width.
Sensors 2010, 10 11220

Moreover, the distance of these peaks is temperature independent and carries only information of
the degree of the FBG deformation. The measured characteristic matches the theoretical expectations
exactly [see Figure 1(c)]. Spectral characteristics at different pressures are shown in Figure 7(a). The
lowest course with the biggest distance between peaks corresponds to the maximum pressure and the
course with only one and the biggest peak stands for zero pressure.

Figure 7. (a) Measured spectral characteristics from realized pressure sensor (notes:
Inc—incrementing pressure, Dec—decrementing pressure). (b) Dependence of applying
pressure on the resulted calculated peaks wavelength distance value.

Inc 0,1 bar Inc 0,3 bar Inc 0,6 bar

Inc 0,9 bar Inc 1,2 bar Inc 1,5 bar
Inc 1,8 bar Dec 1,5 bar Dec 1,2 bar
Dec 0,9 bar Dec 0,6 bar Dec 0,3 bar
Dec 0,1 bar 0 bar 0 bar
2.00E-08
1.80E-08
1.60E-08
Optiacl power [W]

1.40E-08
1.20E-08
1.00E-08
8.00E-09
6.00E-09
4.00E-09
2.00E-09
0.00E+00
1534

1534.075
1534.025

1534.1

1534.3
1534.05

1534.125

1534.2
1534.15
1534.175

1534.225
1534.25
1534.275

1534.325

Wavelength [nm]

(a) (b)

To get more precise results of the peak maximum position, measured characteristics have to be
evaluated by regression analysis. Peak distance value provides information about applied pressure.
Therefore a more accurate evaluation of peak position can significantly improve the precision of the
whole pressure measurement process. From the physical spectrum measurement principle of the used
spectral analyzer and the real measured characteristics we derived as the best course for regression
analysis a Gaussian curve, which can be described by:

 x b 2
f x   a  e 2c 2 (7)
Sensors 2010, 10 11221

where a, b, c > 0 are constants, which we are obtain from regression analysis and x represents single
spectrum wavelength from the measured characteristics. As a mathematic core for curve fitting we
implemented Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm (LMA) [42].
The disadvantage of this measurement is the requirement of a high resolution (~10 pm) spectral
analyzer for precise measurement and the need for post-processing of measured spectral characteristics
by regression analysis, which is time consuming and computationally demanding. Interpolation of both
measured peaks by regression analysis with Equation (7) significantly improves general pressure
measurement precision but also increases the cost for final realization and the complexity of this newly
developed pressure sensing system. On the other hand to get the same result without data
post-processing and curve fitting it is necessary to have more precise spectral analyzer with higher
resolution, below 1 pm. The used SW regression analysis can provide the same resolution with
significantly lower cost.
Based on the designed and simulated pressure sensing capsule with lateral FBG deformation we
made a prototype of this sensor [see Figure 8(a) drawing and Figure 8(b) final sensor prototype] to
validate the correctness of our predictions and theoretical expectations.

Figure 8. (a) 3D manufacturing drawing of a pressure sensor capsule (b) Realized pressure
sensor capsule from stainless steel with second reference FBG placed outside the sensor.

(a) (b)

The pressure measurement error was determined to be 3.13% by averaging all measurements
(including increasing and decreasing pressure to also evaluate sensing membrane hysteresis). Final
capsule design fulfills the main requirements for easy installation and fast calibration. Capsule and
scanning principle also have excellent resistance to the parasitic effects of temperature when the
measured temperature error of the sensing capsule is lower than the temperature error of the spectral
analyzer used. The disadvantages of this measurement principle are high demand on the spectral
analyzer resolution and strictly precise construction of the sensor capsule with a guaranteed uniform
load from one direction to the Bragg grating along its whole length.
Sensors 2010, 10 11222

7. Conclusions

A new pressure sensor based on the optical principle was developed, realized, and tested. Final
construction was designed with planned automation applications in mind. A basic drawing of the new
pressure sensor is displayed in Figure 2. The sensing section achieves galvanic isolation of the optical
fiber from the measuring unit and can be placed without risk in an explosive industrial environment.
The length of the optical fiber can be up to 1 km. The parasitic influence of temperature, which causes
the biggest measuring error, was eliminated by the thermo-compensation method used for the sensing
capsule design and also by the software algorithm in the evaluation unit. Thermo-compensated design
was first analyzed and simulated by the engineering design analysis software (Figure 4) and then tested
on the prototype. Measured characteristics from Figure 7(a) are according to theoretical values from
Figure 1(c) and allow simple software evaluation of measured pressure. Measured results from cyclic
tests [see Figure 7(b)] show final pressure measuring precision under 3.13% over a pressure
range (0–1.8 bar) in operation temperature range from −20 °C to +70 °C. Achieved parameters and the
materials used make this optical pressure sensor ideal for use in industrial environments, explosive
environments, and environments with high electrical and magnetic interference. The main known
disadvantage in comparison to the contemporary pressure sensors is slightly worse precision and its
higher price. Our future work will be focused mainly on research and development of a cheaper
evaluation unit with better resolution for reaching even better measuring precision paired up with a
lower error rate.

Acknowledgements

This research has been supported by the Czech Ministry of Education in the frame of the long-term
Program Plan MSM 0021630503 MIKROSYN New Trends in Microelectronic Systems and
Nanotechnology Systems, partly supported by the ARTEMIS JU in Project No. 100205 Process Oriented
Electronic Control Units for Electric Vehicles Developed on a multi-system real-time embedded
platform, by the ENIAC JU in Project No. 120001 Nanoelectronics for an Energy Efficient Electrical
Car, partly by the Czech, and by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic in
2C08002 Project—KAAPS Research of Universal and Complex Authentication and Authorization for
Permanent and Mobile Computer Networks, under the National Program of Research II.

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