Human Anatomy & Physiology I – Dr.

Sullivan
Unit III – Cytology
Chapter 3

I. Parts of a cell
a. The cell is divided into three main parts
i. Plasma Membrane
ii. Cytoplasm
iii. Nucleus
b. The Plasma Membrane forms the cell’s flexible, but sturdy, outer surface separating the
cell’s internal environment from the external environment outside of the cell.
i. The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of
materials into and out of the cell.
1. Animal cells have no cell wall
ii. This selectivity helps establish and maintain the appropriate environment
for normal cellular activity.
c. The Cytoplasm consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and
the nucleus and has two components:
i. Cytosol: the fluid portion
ii. Organelles: different structures within the cytosol that perform different
tasks.
1. Each type of organelle has a specific shape and function.
2. Examples are: cytoskeleton, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.
d. The nucleus is a large organelle that houses most of the cell’s DNA.
i. The nucleus contains chromosomes, which each consist of a single
molecule of DNA and thousands of genes that control most aspects of cellular
structure and function.
II. The Plasma Membrane
a. The Fluid Mosaic Model describes the molecular arrangement of the plasma membrane
as an “ever-moving sea of fluid lipids that contain a mosaic of many different proteins.”
i. Some proteins flow freely like icebergs in the seas, whereas some are
anchored to certain points in the membrane like boats at a dock.
ii. The membrane itself is made of lipid and phosphorous and therefore allows
passage through of some lipid-soluble molecules but acts as a barrier to charged
or polar substances.
iii. However, some of the proteins within the membrane, allow movement of
polar molecules and ions into and out of the cell.
b. The Lipid Bilayer
c. The plasma membrane’s basic structure is the lipid bilayer.
i. It is 2 back-to-back layers of 3 kinds of lipids: phospholipids, cholesterol,
and glycolipids.
ii. Each layer consists of a phosphate-containing head and two fatty-acid tails.
1. The head is hydrophilic and the tails are hydrophobic.
d. Arrangement of Membrane Proteins
i. Membrane proteins are proteins that are in the cell membrane itself.
ii. Membrane proteins are divided into two categories: Integral Proteins and
Peripheral Proteins
iii. Integral Proteins: extend into or through the lipid bilayer among the fatty
acid tails and cannot be removed without disrupting the membrane structure.
1. Most integral proteins are transmembrane proteins, they extend
through the entire bilayer and have contact with the cytosol and the
extracellular fluid.
iv. Peripheral Proteins: associate more loosely with the outer or inner portion
of the membrane lipids. Can be removed without disrupting the membrane.
 v. Glycoproteins: proteins with carbohydrate groups that protrude into the
extracellular fluid.
e. Functions of Membrane Proteins
i. The proteins present in the membranes of different cells and cellular
organelles are different and determine many of the functions of the membrane
itself.
ii. Ion Channels: these proteins have a pore through the them to allow the
passage of certain hydrophilic ions into or out of the cell.
1. Most ion channels are selective and only allow one particular ion to pass.
2. Potassium (K+) channels are the most abundant.
a. Some Ion channels are “gated”, which means the channel may
sometimes be closed and not permit ions to cross.
b. Ligand gated: a chemical (aka ligand) stimulates the opening
of the channel.
c. Voltage gated: a particular voltage inside the cell stimulates
the opening of the channel.
d. Mechanically gated: mechanical stimulus stimulates the
opening of the channel.
iii. Transporters: membrane proteins that selectively move polar substances
from one side of the membrane to the other.
iv. Receptors: proteins that serve as cellular recognition sites to recognize and
bind to a specific type of molecule as it comes in contact with the membrane.
1. A specific molecule that binds to a receptor type is called a ligand
2. i.e. insulin receptors bind to insulin as it comes in contact with the
cell. Insulin is the ligand in this example.
v. Enzymes: some membrane proteins are enzymes that catalyze reactions between
molecules either inside or outside the cell.
1. the active part of the enzyme will be either facing the cytosol or the ECF.
2. i.e. Lactase breaks lactose disaccharide into glucose and galactose.
f. Membrane Permeability: determines which substances can pass through the membrane and
which can’t
i. If a substance is allowed to pass directly through the membrane, without the
help of a transport or ion channel protein, it is considered to be permeable to
that substance.
ii. If not, it is impermeable.
iii. The lipid bilayer of an animal cell is permeable to non-polar molecules and
uncharged molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steroids.
iv. However, impermeable to ions and charged or polar molecules such as
sodium ions, potassium ions, and glucose molecules.
v. Since the membrane is permeable to some substances and impermeable to
others, it is considered to have selective permeability
1. Water and urea (waste product), are small polar molecules, but can
pass through small gaps in the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.
a. The membrane is slightly permeable to water and urea.
g. Gradients across the Plasma Membrane
i. Concentration Gradient: a difference in the concentration of a substance
inside the cell as opposed to outside the cell.
1. this is controlled by the selective permeability of the membrane. It
allows substances to pass into and out of the cell to maintain the
concentration gradient.
ii. Electric Potential: The membrane also maintains a difference in the
concentration of positively charged ions and negatively charged ions inside and
outside the cell.
1. Also termed the Membrane Potential because it takes place across
the membrane
 iii. The concentration gradient and the membrane potential are important
because they help move substances across the plasma membrane, into and out of
the cell.
1. Down the Concentration Gradient: when a substances simply moves
from a location of higher concentration to one of a lower concentration
specific to itself.
2. Similarly, a positively charged substance will tend to move toward an
area of negative charge and vice versa.
III. Transport across the Plasma Membrane
a. Substances necessary for the cell to survive (oxygen, glucose for energy, etc) must move
into the cell and waste products and substances the cell produces (hormones, enzymes,
etc.) must move out. They must be transported across the plasma membrane.
i. Some materials can pass directly through the membrane, but some others
require transporters or ion channels.
b. Passive Transport: when a substance passes through the membrane or transporters,
without the need for energy, by traveling downhill with the concentration gradient from
higher to lower concentration or from higher positive to higher negative charge or vice
versa.
i. Three types of passive transport:
1. diffusion through the lipid bilayer
2. diffusion through ion channels
3. facilitated diffusion – when a non-permeable substances binds to a
plasma protein outside the cell, the plasma protein changes shape, and
then releases the substance inside the cell (glucose transports this way)
c. Active transport: Cellular energy is used to drive the substance uphill against the
concentration gradient.
i. I.e: Sodium-Potassium Pump: Sodium (Na+) is in higher concentration
outside of the cell (ECF) and Potassium (K+) is in higher concentration inside
the cell (cytosol).
1. The pump protein binds 3 Na+ ions, causing the hydrolysis of ATP
(energy production).
2. The pump protein changes shape and releases the Na+ into the ECF.
3. The protein now binds to 2 K+ ions, changes shape again, and releases
the K+ ions into the cytosol.
4. The pump is ready again to bind three more Na+ ions and start over
d. Vessicle Transport: when a material transports through the membrane while enclosed
in a vesicle
i. A vesicle forms with the material inside, then the vesicle travels through
the membrane and releases the material on the other side.
ii. Endocytosis: when a material moves into a cell by formation of vesicle
formed by the plasma membrane.
1. Phagocytosis: when a cell absorbs a large particle via endocytosis in
order to dispose of them (i.e. dead cells, bacteria, viruses)
iii. Exocytosis: when a material moves out of the cell by formation of a vesicle
within the cytosol
1. Secretion: The production and release of a physiologically active
substance (i.e. hormones, enzymes, etc.)
e. Diffusion: the random mixing of particles through a solution from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration, to become homogenous, or equally
mixed throughout. In order to equalize the concentration, permeable substances diffuse
through the membrane or channels.
f. Osmosis: The movement of water through a membrane from an area of higher water
concentration to an area of lower water concentration.
g. Osmotic Pressure: when the concentration of non-permeable solutes is higher on one
side of a membrane than on the other, those solutes exert a pressure on water trying to
draw it toward the higher concentration side and create an equal concentration on both
 sides of the membranes. This pressure is called the osmotic pressure. Occurs when the
solutes cannot diffuse across the membrane, so the water has to move to equalize the
concentration.
i. Isotonic Solution: the concentration of solutes that cannot cross the plasma
membrane is the same on both sides of the membrane
ii. Hypotonic solution: a solution that has lower concentration of solutes
outside the cell than inside
iii. Hypertonic solution: a solution that has a higher concentration of solutes
outside the cell than inside cell.
1. RBC example: When placed in an isotonic solution (the concentration
of solutes inside and outside the cell are equal) water flows in and out
of the cell at an equal pace and the RBC maintains its normal shape.
a. When placed in a hypotonic solution (the concentration of
solutes is lower on the outside than the inside) the osmotic
pressure is greater inside the cell, therefore water is drawn into
the cell faster than it can leave the cell and the RBC swell and
eventually bursts, called hemolysis
b. When placed in a hypertonic solution (the concentration of
solutes is higher outside the cell than inside) the osmotic
pressure is greater on the outside, drawing water out of the cell
faster than it can enter. The cell shrinks and eventually
collapses, called crenation

IV. The Cytoplasm

a. Cytoskeleton: a network of protein microfilaments that help determine a cell’s shape
and provide a structural framework.
i. Microfilaments: thinnest element of the cytoskeleton
1. Help provide movement and mechanical support (strength and shape)
2. Composed of protein called actin
ii. Intermediate Filaments: medium-sized filaments that help stabilize the
position of organelles.
iii. Microtubules: Largest components of the cytoskeleton
1. Help determine cell shape and assist in the movement of organelles
within the cytoplasm
b. Centrosome: found near the nucleus, has 2 components.
i. 2 centrioles: cylindrical structures composed of nine clusters of three
microtubules.
ii. Pericentriolar material: surrounds the centrioles
iii. The centrosome plays a critical role in cell division and microtubule
formation in non-dividing cells.
c. Cilia & Flagella: projections off the cell’s surface used for motility.
i. Made mostly of microtubules.
ii. Cilia: small, short, hair-like projections on the membrane that move in a
sweeping pattern like oars on a boat to propel the cell and sometimes sweep
particles toward or away from the cell.
iii. Flagella: long, whip-like projections on the membrane that usually move an
entire cell
1. i.e. the tail of a sperm
d. Microvilli: small, finger-like projections of the plasma membrane on the surface of a
cell.
i. microvilli increase the surface area of the plasma membrane and are
continuous with the membrane itself (unlike cilia and flagella that are
projections off of the membrane)
ii. by increasing the surface area of the plasma membrane, microvilli
increase the cell’s capacity for absorption, filtration, and secretion.
iii. in the small intestine, the microvilli are known as the ‘brush border’
 and secrete brush border enzymes.
d. Ribosomes: organelles for protein synthesis
i. Contain a high content of RNA.
ii. Consist of two sub-units (a smaller and larger) and are produced in the
nucleolus, a spherical body within the nucleus.
iii. Some ribosomes are found attached to an organelle called endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), some are free within the cytosol, and some are found inside
organelles called mitochondria.
e. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): a folded network of membranes that extend into the
cytoplasm from its attachment to the membrane of the nucleus
i. Some ER have ribosomes attached to the surface (rough ER)
ii. Some ER do not (smooth ER)
iii. Rough ER: Proteins synthesized by Ribosomes attached to rough ER enter
the ER for processing:
1. Here, enzymes attach a carbohydrate to the proteins, producing
glycoproteins
2. Also, proteins are attached to phospholipids to be used in organelle
membranes, plasma membranes, or secreted via exocytosis.
iv. Smooth ER: extends from the rough ER.
1. Synthesizes Fatty Acids and steroids
a. i.e. testosterone, estrogen
2. In liver cells, enzymes located in the Smooth ER detoxify drugs and
other harmful substances, like alcohol.
3. In Liver, kidney, and intestinal smooth ER, phosphate is pulled from a
molecule called glucose-6-phosphate, to allow glucose to be released
into the bloodstream.
f. Golgi Complex: modify, sort, and package ER & Ribosomal proteins for transport to
different destinations
1. Also forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins into
the ECF via exocytosis
2. Forms membrane vesicles that bring new molecules to the plasma
membrane
3. Forms transport vesicles that carry molecules to other organelles.
g. Lysosomes: membrane-enclosed vesicles that form from the golgi complex
1. Contain as many as 60 powerful digestive and hydrolytic enzymes that
can break down a wide variety of molecules.
a. Functions to digest substances that enter a cell and transfer
digestive products into the cytosol
b. Digest worn-out organelles
c. Digests the entire cell when worn-out
d. Extracellular digestion of products outside the cell
+
h. Peroxisomes: lysosome-like organelles that oxidize (remove H from molecules)
and decompose the peroxide result.
i. Proteasomes: lysosome-like organelles that destroy unneeded, damaged, or faulty
proteins within the cell
j. Mitochondria: responsible for producing ATP through cellular aerobic respiration
(uses oxygen)
1. Outer mitochondrial membrane: outside
2. Inner mitochondrial membrane: inside
a. Folds into cristae, with attached ribosomes and enzymes.
i. Folds of cristae provide for enormous
surface area for the chemical reactions required for
cellular respiration.
b. Matrix: fluid-filled cavity in between the cristae
 c. The Mitochondria provide most of the cell’s ATP and the
reactions necessary for that take place in the cristae and
Matrix.
IV. The Nucleus
1. Most cells have one nucleus. Red blood cells have no nucleus and
some bone cells have multiple nuclei.
2. Nuclear Envelope: a double membrane separating the nucleus from
the rest of the cytoplasm
a. The outer membrane of the envelope is continuous with
Rough ER and contains nuclear pores that allows the passage
of materials from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
3. Nucleolus: one or more spherical bodies inside the nucleus that
produces ribosomes.
4. The nucleus contains most of the cells’ genes (hereditary units) and
contains all the information to control cellular structure and direct
cellular activity.
a. Genes are arranged in single file along chromosomes.
b. Human body cells have 46 chromosomes, 23 from each
parent.
i. The chromosomes are long molecules of DNA, which is
coiled together with several proteins and some RNA.
1. This complex is called chromatin