Ling 115: Semantik I Maribel Romero
9. Dez 2008
Syntax.
Ambiguities from syntactic attachment.
Syntax is the component of the grammar that contains the rules governing how to build
sentences. E.g., it contains rules similar to (1) and (2), abbreviated in (1’) and (2’)
respectively.
(1) If φ is a proper noun and ψ is an intransitive verb, then the sequence φψ (disregarding
inflection) is a sentence.
(1’) S → Npr Vintr
(2) If ω is a proper noun, φ is an auxiliary verb and ψ is an intransitive verb, then the
sequence ωφψ (disregarding inflection) is a sentence.
(2’) S → Npr AUX Vintr
(3) a. Bill walks.
b. Bill will walk.
c. * Bill walk will.
Descriptive vs. prescriptive grammar.
Note that we are using the notion of grammar (in particular, syntax) in a descriptive and
not in a prescriptive way. The job of a linguist is to construct a grammar that generates all
and only the utterances that a given group of speakers consider well formed in their
dialect. This grammar may coincide or not with prescriptive grammaticality. Also,
grammaticality has to be distinguished from mere semantic anomaly (the form of the
sentence is fine, though the meaning is strange) and processing difficulty.
(4) a. The cat the nice is saw.
b. Who do you wonder whether Mary arrived?
c. Who do you think that saw Joanne?
d. Who do you think that Joanne saw?
e. Do you wanna come for lunch?
f. Pat didn't see nobody.
g. The child played with Sam and I yesterday.
h. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
i. The building is nice.
j. The building the guy built is nice.
k. The building the guy the woman hired built is nice.
l. The building the guy the woman John met hired built is nice.
1
The following is the set of syntactic rules we start with. In the exercises, some
modifications may be made in order to taylor the syntax to the task at hand.
Diacritics: "a | b" means you can chose among a and b
(5) S → NP VP
NP → Npr
NP → Det0 N'
N' → Adj0 N'
N' → N' PP
N' → N' Conj'
Conj' → Conj0 N'
N' → N0
VP → Adv0 VP
VP → VP PP
VP → V'
V' → V0trans NP
V' → V0intr
PP → P0 NP
Npr → John | Bill | Konstanz | Europe …
N0 → cat | dog | boy | girl | table | binoculars | man | woman | students |
professors | country | …
Det0 → a | the | some | my | every | …
Adj0 → tall | small | nice | green | curious | favourite | …
P0 → on | from | with | in |…
V0trans→ see | like | help | kiss | call | come | ...
V0intr → run | sleep
Adv0 → quickly | soon
Conj0 → and | or | but
Running an example sentence:
(6) Every girl kissed a boy.
S
NP VP
Det N’ V’
Every N V NP
girl kissed Det N’
a N
boy
2
Trees and syntactico-semantic units:
• Every lexical item or word is a syntactico-semantic unit (minimal units).
• Every complete sentence is a syntactico-semantic unit (maximal unit).
• The tree structure of a sentence specifies all its intermediate syntactico-semantic
units.
(7)
Every mother node α in a tree is a syntactico-semantic unit. In other words, for any
node α, all the lexical material under its daughter branches forms a syntactico-semantic
unit that excludes material under other non-daughter branches.
The tree structure in (6) makes the following claims wrt the sentence Every girl kissed a
boy:
• Every girl kissed a boy is a unit (in particular, a S).
• Every girl is a unit (a NP).
• A boy is a unit (a NP).
• Kiss(ed) a boy is a unit (a VP).
• Every girl kiss(ed) is NOT a unit in this sentence.
• Girl kiss(ed) a is NOT a unit is this sentence.
• Etc.
QUESTION 1: Draw the syntactic tree for the following sentence according to our
grammar. Discuss what strings form a syntactico-semantic unit and what strings do not.
(8) A tall man from Konstanz helped a small boy.
QUESTION 2: For each of the following sentences, our grammar allows us to generate
more than one tree. Each of those trees makes different claims about what the syntactico-
semantic units of the sentence may be, and, in fact, each tree corresponds to a different
meaning of the sentence. For each sentence, draw all the possible trees and explain in
your own words the meaning that each tree attributes to the sentence.
(9) The boy saw the girl with the binoculars.
(10) John called a woman from my favorite country in Europe.
(11) Some curious students or professors from Konstanz came.
