Sanskritization and
Westernization
Sociology Minor Project
3/12/2018
Submitted to: Dr. Anupam Bahri
Submitted By : Nikita Sharma
Section A
Roll Number 33/15
Index
Index ____________________________________________________ 1
Sanskritization and Westernization ____________________________ 2
Social change ___________________________________________ 2
Sanskritization __________________________________________ 2
Factors that hastened the process of Sanskritization_____________ 3
Features/ Analysis of Sanskritization ________________________ 4
Impact of Sanskritisation _________________________________ 6
Criticisms of Sanskritization _______________________________ 7
Westernization __________________________________________ 8
Features of Westernization ________________________________ 8
Impact of Westernization on Indian Culture ___________________ 9
Criticism of Westernization ______________________________ 10
Sanskrtitization and Westernization _______________________ 11
Difference between Sanskritisation and Westernisation_________ 12
Biliography______________________________________________13
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Sanskritization and Westernization
Social change
Social change refers to any significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and cultural
values and norms. By “significant” alteration, sociologists mean changes yielding
profound social consequences. Examples of significant social changes having long-term effects
include the industrial revolution, the abolition of slavery, and the feminist movement.
The British Rule in the Indian subcontinent gave rise to an accelerated and widespread process of
social change which fundamentally affected the fabric of the Indian culture in various ways. This
paper will be analyzing Sanskritization and Westernization as forms of social change in India.
Sanskritization
The term ‘Sanskritization’ was introduced into Indian Sociology by Prof. M.N. Srinivas. It is a
process unique to the caste system prevailing in India. Though the Indian Society which is based
on caste system is often regarded as “closed society”, it is not altogether changeless. Within the
framework of the caste itself, some kind of mobility is observed. This process reflects an attempt
on the part of Indian masses to achieve some amount of mobility both within and outside the
framework of the caste system. It denotes the process in which the lower castes try to imitate
the life-styles of upper castes in their attempt to raise their social status.
The definition of Sanskritisation was given by M.N. Srinivas in his “Social Change in Modern
India” published in 1971. It means a “process whereby people of lower castes collectively try to
adopt upper caste practices and beliefs, as a preliminary step to acquire higher status.” Thus,
it indicates a process of cultural mobility that is taking place in the traditional social system of
India.
Sanskritisation is not a new phenomenon as such. M.N. Srinivas writes: “Sanskritisation has
been a major process of cultural change in Indian history, and it has occurred in every part of the
Indian sub-continent. It may have been more active at some periods than at others, and some
parts of India are more sanskritised than others; but there is no doubt that the process has been
universal”
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Changes adopted by an aspiring lower caste as part of this acultural emulation include;
• Erosion of cultural autonomy of the women folk includes erosion in the freedom to
choose life partner.
• Changes in family structure include a movement towards the orthodox Hindu joint
family.
• Stronger authority to father, monogamy, a stronger caste organisation with increased
tendency of out casting.
• Change in food habits including outlawing beef and pork eating and consumption of
liquor.
• Acquisition of higher education.
• Adoption of dowry practices instead of the token bride price.
• Change in religious practices including donning of sacred thread, giving up of sacrifice of
pigs at the time of wedding and increased emphasis on pilgrimage.
Factors that hastened the process of Sanskritization
Factors that have made Sanskritization possible are industrialization, occupational mobility,
developed communication, spread of literacy, and western technology. The development of
communications carried Sanskritization to areas previously inaccessible and the spread of
literacy carried it to groups very low in the caste hierarchy.
Political and Economic Factors include the establishment of British rule in India gave more
opportunities to lower castes to sanskritize themselves and raise their social status. The British
rule in India provided a favourable atmosphere for Sanksritisation to take place. Political
independence has weakened the trend towards this change. Now the emphasis is on vertical
social mobility and not on the horizontal mobility. In this process of mobility the basic unit
remains the group only and not the individual or family.
Expanding means of transport and communication too have contributed to the process by the
way of new avenues and opportunities of cultures contracts.
Democratic system provided more freedom to choose their own lines and hence more avenues
for Sanskritization.
M.N. Srinivas has specifically referred to one factor which has helped the spread of
Sanskritization among the low castes. It is the separation of ritual acts from the accompanying
mantras (citations) which facilitated the spread of Brahminical rituals among all Hindu castes,
including the untouchables.
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Features/ Analysis of Sanskritization
1. Role of Dominant Caste
Sanskritization is not the same as Brahminization. Sanskritization is a process of cultural change
towards twice-born castes known as the ‘dwij castes’. The Brahmin, Kshatria and vasiyas are
dwij jatis, i.e. castes that can be reborn after death. Thus there are various models of
sanskritzation for example the Brahmin modal, kshatriya modal ot the vaisya modal. In some
societies the lower caste people followed not only the customs of the Brahmins but also the
customs of the locally dominant castes like Kshatriyas and Vaisyas to raise their status. Which
modal of sanskritization is to be followed depends upon the ‘dominant caste of that area.
The concept of ‘dominant caste’ was propounded by M.N. Srinivas. According to him “That
caste can be said dominant caste which have political and economic effect in a particular village
or area. The caste does not to be the top slot in social hierarchy or ethnic category. Some factors
like strength of population, education, cultural hierarchy etc. creates dominant caste for a special
village or area.
2. Gradual change
Sanskritisation denotes the process of upward mobility. In this process, a caste is trying to
increase its position in the caste hierarchy not at once, but over a period of time. It would take,
sometimes, a period of one or two generations. It is only the later generations that are accepted as
a higher caste in the social hierarchy. The process of Sanskritisation does not automatically result
in the achievement of a higher status for the group. People will have to wait for a period of a
generation or two before their claim can be accepted. Further, it may so happen that a claim
which may not succeed in. a particular area or period of time may succeed in another.
3. Positional Change
Mobility that is involved in the process of Sanskritisation results only in “positional changes” for
particular castes or sections of castes, and need not necessarily lead to a “structural change”. It
means, while individual castes move up or down, the structure as such remains the same.
4. Economic Betterment not necessary
“Economic betterment is not a necessary pre-condition to Sanskritisation, nor must economic
development necessarily lead to Sanskritisation. However, sometimes a group (caste, tribe) may
start by acquiring, political power and this may lead to economic development and
Sanskritisation.
Economic betterment, the acquisition of political power, education, leadership, and a desire to
move up in the hierarchy, are all relevant factors in Sanskritisation, and each case of
Sanskritisation may show all or some of these factors mixed up in different measures”
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5. Tribal Communities
Sanskritisation is not necessarily confined to the castes within the Hindu community, it is found
in tribal communities also. Example. The Bhils of Western India, the Gonds and Oraons of
Middle India, and the Pahadiyas of Himalayan region have come under the influence of
Sanskritisation.
These tribal communities are now claiming themselves to be Hindus for their communities
represent some caste groups within the fold of Hinduism. (It should be noted that in the
traditional system, a group could be called ‘Hindu’ only if it was regarded as a caste group).
6. Reference Group
The process of Sanskritisation serves as a “reference group”. It is through this process, a caste
group tries to orient its beliefs, practices, values, attitudes and “life-styles” in terms of another
superior or dominant group, so that it can also get some recognition. Since this term was made
applicable by M.N. Srinivas even to Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra models (in addition to
Brahmana model), it has greater relevance to function as a “reference group’.
7. Various Models
Sanskritisation does not take place in the same manner in all the places. Studies have revealed
that in most of the cases the lower castes tend to imitate the upper castes particularly the
Kshatriya and Brahmin castes.
There are instances of upper castes imitating some of the practices of lower castes, and
sometimes of even tribal groups. For example, a Brahmin may make a blood- sacrifice to one of
the local deities through the medium of a non-Brahmin friend.
The Muslim cultural ways have imposed some limitations in the imitation process of some upper
and lower castes. This is very much in evidence in Punjab. Thus, it can be generalised that
Sankritisation is not a one-way process; it is a two-way process. Not always one caste “takes”
from the higher caste; sometimes it also ‘gives’ in return.
8. Aims at Bridging the Social Gap
As M.N. Srinivas has pointed out, Sanskritisation serves to reduce or remove the gap between
the ritual and secular making. It is, indeed, one of its main functions. For example, if caste, or its
segment gains secular, that is, political power, it immediately starts imitating the so called
“status-symbols “of the customs, rituals, ideals, beliefs, values, life-styles, etc. of the upper caste
communities. The lower caste group which successfully gets into the seat of secular power also
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tries to avail of the services of Brahmins especially at the time of observing some rituals,
worshipping and offering things to the God in the Centres of pilgrimage, celebrating important
Hindu festivals, fixing “muhurtam” (auspicious time for doing good works or starting ventures)
for some important occasions and programmes, and so on.
9. Protestagaonst Traditional Caste System
Sanskritisation has often been construed as a kind of protest against the traditional caste system.
Sanskritisation is a type of protest against the caste system in which the status is ascribed or
predetermined. Lower castes which are disillusioned with their predetermined statuses and
impressed by the higher statuses accorded to the upper castes, naturally desire to go up in the
status hierarchy, this desire is virtually against the traditional hierarchical principle of the caste
system. Making an attempt through Sanskritisation to move up in the status hierarchy, setting
aside the hierarchical principle of caste, amounts to a protest against the caste system itself.
Impact of Sanskritisation
Ø Modern education, Western literature and philosophy of people widened, and as a result
the mental horizons and visionary of people changed. They welcomed rationality and
other good features of and made good use of liberal, and humanitarian ideas and
thoughts.
Ø Reformists and their organizations had purely an economic and social thrust. They aimed
at establishing a social order based on Vedic teachings and practices. They criticized the
mumbo-jumbo of rituals and superstitions created by some selfish people to entangle the
ignorant and poor masses. They laid emphasis on interpreting Vedas in a rational
scientific way.
Ø It reduced or removed the gap between the ritual and secular rankings. Italso helped
upliftment of weaker persons. The lower caste group which successfully got into the seat
of secular power also tried to avail of the services of Brahmins especially at the time of
observing rituals, worshipping and offering things to God.
Ø The living patterns of lower castes have also Sanskritized. Like higher caste they also get
Pucca houses built for them. Now they sit along with the higher caste on the cots without
any fear or hesitation. They also keep their houses clean and put on dresses like higher
castes.
Ø Economic betterment and sanskritization is another related issue. The lower caste people
gave up un-clean occupation to raise their economic status because clean trades are a
symbol of social light. This resulted in lower class people discarding their birth assigned
occupations nd taking up jobs that provided them with better social as well as economic
status.
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Criticisms of Sanskritization
Ø According to J.F Stall, Sanskritisation, as used by Srinivas and other anthropologists is a
complex concept or a class of concepts. The term itself seems to be misleading, since its
relationship to the term Sanskrit is extremely complicated.
Ø Yogendra Singh opines that sanskritisation fails to account for many aspects of
culturalchange in past and contemporary India as it neglects the non-sanskritic traditions.
Ø Sanskritic influence has not been universal to all parts of country. In most of northern
India, especially in Punjab, it was the Islamic tradition which provided a basis for cultural
imitation.
Ø When we try to interpret certain changes that have taken place in the field of social
mobility in the light of Sanskritisation, we face certain paradoxes. According to
Dr.Srinivas, political and economic forces are normally favourable for Sanskritisation.
But the “policy of reservation” a poltico-constitutional attempt to elevate the status of
lower caste, and class people, presents here a different picture. Theoretically, the policy
of reservation must be supportive of Sanskritisation. But paradoxically it goes against it.
Those who avail of the “reservation benefits” have developed a vested interest in
callingthemselves “dalits” or Scheduled Caste people. They want to be called so in order
to permanently avail of the benefits of reservation.
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Westernization
The process of Westernization of caste-system in India began with the frantic efforts
of missionaries to convert as many Indians as possible into Christianity. The coming of
East India Company in India first to trade and later on to increase its political power in India also
began the process of Westernization.
East India Company successfully established ‘British Imperial Rule’ in India by 1958. British
rule produced radical and lasting changes in the Indian society and culture. The British brought
with them new technology, institutions, knowledge, beliefs, and values. These have become the
main source of social mobility for individuals as well as groups. It is in this context, M.N.
Srinivas, introduced the term “Westernisation” mainly to explain the changes that have taken
place in the Indian society and culture due to Western contact through the British rule.
According to M.N. Srinivas, “Westernisation” refers to “the changes brought about in the Indian
society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes
occurring at different levels – technology, institutions, ideology and values.”
Features of Westernization
i. Humanitarianism
Westernisation is loaded with certain value preferences. “A most important value, which in
turn subsumes several other values, is what may be broadly characterised as
humanitarianism, by which is meant an active concern for the welfare of all human beings,
irrespective of caste, economic position, religion, age and sex.” Srinivas has argued that the
term ‘humanitarianism’ is quite comprehensive. It is inclusive of a large number of other
values, the important being the welfare of all.
ii. Equalitarianism:
Westernisation has another value of equalitarianism. It is a democratic value and stands for
minimising inequality, removal of poverty and liberty to all. The humanitarianism, as a
characteristic of westernisation, stands for a society which could be called as a socialist
society in the long run.
iii. Secularisation:
Both the British rule and at a later stage the Constitution of India introduced a new value of
secularisation. Secular India is conceived as a nation charged by the idiom of a rational and
bureaucratic society. Accordingly, the state is required to have respect for all the religions of
the society. It also includes the value of scientific ethics.
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iv. Initiation of social reforms:
The idea of westernisation which was propagated by the British rule struck hard on social
evils which eroded the Indian society. The introduction of British law put an end to certain
inequalities that were part of Hindu and Islamic jurisprudence. The evil institutions of sati,
untouchability and purdah got condemnation from the spread of the notions of
equalitarianism and secularisation.
v. Predominance of science and technology:
The British rule also introduced science and technology in Indian society. This brought
railways, steam engines and technology. As a result of this, the Indian society moved towards
industrialisation. Though, science and technology came as a setback to village industries and
local arts and artifacts, the industrial growth increased. This also gave encouragement to
urban development. Migration from village to town and city also increased.
Impact of Westernization on Indian Culture
• Opened up the doors of the knowledge
Modern education opened up the doors of the knowledge flourished in Europe after
Renaissance movement of Middle Ages. It had widened the mental horizons of Indian
intelligentsia.
• Education for all
During second half of the nineteenth century, British government in India opened the
doors of education to all the sections of Indian society, irrespective of caste or creed.
Still, very few amongst the general public could avail the advantages of formal modern
education. Education remained confined within a small section of society.
• Highlighted evil practices
Modern education had highlighted the evil practices and weaknesses developed into the
system like rigidity and harshness of many social customs and practices prevalent at that
time for the weaker sections of the society i.e. un-touch-ability and inhuman treatment to
women, Sati, Polygamy, child marriage etc. prevalent at that time.
• Attracted attention of social reformers
Modern education had attracted the attention of intellectuals and social reformers towards
real issues evils caused by ignorance, irrationality of mumbo-jumbo of rituals and
superstitions created by some selfish people to entangle the ignorant and poor masses.
They suggested remedies for social, political and economic ills of the country. They took
upon themselves the responsibility to build a modern, open, plural, culturally rich,
prosperous and powerful India out of a fragmented, poverty stricken, superstitious, weak,
indifferent, backward and inward looking society. As a result of such efforts, it led to the
abolition of Sati System, slavery and Female infanticide practice lowered to a great
extent.
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• Realization of the worth of liberty and freedom
It equipped national leaders with intellectuals tools with which they fought the oppressive
British Raj. Indians realized the worth of liberty and freedom. They got exposure to the
philosophies of thinkers like Locke, Mill, Rousseau, Voltaire, Spencer and Burke etc.
They understood the reasons and impact of English, French, American revolutions.
• It is a common observation that in the last three or four decade’s new religious
celebrations have emerged. The deities which were oblivious have now become target of
popular celebrations. The caste associations have received better organisation. At
empirical plane it is found that with the increase in westernisation sanskritic ties have
also got solidarity.
Westernization still continues to affect the Indian Culture in the 21st Century. Its affects can be
seen in the form of
• Decline of the joint Family System
• Increasing taste for western music and foreign cuisines
• Large number of Indians migrating to Western Countries
• Widespread influence of western Media on Indian Movies and entertainment,
• Growing popularity of Western clothes and outfits.
• Rise of Individualism
Criticism of Westernization
Ø The concepts of Sanskritisation and Westernisation primarily analyse social change in
“cultural” and not in “structural” terms. This denoted that these terms have limited range
of application and use.
Ø Srinivas’s model explains the process of social change only in India which is based on the
caste system. It is not useful for other societies.
Ø Though Srinivas claimed that the concept of Westernisation is “ethically neutral”, it is not
really so. The Western model which Srinivas has eulogised has its own contradiction.
Mention can be made of the facts of Western life such as racial prejudice, colour
segregation and exploitive nature of the Western economy, etc. These ]facts contradict
humanitarian ideals or rational outlook on life.
Ø Daniel Lerner has raised some objections to the use of Westernisation as conceived by
Srinivas:
a. It is too local label and the model which is imitated may not be western country; but
Russia.
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b. One of the result of prolonged contact with the west is the rise of the elite class whose
attitude towards the West is ambivalent is not invariably true. In this context, Lerner
refers to the appeal of Communism in non-western countries
c. Westernisation in one area or level of behaviour does not result in Westernisation in
another related area or level.
d. While there is certain common elements in Westernisation, yet each represent
a particular variant of a common culture and significant difference exists between one
country and another
Sanskrtitization and Westernization
In comparison with Sanskritisation, Westernisation is a simpler concept. It explains the impact of
Western contact (particularly of British rule) on the Indian society and culture. M.N. Srinivas
used the term “Westernisation” to describe the changes that a non –western country had
undergone as a result of prolonged contact with the western one. It implies, according to
Srinivas, “certain value preferences”, which in turn subsumes several values, such as
“humanitarianism”. It implies an active concern for the welfare of all human beings irrespective
of caste, economic position, religion, age and sex. Westernisation not only includes the
introduction of new institutions, but also fundamental changes in old institutions. For example,
India had schools long before the arrival of the British, but they were different from the British
introduced schools. Other institutions such as army, civil service and law courts were also
similarly affected. However, the increase in Westernisation does not retard the process of
Sanskritisation. Both go on simultaneously, and to some extent increase in Westernisation
accelerates the process of Sanskritisation. For example, the postal facilities, railways, buses and
newspaper media which are the fruits of Western impact on India render more organised
religious pilgrimages, meetings, caste solidarities, etc., possible compared to the past.
M.N.Srinivas expressed that westernisation and sanskritisation were going together. He
emphasized the same from the following;
• Westernization improved communication and technology; it hastened the process of
Sanskritization through religious propaganda and caste and communal congregation.
• Higher castes gave up traditional customs and adopted the life style of the westerns.
Lower castes aspiring for higher status filled the higher caste vacuum through
Sanskritization.
• It was observed that the higher caste perhaps to maintain the social distance between
themselves and the lower castes they have adopted the life style of westerns. By the time
the lower caste reached their destiny through Sanskritization, the upper caste have
vacated that place through westernization.
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• However, aspiring sections of lower castes in towns and cities are going straight to
westernization.
Difference between Sanskritisation and Westernisation
I. Sanskritisation process promoted the sacred outlook; while Westernisation process
promoted secular outlook.
II. Sanskritisation is a process of upward mobility by a process of imitation while
Westernisation is a process of upward mobility by a process of development.
III. Sanskritisation implies mobility within the framework of caste while Westernisation
implies mobility outside the framework of caste
IV. While Sanskritisation puts a taboo on meat-eating and consumption of alcohol,
Westernisation promoted meat-eating and consumption of alcohol.
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Bibliography
Books
v Srinivas M. N., 1995, Social Change in Modern India, Orient Longman Publications
v Kansal Jairam, 2004, Sociology of Social Change, Dominant Publishers and Distributers
v Sharma, K.L., 2006, Social Stratification and Mobility, Rawat publictions
v Shankara Rao, C.N.,2009, Priciples of Sociology with an Intrroduction to Social
Thought, S. Chand Publications
Web Sources
v http://www.academia.edu/3218832/Sanskritisation_Westernisation_and_Modernisation
v http://nptel.ac.in/courses/109104044/lecture_pdf/Lecture%205.pdf
v http://rjhssonline.com/HTMLPaper.aspx?Journal=Research%20Journal%20of%20Huma
nities%20and%20Social%20Sciences;PID=2012-3-3-20
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