The health and environmental

impacts of hazardous wastes

IMPACT PROFILES

Final report

Prepared for:
The Department of the Environment

Prepared by:
Ascend Waste and Environment Pty Ltd

Date::7 June 2015

Geoff Latimer

Project Number:
Project # 15001AG
The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes
Project # 15001AG
Date: 7 June 2015

This report has been prepared for The Department of the Environment in accordance with the terms and
conditions of appointment dated 6 January 2015, and is based on the assumptions and exclusions set out in our
scope of work. The report must not be reproduced in whole or in part except with the prior consent of Ascend
Waste and Environment Pty Ltd and subject to inclusion of an acknowledgement of the source.
Whilst reasonable attempts have been made to ensure that the contents of this report are accurate and complete
at the time of writing, Ascend Waste and Environment Pty Ltd cannot accept any responsibility for any use of or
reliance on the contents of this report by any third party.
© Ascend Waste and Environment Pty Ltd

VERSION CONTROL RECORD

Document File Name Date Issued Version Author Reviewer
Draft first profiles for review 11 March 2015 Rev 0 Geoff Latimer Ian Rae
15001AG_AWE_Health Env 27 April 2015 Rev0 Geoff Latimer Ian Rae
Impacts draft report rev 0
15001AG_AWE_Health Env 7 June 2015 Rev0 Geoff Latimer Ian Rae
Impacts final report rev 0

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes

Contents
Page

1 Introduction 5

2 Summary report: Australia’s key hazardous waste impacts and risks 6

3 Hazardous waste impact profiles 16

3.1 Clinical waste from medical care in hospitals, medical centres and clinics 16
3.2 Wastes from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products 22
3.3 Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines 26
3.4 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of biocides and phytopharmaceuticals 32
3.5 Wastes from the manufacture, formulation and use of wood preserving chemicals 39
3.6 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of organic solvent 44
3.7 Wastes from heat treatment and tempering operations containing cyanides 48
3.8 Waste mineral oils unfit for their originally intended use 51
3.9 Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures, emulsions 56
3.10 Waste substances and articles containing or contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) and/or polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) and/or polybrominated biphenyls
(PBBs) 59
3.11 Waste tarry residues arising from refining, distillation and any pyrolytic treatment 63
3.12 Wastes from production, formulation and use of inks, dyes, pigments, paints, lacquers,
varnish 66
3.13 Wastes from production, formulation and use of resins, latex, plasticizers, glues/
adhesives 70
3.14 Wastes of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation 74
3.15 Wastes from production, formulation and use of photographic chemicals and processing
materials 78
3.16 Wastes resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics 82
3.17 Residues arising from industrial waste disposal operations 86
3.18 Metal carbonyls 93
3.19 Beryllium; beryllium compounds 96
3.20 Hexavalent chromium compounds 99
3.21 Copper compounds 103
3.22 Zinc compounds 107
3.23 Arsenic; arsenic compounds 111
3.24 Selenium; selenium compounds 115
3.25 Cadmium; cadmium compounds 119
3.26 Antimony; antimony compounds 124
3.27 Tellurium; tellurium compounds 128
3.28 Mercury; mercury compounds 132
3.29 Thallium; thallium compounds 137
3.30 Lead; lead compounds 141
3.31 Inorganic fluorine compounds excluding calcium fluoride 146
3.32 Inorganic cyanides 150
3.33 Acidic solutions or acids in solid form 154
3.34 Basic solutions or bases in solid form 160
3.35 Asbestos (dust and fibres) 164
3.36 Organic phosphorus compounds 170

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page i

3.37 Organic cyanides 174
3.38 Phenols; phenol compounds including chlorophenols 177
3.39 Ethers 181
3.40 Halogenated organic solvents 186
3.41 Organic solvents excluding halogenated solvents 190
3.42 Any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-furan 194
3.43 Any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin 198
3.44 Organohalogen compounds other than substances referred to in this list (e.g. Y39, Y41,
Y42, Y43, Y44) 202
3.45 Other metal compounds (such as compounds of barium, cobalt, nickel and vanadium) 208
3.46 Other inorganic chemicals (such as inorganic sulfides, boron compounds, phosphorus
compounds and non-toxic salts) 212
3.47 Other organic chemicals 216
3.48 Controlled putrescible/ organic waste 220
3.49 End of life tyres 225

List of Appendices
Appendix A: Basel Y-code to NEPM code conversion
Appendix B: NEPM code to Basel Y-code conversion
Appendix C: Approach to quantifying relative hazard

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page ii

Glossary of terms
The Act Hazardous Waste (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1989

ANZSIC Australia and New Zealand Standard Industry Codes

Basel The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous

Convention Wastes and their Disposal. The Convention puts an onus on exporting countries to
ensure that hazardous wastes are managed in an environmentally sound manner in
the country of import.

Controlled Waste that falls under the control of the Controlled Waste National Environment
Waste Protection Measure. Generally equivalent to hazardous waste, although definitional
differences of the latter exist across jurisdictions

Controlled National Environment Protection (Movement of Controlled Waste between States and
Waste NEPM Territories) Measure.

CRT Cathode ray tube

e-waste Electrical and electronic equipment that has reached the end of its functional life. For
the purposes of the scheme, this includes televisions and computers and their
peripheral components

Hazard score A quantification of comparative hazard (between wastes) expressed on a scale of 1 –

6 (in order of increasing hazard) , developed specifically for this project

Hazardous A hazardous waste, as defined in the Australian Government’s National Waste Policy:
waste Less waste, more resources (2009), is a substance or object that exhibits hazardous
characteristics, is no longer fit for its intended use and requires disposal. According to
the Act, hazardous waste means:
(a) waste prescribed by the regulations, where the waste has any of the
characteristics mentioned in Annex III to the Basel Convention; or
(b) wastes covered by paragraph 1(a) of Article 1 of the Basel Convention; or
(c) household waste; or
(d) residues arising from the incineration of household waste; but does not include
wastes covered by paragraph 4 of Article 1 of the Basel Convention.

Interstate data Data collected about hazardous waste generated in one jurisdiction and treated in
another, through cross-border transport under the Controlled Waste NEPM

Intrastate data Data collected about hazardous waste generated, transported and treated within the
one jurisdiction
kt Kilotonnes (thousands of tonnes)

LPCL Low POP concentration limit

Mt Megatonnes (millions of tonnes)

NEPM National Environment Protection (Movement of Controlled Waste between States and
Territories) Measure 1998

NEPM codes Alphanumeric codes, in the format A123, that are used to describe waste types under
the Controlled Waste NEPM

PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl

PFOS Perfluorooctane sulfonate

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page iii

POP Persistent organic pollutant

POP-BDE Persistent organic pollutants - bromodiphenyl ethers (various forms)

The Department Department of the Environment

Tracking Jurisdiction-based hazardous waste tracking systems, which are in place in New
system South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and Victoria. These
tracking systems can be either online, paper-based, or a combination of both these
mechanisms.

Tracked data Hazardous waste collected under the arrangements of a tracking system

Treatment Treatment of waste is the removal, reduction or immobilisation of a hazardous

characteristic to enable the waste to be reused, recycled, sent to an Energy from
Waste facility or disposed.

Waste (For data collation purposes) is materials or products that are unwanted or have been
discarded, rejected or abandoned. Waste includes materials or products that are
recycled, converted to energy, or disposed. Materials and products that are reused
(for their original or another purpose without reprocessing) are not solid waste
because they remain in use.

Waste arisings Hazardous waste is said to ‘arise’ when it causes demand for processing, storage,
treatment or disposal infrastructure.

Waste Code Three-digit code typically used by jurisdictions to describe NEPM-listed wastes.
These are also referred to as ’NEPM codes’ although it is noted that the actual codes
do not appear in the NEPM itself.

Waste fate Refers to the destination of the waste within the set of defined end points. It includes
reuse, treatment, recycling, energy recovery, and disposal. Waste transfer and
storage should not generally considered as a waste fate. The term fate does not infer
that the waste material is destroyed or lost.

WEEE Waste electrical and electronic equipment

Y-code The Basel Convention’s waste coding or classification system which encompasses 47
wastes (Y1 – Y47).
Y+8 A term introduced to describe those wastes that are reported in controlled waste
tracking in Australia, but do not have a logical conversion in Y code terms, so have
been reported to Basel as 8 new codes: ‘Y+8’ 1-8.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page iv

1 Introduction
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal (Basel Convention), which regulates the movement of hazardous wastes
across international boundaries, came into force in 1992, the same year that Australia
became a signatory to it.

The Australian Government is obliged to submit an annual report to the Basel Secretariat
containing the tonnages of hazardous wastes generated in the country each calendar year.
The data must be reported using the Basel Convention’s classification system known as Y-
codes. State and territory governments collect this data as part of their regulatory role in
managing hazardous waste and its potential for impact on the environment and human
health, and use their own classification systems, which are based on those adopted
nationally under the National Environment Protection (Movement of Controlled Waste
between States and Territories) Measure (Controlled Waste NEPM), referred to in this report
as ‘NEPM codes’.

A NEPM code to Basel Y-code conversion list is provided in Appendix A, while a Basel Y-
code to NEPM code conversion is shown at Appendix B.

The Australian Government Department of the Environment commissioned Ascend Waste

and Environment to prepare a collation of Australia-relevant knowledge on the health and
environmental impacts of hazardous waste (actual and potential). This report presents that
collation in the form of a catalogue of 49 individual hazardous waste impact profiles,
designed to strengthen the knowledge of hazards, impacts, potential risks and the
management of hazardous waste specifically relevant to Australia.

Impact profiles cover Y codes 1-45, and exclude Y46 (waste collected from households),
Y47 (residues from the incineration of household waste) and Y14 (waste chemical
substances arising from research and development or teaching activities, including those
which are not identified and/or are new and whose effects on human health and/or the
environment are not known). Of the additional eight wastes Australia reports to Basel (the so
called ‘Y+8’), three of these (waste containers, contaminated soils and contaminated
sludges) have also been excluded because they, like Y14, are not hazard-specific so could
have a range of impacts, and would be covered by other wastes in the list.

An important feature of each profile is a relative measure of hazard, called hazard score,
described by a colour-coded bar graphic and numeric score from 0 to 6. This provides a
comparative sense of the severity of hazard posed by each waste. The method used in
compiling hazard scores is described in Appendix C.

As an adjunct to the profiles catalogue, section 2 presents a brief report discussing those
wastes considered to pose significant risks in the Australian context, through either their
inherent hazard, the management challenges they pose or the sheer volume in which they
are produced in each year.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 5

2 Summary report: Australia’s key hazardous waste
impacts and risks
Of the 49 waste groups listed in the attached profiles, it is difficult to determine which ones
have the most potential for impact or present the most significant risks in an Australian
context. Overall tonnage contribution is a raw indicator that does not take account of the
degree of hazard posed by the waste, while inherent hazard provides no indication of the
potential for exposure, either to humans or the environment, and therefore risk to both. It
seems logical that a combination of both hazard and tonnage (a proxy for exposure) is
relevant to identifying key risk wastes, but a metric to do so is not clear. Typically risk is a
measure of hazard and exposure, but exposure is variable depending on different
circumstances that exposure to the waste could occur within.

Figure 1 provides an infographic of wastes, in this case as NEPM codes (because some Y
codes cover multiple NEPM codes with different tonnage arisings and hazards). Each
waste’s hazard score is displayed alongside the 2013 tonnage. This allows quick
identification of the most significant volume contributors on the left and the most significant
hazard contributors on the right.

In hazard score terms, the top 10-12 wastes exhibit hazard characteristics of biohazard
(clinical and related waste), chromium-based toxicity/ eco-toxicity (wood preserving
chemicals and hexavalent chromium compounds), explosivity, or persistent (mainly chronic)
debilitative impacts widely in the environment as well as to human health (dioxins and
furans, pesticides, PCBs and other halogenated organic compounds). Looked at in pure
volume terms, the top 10-12 wastes are completely different, and dominated by biosolids
and contaminated soils (the latter is not listed in Figure 1, since no hazard score was
possible).

Putting biosolids and soils to one side, the remaining top ten wastes (by tonnage of arisings
in 2013) were:

1. Asbestos (790kt)
2. Grease trap waste (557kt)
3. Tyres (435kt)
4. Oily waters (416kt)
5. Alkali wastes (351kt)
6. Animal effluent and residues (342kt)
7. Waste oils (240kt)
8. Zinc compounds (211kt)
9. Lead compounds (133kt)
10. Non-toxic salts (91kt).

All wastes in this report are inherently hazardous, at least at some level. Tonnage is
important in prioritising the potential for impact because, in a simplistic sense, as quantity
increases the potential for exposure to hazards (across the population), and therefore risk
also increases. However, from the above list there are a number of wastes that probably
don’t deserve ‘high priority’ status from a risk of impact perspective: very large tonnage/ low
hazard wastes like animal effluent (K100), grease trap (K110) and tyres (T140); while D230
is unique in that its large volumes comes from a very small number of very specific sources,
which limits the potential for exposure.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 6

Taking a broader view that includes volume, hazard and professional opinion-based
considerations such as specific problem wastes, current and future, the key wastes in terms
of impact risk, critical to improved hazardous waste management in Australia, are:

1. Asbestos
2. Waste oil
3. Alkali wastes
4. Lead waste
5. Clinical and related wastes
6. Contaminated soils
7. Spent pot liner (SPL) waste
8. ‘Contaminated’ biosolids
9. Non-toxic salts [Coal seam gas (CSG) waste]
10. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) waste.

These are described below with reference to their respective Basel and NEPM codes in
parentheses).

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 7

Figure 1: Hazardous relative waste hazard versus quantity in 2013

Waste quantity (tonnes) NEPM Waste Code Hazard score (1-6)

1,500,000 t 1,000,000 t 500,000 t

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 8

1. Asbestos (Y36, N220)

Asbestos waste includes both end-of-life asbestos-containing building materials as well as

soil that has been tested to demonstrate asbestos contamination. Since the latter may
involve very low asbestos fibre concentrations and very high soil volumes, this greatly
contributes to reported asbestos waste volumes.

Asbestos is one of the largest flows of hazardous waste in Australia, making up 11% of
national hazardous waste arisings and posing significant health risks. There is no evidence
to suggest the supply of waste asbestos is peaking or slowing.

The risks posed by asbestos are predominantly related to human health. Asbestos only
poses a risk to health when asbestos fibres are breathed in. Inhaling asbestos fibres may
cause asbestos-related disease and death. When asbestos fibres are breathed in, they can
lodge in lung tissue and cause inflammation, scarring and some more serious asbestos-
related diseases, which usually take many years, if not decades, to develop. The four major
asbestos-related diseases, in increasing order of severity, are: pleural plaques, asbestosis,
lung cancer and mesothelioma.

From the 1950s to the 1970s the most refined form of brown and blue asbestos was pumped
into the roof cavities of more than 1,000 Canberra and NSW homes as insulation. Loose raw
asbestos was touted as cheap and effective insulation. The product was called Asbestosfluf,
and the company that installed it became known as Mr Fluffy. Despite an extensive
Commonwealth Government asbestos removal program in the 1980s, in recent years
twenty-seven Canberra families have had to leave their homes, which have been deemed
unsafe to live in,. Recent assessment reports show that if there are fine cracks around
cornices or halls, ceiling fibres are being released into living areas and potential onto
clothing via cracks in wardrobes.

2. Waste oils (Y8, J100)

Waste mineral oils are used lubricating oils that come from industrial and domestic vehicle
engines and machinery, and can be reclaimed or recovered and recycled for other uses.
Tracking data suggests that about 3.5% of national hazardous waste volume is waste oil. Oil
waste arisings continue to grow, almost doubling in the last 5 years, with some of this growth
possibly due to metal and petroleum-based mining activities, which are significant industrial
engine users.

Impacts from oils are mostly to the environment. Oil spills at sea have occurred historically
with catastrophic impacts on local ecosystems. The infamous Exxon Valdez oil tanker
incident in Alaska in 1989 was shocking in terms of both its scale and its impact. Immediate
effects were the deaths of over 100,000 birds and mammals and 16,000 – 21,000 gallons
were estimated to still remain on surrounding beaches as recently as 2014, 25 years later.

In March 2009 large quantities of fuel oil, other fuel and ammonium nitrate spilled from the
MV Pacific Adventurer into the Coral Sea, north of Moreton Bay, Queensland, during
Cyclone Hamish. Over the following days, the spill washed ashore along 60 km of coastline
encompassing the Sunshine Coast, Moreton Bay, Bribie Island and Moreton Island.
Queensland Premier Anna Bligh described the spill as "worst environmental disaster
Queensland has ever seen". It took over 1,425 people 16 months to clean up the affected
areas at a total cost of $4 million.

The Product Stewardship for Oil Program was introduced by the Australian Government in
2001. The arrangements comprise a levy-benefit system, where an 8.5 cents per litre levy on

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 9

new oil, helps fund the benefit – 50 cents per litre paid back to re-refiners and recyclers on
the sale of ‘re-refined’ waste oil. While the program has been successful, there is some
uncertainty about the legitimacy of benefits claimed by the recycling industry, due to
vagaries in definition of activities and outputs, leading to the current situation of a program
that pays out more in benefits than it collects in usable levies.1.

3. Alkali wastes (Y35, C100)

Alkali or alkaline wastes, otherwise known as basic solutions or bases in solid form, are
produced in significant quantities from coal seam gas (CSG) extraction in Queensland,
cement and lime kilns around Australia, aluminium smelting and as a surface cleaner/
degreaser in a range of industries as diverse as metal coating and finishing to fast food.

The main impacts of alkalis are to human health, felt acutely as a result of exposure to
concentrated solutions. Exposure can result in severe burns to the skin, mouth, throat or
eyes depending on the exposed area.

This waste is moderately significant nationally, at around 5% of all hazardous waste arising
in 2013, with 64% of it coming from Queensland. Since about 2009 there has been
exponential growth in Queensland arisings which, given a similar trend for non-toxic salts
(the primary classification for CSG waste), is likely to be reflective of the rise of the CSG
extraction industry in Queensland. The CSG industry produces around 95% of alkali waste in
Queensland.

The main waste concern from CSG extraction is liquid, solid or sludge salt/ brine waste,
discussed under ‘9. Non-toxic salts’ below. However, 95% of the Queensland-generated
alkali wastes are actually produced by the CSG industry, which equates to over 200,000
tonnes, which is about 4 times Queensland’s total non-toxic salts arisings. This discrepancy
is discussed further in ‘9’ below.

4. Lead wastes (Y31/ D220)

A significant component of lead waste in Australia is from lead acid batteries. Leaded glass
is another wastestream that has emerged from the e-waste recycling industry, where
cathode ray television/ monitor (CRT) glass contains large quantities of lead.

While lead is ecotoxic, persistent and bioaccumulative in the environment, it is primarily a

health impact consideration. Long-term exposure to lead can result in a variety of adverse
health effects, mainly involving the central nervous system, major organs and effects on
unborn babies. Health consequences from exposure are more significant in children aged 5
years or younger. Unborn children can be exposed through their mothers and harmful effects
may include: premature birth, smaller babies, decreased mental ability, learning difficulties
and reduced growth.

Lead waste generation in Australia is significant and growing. In 2013 lead waste made up
around 2% of all hazardous waste generated. While lead acid battery recycling infrastructure
has grown substantially in Australia in recent years, environmentally sound and cost-

1 Byron, N, Aither (2013), for the Department of the Environment. Third independent review of the Product
Stewardship (Oil) Act 2000 Final Report. Accessed on 29 May 102015 from:
http://www.environment.gov.au/resource/third-independent-review- product-stewardship-oil-act-2000

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 10

effective solutions to the growing problem (in the short term at least) of leaded CRT-glass
waste from the e-waste recycling industry remain.

5. Clinical (biohazardous) waste (Y & Y3/ R100 & R120)

Clinical and related wastes arise from medical, nursing, dental, veterinary, laboratory,
pharmaceutical, podiatry, tattooing, body piercing, brothels, emergency services, blood
banks, mortuary practices and other similar practices, and wastes generated in healthcare
facilities or other facilities during the investigation or treatment of patients or research
projects, which have the potential to cause disease, injury, or public offence.

Other wastes are also generated within health care settings. Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs
and medicines are waste pharmaceutical products that have: passed their recommended
shelf life; been discarded as off-specification batches; been returned by patients or
discarded. These wastes are often generated directly from pharmacies, hospitals, medical
centres and hospital dispensaries. A particularly notable pharmaceutical waste is waste
cytotoxic drugs, or waste (including sharps) contaminated by cytotoxic drugs. A cytotoxic
drug has carcinogenic (cancer-causing), mutagenic (increase mutations of genetic material)
or teratogenic (birth defect) potential, and is commonly used in the treatment of cancer.

At around 1% of all hazardous waste in Australia, they are notable in volume terms. When
combined with the extreme nature of their hazard, any discussion of priority hazardous
wastes from a risk perspective must include them.

The hazardous nature of clinical waste is due to the presence of infectious agents and/or the
presence of used sharps (for example, needles). Clinical waste should always be assumed
to potentially contain a variety of pathogenic microorganisms, because the presence or
absence of pathogens cannot be determined at the time the waste is produced. Pathogens
in clinical waste that is not well managed may enter the human body through the skin, by
inhalation or by ingestion.

Apart from fear of health hazards, the community is sensitive to the visual impact of this
waste, particularly recognisable human body parts. In some other cultures, religious beliefs
require human body parts to be returned to a patient’s family and buried in cemeteries.

Health-care workers are particularly vulnerable to needle stick injury, through accidental
puncture of the skin for the use, handling or disposal of sharps.

Australian states and territories tightly regulate the management of biohazardous wastes.
However, because of the distributed nature of health care facilities and workers in Australia,
and the consequences of poor handling of this waste are high, clinical or biohazardous
waste as a constant source of human health risk.

6. Contaminated soils (N120)

As discussed above, contaminated soils are not covered in these profiles because their
collectively variable hazards make discussing specific impacts impossible. However,
produced at approximately 1.4Mt annually, they are impossible to ignore.

Their key potential impact is to the environment, and these profiles reference many
instances of historical soil contamination that has had major consequences, and clean costs.
Such examples are discussed in the “Has anything happened before in Australia?” section of
the following profiles: Y5/ H170, Y6/ G160, Y11/ J160, Y27/ D170, Y29/ D120, Y31/ D220,
Y33/ A130, Y34/ B100, Y36/ N220, Y41/ G150, Y42/ G110 and Y43/44/ M170/180.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 11

‘Invisible’ wastes

A substantial quantity of hazardous waste is generated and managed onsite in industrial

settings that does not appear in waste tracking data, making it ‘missing’ or ‘invisible’ in
nationally reported estimates of waste arisings. Some of these wastes have also, historically,
not been considered within the hazardous waste framework. Two major examples, in
volume, potential impact and management complexity terms are described below.

7. Spent pot liner (SPL)

Spent pot lining (SPL) is a waste material generated from aluminium smelters, of which there
are five in Australia. Aluminium smelting takes place in electrolytic cells that are known as
pots. During the operation of the cell, substances, including aluminium and fluorides, are
absorbed into the cell lining. After some years of operation, the pot lining fails and is
removed. The removed material is SPL, a hazardous waste due to:
• the presence of fluoride and cyanide compounds that are leachable in water
• its corrosiveness – it exhibits high pH due to the presence of alkali metals and oxides
• its reactivity with water - producing inflammable, toxic and explosive gases. This last
hazard in particular makes it difficult to handle and treat

Apart from the major human health hazard posed, the presence of fluorine in particular
means that this waste has the potential for long-term toxic effects on the environment
(fluorine is highly persistent) if poorly managed.

SPL does appear in waste tracking systems, variously as D300 (non-toxic salts), N205
(residues from industrial treatment and disposal operations) or, probably its most accurate
classification, D110/ Y32 (inorganic fluorine compounds) as it appears in these profiles. This
waste stream is likely to diminish over time - the tightening economics of the aluminium
smelting industry in Australia have recently closed two smelters. But the primary issue,
combined with the risk of human health and environmental impact, is the scale of long-term
industry stockpiles – estimated to be in the order of 900,000 tonnes – sufficient to more than
half fill the Melbourne Cricket Ground.

8. ‘Contaminated’ biosolids

Biosolids are a product of sewage sludge (the sludge collected from wastewater treatment)
once it has undergone further treatment to reduce disease causing pathogens and volatile
organic matter, producing a stabilised product. Biosolids have significant potential for
beneficial reuse, which currently occurs throughout Australia. Suitable quality biosolids can
be applied as a fertiliser to improve and maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth.

They are not a controlled waste under the NEPM, nor are they assigned a Basel Y code, and
consequently are not tracked in most jurisdictions, causing them historically to be ‘invisible’
in national hazardous waste estimates. At almost 1.5Mt nationally in 2013, biosolids take a
lot of ‘hiding’, so they were included in Australia’s annual hazardous waste reporting to the
Basel Convention from 2012 onwards under Y18/ N205 Residues arising from industrial
waste treatment/disposal operations, along with other wastes that are reported to tracking
systems under this category.

While not typically considered as hazardous waste, or even waste at all by some, it is widely
accepted that some biosolids – particularly those generated in treatment plants servicing
industrial areas – are contaminated with heavy metals at levels exceeding criteria set to

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 12

protect environmental and human health values, that would (if they were soils for example)
would classify them as a hazardous waste.

Noting that a hazard risk versus resource value tension exists for biosolids, the application of
state-based biosolids guideline chemical contaminant concentration levels should ensure
that beneficial reuse applications match the quality of the biosolids in a ‘fit for purpose’ way.

Apart from the scale of the waste stream – the largest of all reported to Basel – an emerging
problem is the reality that many biosolids guidelines applied by states and territories have
inadequate coverage of hazardous chemicals. For example Western Australian and South
Australian guidelines, do not consider arsenic, mercury or lead, although these are the
heavy metals within much of Victoria’s historical Western Treatment Plant biosolids stockpile
that exceed hazardous waste concentration thresholds.

A bigger issue is the potential presence of chemicals only relatively recently determined to
be an environmental concern, such as the new Stockholm Convention listings of POPs,
which are known to be present in biosolids. Should these chemicals be present at levels high
enough to cause concern, legislative change is foreseeable that could lead to a quite
different set of biosolids management requirements in the near future.

Emerging wastes

Coal seam gas (CSG) waste and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) waste are two
looming waste issues. The former has emerged in the last decade and is growing at
unprecedented rates. The latter is waiting on the regulatory near-horizon.

9. Coals seam gas (CSG) waste

Coal seam gas (CSG) mining occurs predominantly in Queensland and to a lesser extent in
NSW. Consequently, approximately 80% of CSG-based waste is generated in Queensland,
in the Bowen and Surat Basins. These wastes are nominally captured in waste tracking
systems as D300 non-toxic salts.

The CSG extraction process produces a range of wastes, but salty/ brine wastes are of most
concern. CSG wastes are produced in very large tonnages and they are a difficult problem
for the waste industry, which often relies on landfill. Water penetrating a landfill will mobilise
any stored salt in the leachate stream, which creates a major environmental risk of
groundwater infiltration and subsequent contamination of aquifers, especially given the
volumes to be managed.

The alkali wastes discussion in ‘3’ above notes that the Queensland CSG industry alone
produces alkali waste at a rate that is over 4 times the state’s non-toxic salts figure, This
could be an issue of coding the same waste in two different ways, since salt wastes from
CSG extraction may be alkaline. Regardless, given the large known onsite storages of CSG
waste, which don’t make their way onto national arisings figures (because they haven’t hit
the tracking system), the CSG industry currently and even more so in the future has an
environmental management issue of unprecedented scale.

10. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) waste

Referred to in the profile for Y45/ M160 Organohalogen compounds other than substances
referred to in this list, POPs waste also shared a commonality with other waste types such
as chlorophenols (Y39), halogenated solvents (Y41), dioxins and furans (Y43 and Y44),
PCB-like compounds (Y10) and organochlorine pesticides (within Y4), due to the
halogenated elements (typically fluorine, chlorine or bromine) in their structure.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 13

The best examples of POPs are the new additions to the Stockholm Convention in 2009, the
brominated flame retardants (BFR) polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and
hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS).

POPs are hazardous and environmentally persistent substances which can be transported
between countries by the earth's oceans and atmosphere. POPs accumulate in living
organisms and have been traced in the fatty tissues of humans and other animals. While
impacts vary with each individual chemical species, human health effects tend to be chronic
– some POPS are possible human carcinogens. Generally speaking, their environmental
impact is of equivalent or greater concern - the PBDEs, PFOS and HBCD all demonstrate
significant aquatic toxicity, persistence in the environment and tend towards biomagnification
(increasing accumulation along the food chain). There is general international agreement
that they require global action to reduce their impact on humans and the environment.

Banned since 2004, PBDEs have been historically added at percentage levels to plastics in
a range of products including electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), furniture upholstery,
automobile interiors, mattresses and carpet underlay. HBCD has been added to extruded
and expanded polystyrene foams used in building insulation and PFOS, a fluorinated
surfactant, has been primarily as a dispersant in firefighting foams.

These substances, when present in wastes such as end of life products presenting for
disposal, are not technically regarded as hazardous wastes in Australia at present. E-waste
is a good example of such a potentially PBDE-containing waste. This is because Australia is
still undertaking its assessment processes to determine whether to ratify these new additions
to the Stockholm Convention.

Another waste, one that was in the initial 12 listed under the Stockholm Convention, is
hexachlorobenzene (HCB), a substantial and intractable stored quantity of which has been
under close management by Orica at its Port Botany site for the last couple of decades. It
has been long understood that existing Australian infrastructure for halogenated chemical
treatment is inadequate for dealing with the Orica HCB waste, not to mention how it would
cope with a new, related wastestream.

Lastly, as recently as May 2015, there were three more additions to the Convention –
polychlorinated napthalenes, hexachlorobutadiene and pentachlorophenol. While ratification
assessment processes for countries like Australia are lengthy and their ultimate decisions
uncertain, indications are that POPs-containing wastes are an emerging consideration for
Australian waste policymakers and waste managers alike, particularly given local limitations
that currently exist in POPs-specific treatment infrastructure.

These issues indicate an emerging potential problem in relation to management of POP

waste as it arises, and to the set of current infrastructure available to treat it in an
environmentally sound manner.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 14

Conclusion

Hazardous wastes have been regulated by state and territory governments in Australia for
decades, leading to strong controls around licensing of facility operations that generate
these wastes as well as those that treat, dispose or otherwise handle them. A deeper
knowledge of what specific hazardous wastes are produced in Australia, from what sources
they arise, which management pathways and fates they go to and what their human health
and environmental impacts or consequences could be, pertinent to Australia, is only more
recently growing. As information and data is being built upon through various co-operative
Australian Government/ State and Territory Government projects, more co-operative
management of national-scale issues is likely to occur.

The health and environmental impact profiles developed in this report contribute to a deeper,
richer, more current and more broadly accessible understanding of hazardous wastes and
their impacts in Australia.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 15

3 Hazardous waste impact profiles
3.1 Clinical waste from medical care in hospitals, medical centres and clinics
Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Clinical waste from medical care in
category:Y1 code: A4020 R100
hospitals, medical centres and clinics
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0

Clinical waste is waste arising from medical, nursing, dental,

veterinary, laboratory, pharmaceutical, podiatry, tattooing, body
piercing, brothels, emergency services, blood banks, mortuary
Description of practices and other similar practices, and wastes generated in
the waste healthcare facilities or other facilities during the investigation or
treatment of patients or research projects, which have the potential
to cause disease, injury, or public offence, and includes: sharps and
non-sharps clinical waste.

Waste form Solid and liquid

Sharps can cause disease and/or injury and include: syringes,

needles, lancets, scalpel blades and anything capable of cutting or
penetrating the skin.
Non-sharps clinical waste is potentially pathogenic and includes: -
What is it? human blood or body fluids;
- human tissue;
- a clinical specimen (other than urine or faeces);
- a laboratory culture;
- tissue, carcasses or other waste arising from animals used for
Physical/ laboratory investigation or for medical or veterinary research;
chemical - materials or equipment contaminated with any of the above;
description - waste from patients known to have, or suspected of having a
communicable disease.
Pathogenicity is the capacity of a virus, bacteria or related organism
to cause a disease.
Clinical waste that has been containerised correctly will be present
in yellow colour-coded bags, boxes (sharps) and bins.
Clinical settings also produce pharmaceutical waste (covered by Y3)
and can produce limited mercury wastes (Y29) from equipment such
as thermometers, blood pressure gauges and other medical
applications, products and chemicals.
Substances or wastes containing viable
H6.2: Infectious micro-organisms or their toxins which are
Primary hazard
Why is it substances known or suspected to cause disease in
hazardous? animals or humans

Secondary H13: Capable of Capable, by any means, after disposal, of

hazard yielding another yielding another material, e.g., leachate,

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 16

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Clinical waste from medical care in
category:Y1 code: A4020 R100
hospitals, medical centres and clinics
hazard or hazardous which possesses any of the characteristics
material listed above.

Other hazard(s) N/A N/A

Main likely chemical contaminants N/A

Where does it Healthcare and related facilities such as those described under
Main sources
come from? ‘Description of the waste’.

Like other hazardous wastes, clinical waste is regulated at the state

and territory level in Australia. In general, clinical waste must be
treated to render the waste non-hazardous prior to final disposal.
Such treatment includes incineration, autoclaving, chemical
How is it
Main fates disinfection and microwave irradiation, with shredding regularly used
managed?
in conjunction with non-incineration techniques. Incineration is
typically acceptable for all types of clinical waste, whereas other
treatment methods are typically not suitable for some components of
clinical waste, such as human tissue.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 1.0%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 72,214 ACT: 207 NSW: 27,296
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 297 Qld: 24,630 SA: 5,775
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 8 Vic: 10,711 WA: 3,289

The hazardous nature of clinical waste is due to the presence of

infectious agents and/or the presence of used sharps. Clinical waste
should always be assumed to potentially contain a variety of
pathogenic microorganisms, because the presence or absence of
pathogens cannot be determined at the time the waste is produced.
Pathogens in clinical waste that is not well managed may enter the
human body through several routes:
- through a puncture, abrasion or cut in the skin

Potential health - through mucous membranes

Overview
impacts - by inhalation
- by ingestion.
Apart from fear of health hazards, the community is sensitive to the
visual impact of this waste, particularly recognisable human body
parts. In some other cultures, religious beliefs require human body
parts to be returned to a patient’s family and buried in cemeteries.
Health-care workers are particularly vulnerable to needle stick injury,
through accidental puncture of the skin for the use, handling or
disposal of sharps.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 17

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Clinical waste from medical care in
category:Y1 code: A4020 R100
hospitals, medical centres and clinics
An additional health impact is in the form of air pollution, from
emissions of pollutants as constituents of flue gases from the
incineration of clinical waste. It is noted however that stringent
emission standards apply to operators of these incinerators by
environmental regulators, through the use of advanced pollution
control equipment.

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste, its

inherent pathogenicity and the extent of the disease threat posed by
Acute toxicity the infected waste. Acuteness of toxicity and impact risk (ranging
from harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of the
infecting virus, bacteria, etc.

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste, its

inherent pathogenicity and the extent of the disease threat posed by
Chronic toxicity the infected waste. Irreversability of toxic effects and impact risk
(ranging from harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of
the infecting virus, bacteria, etc.

Low: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its

inherent carcinogenicity. Cancer is not a communicable disease so
it is extremely unlikely to be spread through contact with infectious
Carcinogenicity
wastes, even if they contain blood from a cancer sufferer.
Theoretical risk from contamination of the clinical wastestream with
residual cytotoxics, a related medical waste.

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste, its

inherent pathogenicity and the extent of the disease threat posed by
Reproductive
the infected waste. Risk to the unborn child (ranging from harmful to
toxicity
potentially fatal) is dependent on the nature of the infecting virus,
bacteria, etc.

In the year 2000, sharps injuries to health-care workers worldwide were estimated to have
caused about 66 000 hepatitis B, 16 000 hepatitis C and 200–5000 HIV infections among
Workplace
health-care workers1. It is estimated that more than two million health-care workers are
health & safety
exposed to needle stick injuries with infected sharps every year 1. Sharps and needle stick
impacts
injury incidents in Australia are estimated to affect at least 18,000 healthcare workers each
year 2.

The risk of a sharps injury among patients and the public is much lower, particularly in
Australia, as there are tight controls around proper handling, storage, transport and
treatment of infectious clinical waste.
But globally, because the amount of waste produced is growing faster than the
Population
infrastructure to deal with it, it is thought that at least half the world’s population is at risk
scale impacts
from environmental, occupational or public-health exposure to poor clinical waste
management 3.
Members of the public can be exposed to used syringes (waste) from careless discarding
practices of intravenous drug users.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 18

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Clinical waste from medical care in
category:Y1 code: A4020 R100
hospitals, medical centres and clinics
The major hazard from clinical waste is impact to human health.
However, environmental impacts are also possible, but not in the
strictest sense of ecotoxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation.
Clinical waste is typically an environmental health issue, in the
sense that infectious agents can be transported through
Overview
environmental channels (such as pollution or accidental contact with
syringes discarded in public places) with an ultimate impact on
Potential human health.
environment Consequently the typical component measures of environmental
impacts impact are not directly applicable for this waste.

Acute ecotoxicity N/A

Chronic
N/A
ecotoxicity

Persistence N/A

Bioaccumulation N/A

Where are the Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of impacts
most likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low

Clinical waste in Australia is handled in a way that constrains the highest risk of impact (to
human health) to those closest to handling the waste at the point of generation and onsite
management in the health care industry.
Needle stick injuries occur in Australia at low relative frequency to the number of sharps
Has anything handled in the health care system but, overall, the estimate of 18,000 needle stick injury
happened incidents per year2 (in Australian health care) is unacceptably high.
before in From time to time there are reports in the media of people standing on discarded
Australia? hypodermic syringe needles in public places like beaches and parks.
The Syringe Tide4 was an environmental disaster during 1987-88 in New Jersey and New
York (USA) where significant amounts of medical waste, including hypodermic syringes,
and raw garbage washed up onto beaches on the Jersey Shore, in New York City, and on
Long Island.

Australian hospitals have stringent infection control policies and

procedures in place to promote waste segregation and proper,
What control
puncture-proof containerisation at source, as well as management
measures are in
Industry – responsibility for infection control. Hospitals also have waste
place to
systematic management plans, procedures and training programs that require
manage risks
controls strict handling practices, since the risks to waste staff can be
posed by this
overlooked in infection control training.
waste?
The Biohazard Waste Industry, as part of the Waste Management
Association of Australia (WMAA), publishes a comprehensive

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 19

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Clinical waste from medical care in
category:Y1 code: A4020 R100
hospitals, medical centres and clinics
Industry Code of Practice for the Management of Clinical and
Related Wastes 5.

Best practice clinical waste management routinely employed in

Australia involves the critical first step of waste separation and
segregation in colour coded bags, bins and purpose-built waste
containers, clear signage and training regarding the colour-coded
Industry –
system, minimal manual handling of waste containers, regular
exposure
removal of waste containers from wards to (potentially refrigerated)
controls
storage and removal, transport and treatment by health care waste
specialist contractors.
All waste management staff are provided PPE such as protective
clothing, gloves, eye protection and spill kits.

State and territory governments regulate the management of

hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
disposal of all hazardous wastes, including clinical waste, through
Government
licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.
Governments also provide needle and syringe programs that include
the widespread provision of safe syringe disposal containers in
public places.

The community is protected from infection risk from clinical waste in

hospitals through the bin segregation system used by health care
workers. This isolates the risk to receptacles that are either difficult
for patients to access or clear as to their separation from the non-
infectious waste stream.
However, there is room for greater education around infection
control and waste management in the home environment, given the
rise of health care delivery alternatives, such as community nursing,
day surgery and other home-based care.
The public can telephone a Needle Clean Up Hotline6 or local
Community council for information on how to remove needles and syringes
found in public places. If you find a needle and syringe and want to
dispose of it yourself, find a hard plastic container with a screw top
(such as a plastic juice, milk or soft drink bottle). Take the container
to the syringe. Keep away from the sharp end of the needle.
Carefully pick up the syringe by the barrel. Do not replace the cap on
the needle. Needle point first, put the syringe in to the container and
seal it tightly. Ring the Needle Clean Up Hotline6 or local council in
your area to arrange for the container to be collected. Alternatively,
you can put the container with the needle and syringe inside in to a
syringe disposal bin if one is nearby.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 20

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Clinical waste from medical care in
category:Y1 code: A4020 R100
hospitals, medical centres and clinics
1. Prüss-Üstün A, Rapiti E, Hutin Y (2005). Estimating the global burden of disease
attributable to contaminated sharps injuries among health care workers. American Journal
of Industrial Hygiene, 48(6):482–490.
2. Alliance for Sharps Safety and Needlestick Prevention in Healthcare (2013). Accessed
March 10, 2015 from: http://www.allianceforsharpssafety.org/2013/10/safety-is-a-frame-of-
mind-for-healthcare-workers/#more-500
3. Harhay MO et al. (2009). Health care waste management: a neglected and growing
public health problem worldwide. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 14(11):1414–
1417.
4. The New York Times (Jul 12, 1988). “Beach Debris Still a Mystery; 77 Syringes Wash
Up on S.I.” Accessed March 12, 2015 from:
http://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/12/nyregion/beach-debris-still-a-mystery-77-syringes-
wash-up-on-si.html
5. Biohazard Waste Industry (2014). Industry Code of Practice for the Management of
Biohazardous Waste (including Clinical & Related wastes), 7th Edition. Waste
References Management Association of Australia.
6. Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing (2005). Needle and syringe
programs: Your questions answered, pp 19 – 22. Accessed March 11, 2015 from:
http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/
73934F5307F88EC7CA257BF0001E009F/$File/ques.pdf
7. EPA Victoria Industrial Waste Resource Guidelines (2009). Clinical and Related Waste
– Operational Guidance. Accessed March 10, 2015 from
http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/IWRG612%201.pdf
8. World Health Organization (2013). Safe management of wastes from health-care
activities, edited by Y. Chartier et al, 2nd Edition. Accessed March 12, 2015 from:
http://www.searo.who.int/srilanka/documents/ safe_management_of_wastes_from_
healthcare_activities.pdf
9. Latimer G, ENVIRON Australia (2014). Baseline Study for the Pacific Hazardous Waste
Management Project – Healthcare Waste. Prepared for Secretariat of the Pacific Regional
Environment Programme (SPREP).

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 21

3.2 Wastes from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products
Waste name:
Wastes from the production and Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
preparation of pharmaceutical category:Y2 code: A4010 R140
products
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0

This category of waste is similar in hazard and potential impact to

Y3, Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines. As a result this
profile to a large extent mirrors that of Y3. The key difference is the
setting that it is generated – for Y2 this is at the pharmaceutical
product manufacturing stage rather than the point in the lifecycle
Description of where the product is sold, administered or used (pharmacy or health
the waste care facility).
What is it?
Another difference is that as a manufacturing waste, there will be
process wastes that may be raw materials-based rather than wastes
of final manufactured products.
A pharmaceutical product is a restricted drug or medicine.

Waste form Solid and liquid

Physical/ Solid tablets, powdered solids, liquid medicines or solid and liquid
chemical chemical or physical process wastes.
description

Substances or wastes liable to cause either

H6.1: Poisonous death or serious injury or to harm human
Primary hazard
(acute) health if swallowed or inhaled or by skin
contact.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
hazard or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
Why is it including carcinogenicity.
hazardous? Substances or wastes which if released
present or may present immediate or
Other hazard(s) H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the
environment by means of bioaccumulation
and/or toxic effects upon biotic systems.

An enormous variety of potential organic

Main likely chemical contaminants and inorganic chemicals used in drug
formulations.

Where does it Pharmaceutical and cosmetic product manufacturing or formulation

Main sources
come from? facilities.

Like other hazardous wastes, pharmaceutical product wastes are

How is it
Main fates regulated at the state and territory level in Australia. Depending on
managed?
the inherent risk of the waste, it often undergoes some form of

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 22

Waste name:
Wastes from the production and Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
preparation of pharmaceutical category:Y2 code: A4010 R140
products
chemical/ physical treatment before final fate of hazardous waste
landfill disposal. As opposed to Y3, Y2 does not contain cytotoxic
wastes so incineration is not typically a mandatory form of treatment.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.02%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 1,163 ACT: 0 NSW: 371
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 76 SA: 5
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 711 WA: 0

Pharmaceutical products and their derivatives, precursor materials

and wastes have the potential to cause harm to genetic material,
cause birth defects or induce acute or chronic conditions of toxicity
or poisoning, if taken outside medically supervised circumstances or
Overview inadvertently handled.
Product packaging is typically absent or damaged, making
identification of the underlying drug difficult. This is why waste
pharmaceuticals must be assumed to pose the highest carcinogenic,
mutagenic or toxic potential, and handled with the utmost caution.

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its

inherent toxicity. Acuteness of toxicity and impact risk (ranging from
Acute toxicity
harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of the chemical
Potential health
or biological hazard posed by the pharmaceuticals present.
impacts
Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its
inherent toxicity. Irreversability of toxic effects and impact risk
Chronic toxicity (ranging from harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of
the chemical or biological hazard posed by the pharmaceuticals
present.

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its

Carcinogenicity
inherent carcinogenicity.

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its

Reproductive inherent teratogenicity or potential effects on fertility, lactation and
toxicity endocrine effects such as oestrogen and androgen disruption. Risk
to the unborn child could range from harmful to potentially fatal.

In the workplace, occupational exposure may occur where control measures fail or are not
Workplace in place. Exposure may be through skin contact, skin absorption and inhalation of aerosols
health & safety and drug particles resulting from the following activities:
impacts - drug preparation
- handling waste

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 23

Waste name:
Wastes from the production and Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
preparation of pharmaceutical category:Y2 code: A4010 R140
products
- transport and waste disposal, or
- spills.

The major hazard from waste pharmaceuticals is impact to human

health. However, environmental impacts are also possible, but not
in the strictest sense of ecotoxicity, persistence and
bioaccumulation. This waste is typically an environmental health
issue, in the sense that toxic agents can be transported through
environmental channels (such as pollution) with an ultimate impact
Overview
on human health. There is the potential for increased target species
immunity from antibiotics (for example), if waste antibiotics are
Potential exposed to populations of these species (such as mosquitos), which
environment is also ultimately a human health issue.
impacts Consequently the typical component measures of environmental
impact are not directly applicable for this waste.

Acute ecotoxicity N/A

Chronic
N/A
ecotoxicity

Persistence N/A

Bioaccumulation N/A

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A N/A

The Biohazard Waste Industry, as part of the Waste Management

Industry –
Association of Australia (WMAA), publishes a comprehensive
systematic
Industry Code of Practice for the Management of Clinical and
controls
Related Wastes 4.

Staff may be required to handle hazardous substances such as

What control
Industry – strong acids, formaldehyde or antibiotic tablets that release dust
measures are
exposure when crushed. Appropriate measures must be taken to protect staff
in place to
controls such as provision of a fume or powder cupboard, protective masks,
manage risks
goggles, clothing, footwear and gloves.5
posed by this
waste? State and territory governments regulate the management of
hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
Government
disposal of all hazardous wastes, including waste pharmaceuticals,
drugs and medicines, through licensing, tracking and transport
accreditation requirements.

References 1. World Health Organization (2013). Safe management of wastes from health-care
activities, edited by Y. Chartier et al, 2nd Edition. Accessed March 12, 2015 from:

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 24

Waste name:
Wastes from the production and Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
preparation of pharmaceutical category:Y2 code: A4010 R140
products
http://www.searo.who.int/srilanka/documents/ safe_management_of_wastes_from_
healthcare_activities.pdf
2. Alliance for Sharps Safety and Needlestick Prevention in Healthcare (2013). Accessed
March 10, 2015 from: http://www.allianceforsharpssafety.org/2013/10/safety-is-a-frame-of-
mind-for-healthcare-workers/#more-500
3. World Health Organization. Waste from health-care activities, fact sheet No.253 (2011).
Accessed March 12, 2015 from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs253/en/
4. Biohazard Waste Industry (2014). Industry Code of Practice for the Management of
Biohazardous Waste (including Clinical & Related wastes), 7th Edition. Waste
Management Association of Australia.
5. The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia. SHPA Practice Standard – Guidelines
for Medicines Prepared in Australian Pharmacy Departments. Accessed April 8, 2015
from:
http://www.shpa.org.au/lib/pdf/practice_standards/Manufacturing_standards_0610_ro.pdf

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 25

3.3 Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines
Waste name: Basel permit
Basel waste NEPM code:
Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and code: A4010 /
category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0

In addition to clinical waste, other wastes are generated within health

care settings. These include waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and
medicines:
Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines are waste
pharmaceutical products that have: passed their recommended shelf
life; been discarded as off-spec batches; been returned by patients
or discarded. A pharmaceutical product is a restricted drug or
Description of
medicine.
the waste
These wastes are often generated directly from pharmacies,
hospitals, medical centres and hospital dispensaries.

What is it? A particularly notable pharmaceutical waste is waste cytotoxic drugs,

or waste (including sharps) contaminated by cytotoxic drugs. A
cytotoxic drug has carcinogenic (cancer-causing), mutagenic
(increase mutations of genetic material) or teratogenic (birth defect)
potential, and is commonly used in the treatment of cancer.

Waste form Solid and liquid

Solid tablets, powdered solids, liquid medicines. The category also

includes discarded items used in the handling of pharmaceuticals,
such as bottles or boxes with residues, gloves, masks, connecting
Physical/
tubing, and drug vials.
chemical
description The most commonly used cytotoxic products used in healthcare are:
azathioprine, chlorambucil, chlornaphazine, ciclosporin,
cyclophosphamide, melphalan, semustine, tamoxifen, thiotepa and
treosulfan.1
Substances or wastes liable to cause either
H6.1: Poisonous death or serious injury or to harm human
Primary hazard
(acute) health if swallowed or inhaled or by skin
contact.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Why is it
hazard or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
hazardous?
including carcinogenicity.

Substances or wastes which if released

present or may present immediate or
Other hazard(s) H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 26

Waste name: Basel permit
Basel waste NEPM code:
Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and code: A4010 /
category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
An enormous variety of potential organic
Main likely chemical contaminants and inorganic chemicals used in drug
formulations.

Healthcare and related facilities such as those described for Basel

Where does it
Main sources code Y1: Clinical waste from medical care in hospitals, medical
come from?
centres and clinics.

Like other hazardous wastes, waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and

medicines are regulated at the state and territory level in Australia.
How is it These wastes must be treated to render the waste non-hazardous
Main fates
managed? prior to final disposal. This treatment is usually incineration, which is
regulated in most jurisdictions as the only acceptable method of
treatment of cytotoxic and pharmaceutical waste.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.08%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 5,426 ACT: 487 NSW: 2,051
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 1,782 SA: 372
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 14 Vic: 720 WA: 0

Cytotoxic drugs are therapeutic agents intended for, but not limited
to, the treatment of cancer. These drugs are known to be highly toxic
to cells, mainly through their action on cell reproduction. Many have
proved to be carcinogens, mutagens or teratogens. Consequently
waste containing these substances has the potential for extreme
health impact.
Other drugs and medicines have the potential to cause harm to
genetic material, cause birth defects or induce acute or chronic
conditions of toxicity or poisoning, if taken outside medically
supervised circumstances or inadvertently handled.
Overview
Potential health Often drug packaging may be absent or damaged, making
impacts identification of the underlying drug difficult. This is why waste
pharmaceuticals must be assumed to pose the highest carcinogenic,
mutagenic or toxic potential, and handled with the utmost caution.
An additional health impact is in the form of air pollution, from
emissions of pollutants as constituents of flue gases from the
incineration of clinical waste. It is noted however that stringent
emission standards apply to operators of these incinerators by
environmental regulators, through the use of advanced pollution
control equipment.

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its

Acute toxicity
inherent toxicity. Acuteness of toxicity and impact risk (ranging from

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 27

Waste name: Basel permit
Basel waste NEPM code:
Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and code: A4010 /
category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of the chemical
or biological hazard posed by the pharmaceuticals present.

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its

inherent toxicity. Irreversability of toxic effects and impact risk
Chronic toxicity (ranging from harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of
the chemical or biological hazard posed by the pharmaceuticals
present.

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its

inherent carcinogenicity. When not apparent through colour-coded
Carcinogenicity (purple) and clearly identified packaging containerisation, this waste
must be handled and managed as if it may contain cytotoxic
material.

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its

Reproductive inherent teratogenicity or potential effects on fertility, lactation and
toxicity endocrine effects such as oestrogen and androgen disruption. Risk
to the unborn child could range from harmful to potentially fatal.

In the workplace, occupational exposure may occur where control measures fail or are not
in place. Exposure may be through skin contact, skin absorption, inhalation of aerosols
and drug particles, ingestion and needle stick injuries resulting from the following activities:
- drug preparation
- drug administration
- handling patient waste
Workplace
- transport and waste disposal, or
health & safety
impacts - spills.
Sharps and needle stick injury incidents in Australia are estimated to affect at least 18,000
healthcare workers each year1.
Similarly, waste management staff working in or servicing health care environments are
prone to such accidental exposures, particularly if there has been breaches in
containerisation protocols or damage to such containment between generation and
handling by the waste manager.

The risk of a sharps injury among patients and the public is much lower, particularly in
Australia, as there are tight controls around proper handling, storage, transport and
treatment of infectious clinical waste.
Population
Collection, transport and treatment of waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines in
scale impacts
Australia is strictly controlled and regulated, with destruction by incineration the only
allowable treatment option. Exposure pathways for the general public are extremely
limited.

The major hazard from waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines

Potential
is impact to human health. However, environmental impacts are
environment Overview
also possible, but not in the strictest sense of ecotoxicity, persistence
impacts
and bioaccumulation. This waste is typically an environmental

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 28

Waste name: Basel permit
Basel waste NEPM code:
Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and code: A4010 /
category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
health issue, in the sense that toxic agents can be transported
through environmental channels (such as pollution) with an ultimate
impact on human health. There is the potential for increased target
species immunity from antibiotics (for example), if waste antibiotics
are exposed to populations of these species (such as mosquitos),
which is also ultimately a human health issue.
Consequently the typical component measures of environmental
impact are not directly applicable for this waste.

Acute ecotoxicity N/A

Chronic
N/A
ecotoxicity

Persistence N/A

Bioaccumulation N/A

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A N/A

Needle stick injuries occur in Australia at low relative frequency to the number of sharps
handled in the health care system but, overall, the estimate of 18,000 needle stick injury
incidents per year2 (in Australian health care) is unacceptably high.
Has anything Public incidents of exposure to waste pharmaceuticals, drugs or medicines in Australia,
happened are typically through individual cases of needle-stick injury from standing on hypodermic
before in syringes in public places, discarded carelessly by needle users.
Australia? In June 2000, six children were diagnosed with a mild form of smallpox (vaccinia virus)
after having played with glass ampoules containing expired smallpox vaccine at a garbage
dump in Vladivostok (Russia) 3. Although the infections were not life-threatening, the
vaccine ampoules should have been treated before being discarded.

Australian hospitals have stringent policies and procedures in place

to ensure segregation, signage, labelling and containerisation of
these wastes, as well as clear management responsibility. Hospitals
also have waste management plans, procedures and training
What control programs that require strict handling practices.
measures are
Industry – The Biohazard Waste Industry, as part of the Waste Management
in place to
systematic Association of Australia (WMAA), publishes a comprehensive
manage risks
controls Industry Code of Practice for the Management of Clinical and
posed by this
Related Wastes 4.
waste?
Best practice standards have been developed in Australia5:
- The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia (SHPA) Standards
of Practice for the Safe Handling of Cytotoxic Drugs in Pharmacy
Departments (2004)

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 29

Waste name: Basel permit
Basel waste NEPM code:
Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and code: A4010 /
category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
- The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia (SHPA) Standards
of Practice for the Transportation of Cytotoxic Drugs from
Pharmacy Departments (2007)

Industry – As described in The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia

exposure (SHPA) Standards of Practice for the Safe Handling of Cytotoxic
controls Drugs in Pharmacy Departments (2004) 5

State and territory governments regulate the management of

hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
disposal of all hazardous wastes, including waste pharmaceuticals,
drugs and medicines, through licensing, tracking and transport
accreditation requirements.
Following a series of trials the Commonwealth Department of Health
provided funds to facilitate the collection and disposal of unwanted
Government
and out-of-date medicines from the Australian community. The
National Return & Disposal of Unwanted Medicines Limited is a
national not-for-profit company, registered specifically for this
purpose. Known as the Return Unwanted Medicines (RUM) Project
6
, the national scheme provides for unwanted and out-of-date
medicines to be collected by community pharmacies from
consumers. The medicines are then disposed of by high temperature
incineration, which is the EPA approved method of disposal.

Community See the Return Unwanted Medicines (RUM) Project 6.

1. World Health Organization (2013). Safe management of wastes from health-care

activities, edited by Y. Chartier et al, 2nd Edition. Accessed March 12, 2015 from:
http://www.searo.who.int/srilanka/documents/ safe_management_of_wastes_from_
healthcare_activities.pdf
2. Alliance for Sharps Safety and Needlestick Prevention in Healthcare (2013). Accessed
March 10, 2015 from: http://www.allianceforsharpssafety.org/2013/10/safety-is-a-frame-of-
mind-for-healthcare-workers/#more-500
3. World Health Organization. Waste from health-care activities, fact sheet No.253 (2011).
Accessed March 12, 2015 from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs253/en/
4. Biohazard Waste Industry (2014). Industry Code of Practice for the Management of
References Biohazardous Waste (including Clinical & Related wastes), 7th Edition. Waste Management
Association of Australia.
5. The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia. SHPA Practice Standards. Accessed
March 12, 2015 from: http://www.shpa.org.au/Practice-Standards
6. The Return Unwanted Medicines (RUM) Project. Accessed March 12, 2015 from:
http://www.returnmed.com.au
7. EPA Victoria Industrial Waste Resource Guidelines (2009). Clinical and Related Waste
– Operational Guidance. Accessed March 10, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/IWRG612%201.pdf
8. World Health Organization (2013). Safe management of wastes from health-care
activities, edited by Y. Chartier et al, 2nd Edition.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 30

Waste name: Basel permit
Basel waste NEPM code:
Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and code: A4010 /
category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
9. Latimer G, ENVIRON Australia (2014). Baseline Study for the Pacific Hazardous Waste
Management Project – Healthcare Waste. Prepared for Secretariat of the Pacific Regional
Environment Programme (SPREP).

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 31

3.4 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of biocides and
phytopharmaceuticals
Waste name: Basel
Wastes from the production, Basel waste permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of biocides category:Y4 code: H100
and phytopharmaceuticals A4030
Low Medium Moderate High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0*

Small quantities of feedstocks, intermediates, by-products and

impurities, solvents and biocides resulting from production and
formulation. Unused unwanted biocide formulations retained by users.
Vegetable material remaining after extraction of phytopharmaceuticals,
and by-products, solvents and other chemical substances such as acids
Description of and alkalis.
the waste A biocide is a substance or microorganism that kills or controls growth
What is it?
of living organisms. Biocides include antibiotics, pesticides, and
antibacterials. Pesticide classification is often broken further into
insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and growth promotants.
A phytopharmaceutical is a pharmaceutical agent of plant origin. This
component of Y4 has some similarities with Y2.

Waste form Solid and liquid

Physical/ Most wastes in liquid form except for vegetable waste. Pesticide wastes
chemical can be due to historical activities where the active ingredients may be
description mixed or perhaps unknown, due to weathered container labelling.
Substances or wastes which, if they are inhaled
H11: Toxic (delayed or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may
Primary hazard
or chronic) involve delayed or chronic effects, including
carcinogenicity.
Substances or wastes which if released present
or may present immediate or delayed adverse
Secondary
H12: Ecotoxic impacts to the environment by means of
hazard
bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects upon biotic
systems.
Why is it Other hazard(s) N/A N/A
hazardous?
Over 8,000 pesticide and veterinary products
have been registered for use in Australian
agriculture, horticulture, livestock, forestry,
commercial premises, parks, homes and
Main likely chemical contaminants gardens1.
Historical pesticides used in Australia were
various organochlorine (OC) 2 and
organophosphate (OP) pesticides (see Y37),
the former banned in the late 1980’s but still an

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 32

Waste name: Basel
Wastes from the production, Basel waste permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of biocides category:Y4 code: H100
and phytopharmaceuticals A4030
issue due to their persistence and
bioaccumulative effects.

Biocides mainly produced overseas and formulated in Australia by a

small range of companies. Vegetable material sourced locally, such as
poppy straw and pods produced in Tasmania and used in opiate
Where does alkaloid production.
it come Main sources The wastes from such production/ formulation can come from
from? agricultural chemical manufacturers and formulators, large scale facility
managers (that use biocides) such as the military, airports and port
operators and event-based agricultural or household collection drives
(of waste chemicals) collected by the waste industry.

Manufacturing and formulating wastes are mostly collected by licensed

How is it
Main fates operators and destroyed. Some going to trade waste but under licence
managed?
agreements with water authorities.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.04
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 2,740 ACT: 23 NSW: 459
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 1,567 SA: 22
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 670 WA: 0

Determining potential health impact for this waste type is dependent on

the nature of the chemical hazard posed by the individual biocides or
phytopharmaceuticals present, which can only be done generically,
given the large number of possible chemicals that may be present. This
assessment is somewhat skewed towards the potential for higher risk
chemicals historically used as active ingredients, because some of
Overview these wastes can still appear in small quantities via collection programs.
It is noted however that pesticide agents used today are more target-
species directed in their effect and, as a consequence, less likely to be
Potential
hazardous to human health.
health
impacts Human health impacts are potentially high overall for this waste
category, with potential to be very toxic (in both acute and chronic
measures).

Extreme: Impact dependent on the nature of the chemical hazard

posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present. May
Acute toxicity
be very toxic in contact with skin, if swallowed or by inhalation. Wastes
from currently used chemicals are likely to have lower acute toxicity.

Extreme: Impact dependent on the nature of the chemical hazard

Chronic toxicity
posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 33

Waste name: Basel
Wastes from the production, Basel waste permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of biocides category:Y4 code: H100
and phytopharmaceuticals A4030
Danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure if
swallowed, in contact with skin or through inhalation. Wastes from
currently used chemicals are likely to have lower chronic toxicity.

Low: There is no conclusive evidence linking cancer incidence with

pesticides currently used in Australia 3. However, in terms of the past,
there are two pesticides that are known human carcinogens (arsenic
compounds – see Y24 – and ethylene oxide), two probable carcinogens
Carcinogenicity
(ethylene dibromide and captafol) and a number of possible
carcinogens (OCs, phenoxy herbicides and polychlorinated
camphenes) 3. Given the vast number of active agents that could fall
into this category, overall the carcinogenic hazard is rated as low.

Low: Some pesticides (such as endosulfan) are potential endocrine

disruptors (substances that alter function of the endocrine system and
Reproductive
consequently cause adverse health effects in an intact organism).
toxicity
However, across the balance of all possible active agents that may be
captured by the waste type, the potential for this impact is low.

A number of international studies have found higher incidence and mortality rates from
specific cancers among people occupationally exposed to pesticides, including farmers and
pesticide applicators 4, pesticide manufacturing workers 5, 6, golf course superintendents 7
and market gardeners or orchardists 8. There is, however, no increase in the incidence or
Workplace mortality of these cancers among pest control workers (e.g. exterminators) 9.
health & It is not clear if pesticides are responsible for these elevated incidence rates, because
safety workers in these sectors are also exposed to a range of other potential carcinogens, such as
impacts diesel exhaust, solvents, metals, grain dusts, zoonotic (transmissible from animals to
humans) viruses and ultraviolet radiation, all of which could confound the relationship
between pesticides and cancer.
In addition, a study in Western Australia found that 78% of farm jobs have “no likelihood of
pesticide exposure” 10.

People can be exposed to pesticides that seep into the water supply or food chain, persisting
for a long time in the environment. The persistent, residual and bioaccumulative nature of
such compounds enables them to be measured in the human body, in blood and breast milk.
The organochlorine DDT (possible carcinogen) has been extensively studied as a risk factor
Population
for breast cancer. It is banned in Australia and other parts of the world, but in the 1940s and
scale
1950s, it was heavily used as an insecticide. Most epidemiological studies 11 do not support a
impacts
conclusive link between DDT and cancer although there is some evidence that exposure in
early life or adolescence could increase the longer-term risk of breast cancer 12
Epidemiological studies have similarly not supported a link between organochlorine
pesticides in general and breast cancer 13.

Determining potential environmental impact for this waste type is

Potential
dependent on the nature of the chemical hazard posed by the individual
environment Overview
biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present, which can only be done
impacts
generically, given the large number of possible chemicals that may be

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 34

Waste name: Basel
Wastes from the production, Basel waste permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of biocides category:Y4 code: H100
and phytopharmaceuticals A4030
present. This assessment is somewhat skewed towards the potential for
higher risk chemicals to be present as active ingredients, tempered by
the fact that pesticide agents used today are (generally speaking) less
likely to have broad scale environmental impacts, if applied as intended.
Use of biocides can pose an environmental threat and damage to non-
target organisms. Contaminated soils and badly stored materials can
also be of concern.
Environmental impacts are potentially extreme overall for this waste
category, particularly in the case of pesticide wastes from historical use,
with potential to score highly in all four components of environmental
impact below.

Extreme: Impact dependent on the nature of the chemical hazard

posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present. May
Acute be very toxic to aquatic organisms.
ecotoxicity For example endosulfan, an organochlorine still used on cotton crops, is
very toxic to fish and can be toxic to birds. There may also be impact on
non-target species such as bees and frogs when biocides are used.

Extreme: Impact dependent on the nature of the chemical hazard

Chronic posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present. May
ecotoxicity cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.
Soil contamination can be a source of ecotoxicity.

Extreme: Impact dependent on the nature of the chemical hazard

posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present. Has
the potential to be highly persistent in the environment (for example the
Persistence
historically used organochlorine pesticides).
Most current biocides are short-lived but exceptions include atrazine
and other triazines.

Extreme: Impact dependent on the nature of the chemical hazard

posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present.
Bioaccumulation
Some active ingredients have the potential to accumulate in biota (for
example organochlorine pesticides), but these are no longer used.

Where are
Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
the risks of
impacts most
likely? High Medium Medium Moderate N/A Low

Historical disposal of pesticide containers and wastes throughout rural Australia has left a
Has anything legacy of sites contaminated with a wide variety of pesticides. Below are three examples of
happened impacts from pesticide use in Australia.14
before in Organochlorine pesticides in export beef
Australia? A number of pesticide residue violations were identified in Australian beef product exported
to the USA in May 1987. The pesticides involved were the organochlorines, dieldrin and

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 35

Waste name: Basel
Wastes from the production, Basel waste permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of biocides category:Y4 code: H100
and phytopharmaceuticals A4030
heptachlor. The problems were caused by animals grazing contaminated pasture, ingesting
contaminated feed or by being held in contaminated yards over a period of time. The
persistence of organochlorines in soils and the bioaccumulation of residues in their fat
tissues gave rise to eventual exceedances of maximum residue limits (MRL) and caused
violations, which threatened Australia's beef export industry worth in excess of two billion
dollars annually. Governments and industry responded quickly and significantly. The likely
sources of contamination were identified and controlled. The National Residue Survey (NRS)
was enhanced, a National Residue Data Base (NRDB) was established and a centralised
computer system interactive with abattoirs, laboratories and animal health authorities
developed. The cattle farm identity tail tag system already in place, capable of tracing cattle
to the farm of origin was refined and trace back systems for sheep and pigs were utilised. 15
Endosulfan (itself an OC pesticide) in cotton-growing
Records of fish kills in New South Wales and Queensland, from the 1970s to 1995, showed
that fish kills were reported more often in cotton growing areas and during the growing
season. Of the 98 total kills, 54% were from pesticides, with endosulfan implicated in almost
80% of these.
Brodifacoum, (active ingredient in “Ratsak”)
First used in Australia in the late 1970s, brodifacoum is a powerful anti-coagulant rodenticide
still widely used, although restricted to indoor applications. Brodifacoum is extremely toxic to
many mammals and birds. Due to its extreme persistence within both target and non-target
animals and the length of time to target death (3-18 days in mice) 16, brodifacoum presents a
high secondary poisoning risk. In the USA over 80% of anticoagulant deaths recorded in a
ten year period involved this toxin, with non-target species including squirrels, chipmunks,
racoons, deer, and opossums.16 In Australia secondary poisoning is typically limited to
domestic animals such as dogs and cats, but there are a number of suspected secondary
17
poisonings to predatory birds. Young and De Lai attributed a major decline in predatory
birds in North Queensland since 1992 to brodifacoum, coincident with its introduction to
control rodents. Species of owls and harrier declined substantially from the Herbert River
region in Queensland, with specimens found dead or dying with symptoms consistent with
anticoagulant poisoning.18

Companies are licensed by State and Territories to discharge solutions

of low concern to trade waste. Hazardous materials are destroyed by
What control licensed contractors who offer a wide range of destruction technologies.
measures are Industry and
Training and certification requirements apply in all states and territories
in place to Government –
in Australia for users of agricultural chemical products, as well as
manage risks systematic
mandatory licensing and permitting for users of these chemicals in
posed by this controls
some states.
waste?
Unwanted unused organochlorine pesticides are collected and
destroyed under the ChemCollect programme funded by industry.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 36

Waste name: Basel
Wastes from the production, Basel waste permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of biocides category:Y4 code: H100
and phytopharmaceuticals A4030

Industry – Exposure to concentrated materials in production, formulation or

exposure extraction is avoided through the use of containment, ventilation and
controls personal protective equipment.

Workplace exposures and discharges to the environment are controlled

under State and territory legislation. The Globally Harmonized System
Government
for labelling facilitates decision-making in industries handling particular
substances.

The safe way to dispose of potentially hazardous household chemicals

(that may include pesticides) is through household collection events.
For example, in NSW, the Household Chemical CleanOut event is a
Community free service for the safe disposal of a range of household chemicals that
could cause harm to human health and the environment if they are not
disposed of correctly. CleanOut events are held at locations throughout
NSW on specified dates throughout the year.

1. Immig J. WWF-Australia and National Toxics Network (2010). A list of Australia’s most
dangerous pesticides. Accessed April 10, 2015 from:
http://awsassets.wwf.org.au/downloads/fs025_a_list_of_australias_most_
dangerous_pesticides_1jul10.pdf
2. Organochlorine pesticides typically include: aldrin, hexachlorobenzene, alpha BHC, beta
BHC, gamma BHC (lindane), delta BHC, chlordane, DDT, DDD, DDE, dieldrin, endrin, endrin
aldehyde, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, methoxychlor and endosulfan (includes
endosulfan I, endosulfan II and endosulfan sulphate)
3. Cancer Council Australia. Position statement – pesticide and cancer. Accessed April 10,
2015 from:
http://wiki.cancer.org.au/policy/Position_statement_-_Pesticides_and_cancer#
Appendix_1._Overview_of_pesticide_carcinogenicity_classifications
4. Weichenthal S, Moase C, Chan P. A review of pesticide exposure and cancer incidence in
the Agricultural Health Study cohort. Environ Health Perspect 2010 Aug; 118(8):1117-25.
[Abstract available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20444670]
References 5. Van Maele-Fabry G, Duhayon S, Lison D. A systematic review of myeloid leukemias and
occupational pesticide exposure. Cancer Causes Control 2007 Jun;18(5):457-78 [Abstract
available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17443416].
6. Van Maele-Fabry G, Duhayon S, Mertens C, Lison D. Risk of leukaemia among pesticide
manufacturing workers: a review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Environ Res 2008
Jan;106(1):121-37 [Abstract available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18028905].
7. Kross BC, Burmeister LF, Ogilvie LK, Fuortes LJ, Fu CM. Proportionate mortality study of
golf course superintendents. Am J Ind Med 1996 May;29(5):501-6 [Abstract available at
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8732923].
8. Littorin M, Attewell R, Skerfving S, Horstmann V, Möller T. Mortality and tumour morbidity
among Swedish market gardeners and orchardists. Int Arch Occup Environ Health
1993;65(3):163-9 [Abstract available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8282414].
9. MacFarlane E, Benke G, Del Monaco A, Sim MR. Cancer incidence and mortality in a
historical cohort of Australian pest control workers. Occup Environ Med 2009
Dec;66(12):818-23 [Abstract available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19553229].

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 37

Waste name: Basel
Wastes from the production, Basel waste permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of biocides category:Y4 code: H100
and phytopharmaceuticals A4030
10. MacFarlane E, Glass D, Fritschi L. Is farm-related job title an adequate surrogate for
pesticide exposure in occupational cancer epidemiology? Occup Environ Med 2009
Aug;66(8):497-501 [Abstract available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19221114].
11. Australian Rural Health Research Collaboration, Beard J. DDT and human health. Sci
Total Environ 2006 Feb 15;355(1-3):78-89 [Abstract available at
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15894351]
12. Cohn BA, Wolff MS, Cirillo PM, Sholtz RI. DDT and breast cancer in young women: new
data on the significance of age at exposure. Environ Health Perspect 2007
Oct;115(10):1406-14 [Abstract available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17938728]
13. Calle EE, Frumkin H, Henley SJ, Savitz DA, Thun MJ. Organochlorines and breast
cancer risk. CA Cancer J Clin 2002 Sep;52(5):301-9 [Abstract available at:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12363327]
14. Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering. Pesticide use in
Australia (2002), p.138. Accessed April 10, 2015 from:
http://www.atse.org.au/Documents/Publications/Reports/Climate%20Change/
Pesticide%20Use%20in%20Aust%202002.pdf
15. Corrigan PJ, Seneviratna P (1990). Occurrence of organochlorine residues in Australian
meat. Australian Veterinary Journal, 1990 Feb; 67(2):56-8.
16. McLeod L and Saunders G, NSW Department of Primary Industries (2013). Pesticides
used in the Management of Vertebrate Pests in Australia: A Review. Accessed April 10, 2015
from: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/486187/Pesticides-used-in-the-
management-of-vertebrate-pests-in-australia-a-review.pdf
17. Young J and De Lai L (1997). Population declines of predatory birds coincident with the
introduction of Klerat rodenticide in North Queensland. Aust Birdwatcher 17 (3): 161 – 167.
18. MP Biomedicals Australasia Pty Limited (2005). Dieldrin Material Safety Data Sheet.
Accessed April 10, 2015 from:
http://www.t3db.ca/system/msds/attachments/000/001/425/original/T3D0017.pdf
?1413587682
19. National Environment Protection Council (1999). National Pollutant Inventory Technical
Advisory Panel Final Report.
20. G.E. Totten, ed., Steel Heat Treatment: metallurgy and technologies (Boca Raton,
Florida, 2007), 2nd ed.

* Hazard score of >5.0 based on dieldrin, an organochlorine pesticide used up until the
1990s. This waste category is highly variable in hazard, because of the enormous number of
active ingredients that may be present. It would be expected that the majority of wastes in
this category arise from current-day product applications, which would generally have much
lower hazard potential. However there are still selected applications of very hazardous
pesticides in the present day, as well as limited occurrences of old stocks or contaminated
materials from past pesticide use.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 38

3.5 Wastes from the manufacture, formulation and use of wood preserving
chemicals
Waste name:
Wastes from the manufacture, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of wood category:Y5 code: A4040 H170
preserving chemicals
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0

The timber preservatives copper, chromium and arsenic and arsenic

trioxide are used extensively to prevent damage caused by insects
(termites, borers, beetles), wood rot and wood fungus.
Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated pine is the most common
type of treated timber in Australia and its uses include decks, garden
furniture, picnic tables, playground equipment, landscaping timbers,
retaining walls, fences, gazebos and patios. It is recognisable by its
green tinge, which fades with age.
Chromium and arsenic are the primary compounds of concern in this
category. Hexavalent compounds of chromium are reduced to the
trivalent form in the presence of oxidisable organic matter such as
timber and in living organisms - hence chromium’s role in timber
treatment.
CCA treated timber has the potential to generate leachate that
contains arsenic, chromium and copper pollutants. Hexavalent
Description of
chromium may arise if treatment solutions are overused, providing
the waste
What is it? opportunity for unreacted hexavalent chromium to be transferred to
humans or the environment early in the life of post treatment timber
products. Leachate management is of considerable concern when
timber treated with CCA is stockpiled in large amounts or when
disposed of to landfill.
CCA the chemical preservative, the leachate from CCA treated
timber, and products from the combustion of CCA treated
timber are classified as hazardous waste throughout Australia,
due to the concentration of these heavy metals. However, while
CCA treated timber is classified as hazardous waste in the EU,
CCA timber itself is not a controlled waste under the NEPM in
Australia; hence it may cross interstate borders without
tracking.1
This category overlaps with Y21, Y22 and Y24, wastes of hexavalent
chromium, copper and arsenic compounds respectively.

Waste form Solid and liquid

Physical/ In CCA formulations, copper acts as a fungicide, arsenic acts

chemical against insects and chromium fixes the chemicals in the timber to
description resist leaching.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 39

Waste name:
Wastes from the manufacture, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of wood category:Y5 code: A4040 H170
preserving chemicals
While Cr (III) is the predominant form of chromium in timber post
treatment Cr (VI) is readily released during the fixation period when
freshly treated timber is curing.2
Waste CCA chemical preservative is present as liquid and CCA
treated timber product wastes are solid. Disposal of CCA wood
waste is a concern because burning produces toxic gases of these
treatment chemicals, Cr (III) is converted to toxic Cr (VI) during
combustion2 and landfilling leaches these heavy metals.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Primary hazard
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Substances or wastes which if released

Why is it present or may present immediate or
hazardous? Secondary
H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
hazard
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Other hazard(s) N/A N/A

Main likely chemical contaminants Species of chromium, copper and arsenic.

Where does it Wood product manufacturing and other CCA timber preservation
Main sources
come from? processes.

Chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard, then the

How is it stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill.
Main fates
managed? Some reuse and recycling of CCA timber itself occurs and significant
stockpiling may occur1.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
Includes CCA chemical wastes – does not include
tonnes in 2013) 0.01%
How much is intact CCA treated timber
generated in
TOTAL: 570 ACT: 0 NSW: 9
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 206 SA: 304
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 31 WA: 20

Chromium (VI), as the potential worst case constituent of CCA

treatment wastes, has been chosen to reference specific health
Potential health impacts for this waste. The most common hazards of human
Overview
impacts exposure to Cr (VI) compounds are irritation of the skin, eyes,
mouth, throat, lungs and intestines. Acute poisoning, through
inhalation, can result in death. Cr (VI) is carcinogenic via inhalation.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 40

Waste name:
Wastes from the manufacture, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of wood category:Y5 code: A4040 H170
preserving chemicals
Extreme: Very toxic and may be fatal by inhalation. Toxic if
Acute toxicity swallowed or in contact with skin – contact causes severe skin burns
and allergic reactions and severe eye damage.

Low: May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated

exposure if inhaled, but the consequences of acute effects will be
Chronic toxicity most severe.
On the skin, chromic acid can cause chronic ulcers known as
‘chrome holes’.

High: Classified as “sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in

Carcinogenicity humans” and inhaled hexavalent chromium is a known human
carcinogen. Particularly with respect to lung cancer.

Reproductive High: Suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child and may
toxicity cause genetic defects.

Exposure to CCA impregnation solutions could arise as the result of splashes or as

Workplace
contaminated dust or wood fragments/ shavings. Occupational exposure to hexavalent
health & safety
chromium has been associated with lung cancer and arsenic is also classed as a human
impacts
carcinogen.

There has been ongoing media and public interest in the use of CCA-treated timber and
the possible health risks it may present, particularly when used in settings where children
may be exposed. Published results of scientific studies indicate that copper, chromium and
arsenic slowly leach from CCA-treated timber products. All three metals pose a risk to
human health and the environment.
Population The Commonwealth Government body which registers chemicals for use, the Australian
scale impacts Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA), has released a draft report for
public comment reviewing the risk CCA-treated timber poses to the community. The
review found that at this stage it has insufficient information to be satisfied that continued
use of CCA treated timber is safe when used in the manufacture of structures where the
general community are likely to come in frequent close contact. As a result the APVMA is
proposing that such use no longer be permitted.

Chromium (VI), as the potential worst case constituent of CCA

treatment wastes, has been chosen to reference specific
environmental impacts for this waste. It can have a high to
moderate, acute toxic effect on plants, birds or land animals, and is
Potential Overview very toxic to fish. This can mean death of animals, birds or fish and
environment death or low growth rate in plants. Chromium (VI) does not
impacts breakdown or degrade easily and there is a high potential for
accumulation of chromium (VI) in fish life.
Cr (VI) is highly mobile, soluble and bioavailable in the environment.

Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Very toxic to aquatic organisms.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 41

Waste name:
Wastes from the manufacture, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of wood category:Y5 code: A4040 H170
preserving chemicals
Chronic Extreme: May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic
ecotoxicity environment.

Persistence Extreme: Very persistent in the environment.

Bioaccumulation High: Can accumulate in seafood.

Where are the Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of impacts
most likely? High Moderate Moderate Moderate N/A Low

A wood treatment plant using the Copper Chrome Arsenic process operated in Armidale,
NSW from approximately 1968 - 1980. Armidale papers had carried numerous reports of
spills and accidents at the site during its operation. The land was rezoned and developed
as a housing estate in the late 1980's. Onsite contamination of creosote was discovered
Has anything
during excavation activities for foundations of the first buildings, and follow up soil testing
happened
detected levels of arsenic up to 3800 ppm, chromium at 1950 ppm and copper at 1000
before in
ppm, plus very high levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.3
Australia?
The developer successfully sued the Council for breaching its duty of care in approving the
development of the land and was awarded $1,479,576 in damages and interest.4 This, and
other high profile cases of contaminated land in NSW, triggered new laws such as the
Contaminated Land Management Act 1997 (NSW).

The Australian environmental guidelines for copper chrome arsenate

timber preservation plants, was prepared jointly by the Australian
and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council
Industry – (ANZECC) and The Timber Preservers Association of Australia
systematic (TPAA). This was superseded by the Australian/ New Zealand
controls Standard AS/NZS 2843.2:2000 Timber preservation plant safety
code Part 2: Plant operation, which promotes the safe operation of
treatment plants and reduction of environmental and occupational
What control hazards.
measures are in
Potential industrial sources of hexavalent chromium waste have
place to
strict emissions control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters,
manage risks
Industry – fume controls and dust extraction equipment, as well as stringent
posed by this
exposure trade waste emissions agreements. Additionally at-risk workers wear
waste?
controls appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), particularly
relating to restricting exposure to airborne sources of chromium and
arsenic.

State and territory governments regulate the management of

hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
Government place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
disposal of all hazardous wastes, including this waste, through
licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 42

Waste name:
Wastes from the manufacture, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of wood category:Y5 code: A4040 H170
preserving chemicals
Timber treatment companies are licensed by state environmental
regulators to control industrial processes and equipment so as to
limit environmental emissions of pollutants like chromium, copper
and arsenic.

The New Zealand Environmental Risk Management Authority

(ERMANZ) and the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines
Authority (APVMA) have suggested some common sense tips to
minimise unnecessary exposure to CCA-treated timber:
• Treated wood should never be burned in open fires, stoves,
Community fireplaces, or residential boilers.
• Always wash hands thoroughly after contact with any treated
wood, especially before eating and drinking.
• Food should not come into direct contact with any treated wood.
• Precautions should be taken to wear protective gear when
working with CCA-treated wood.5

1. Environment Protection Authority South Australia (July 2008). Report on CCA treated
timber in South Australia. Accessed March 15, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/xstd_files/Waste/Report/cca.pdf
2. Environment Protection Authority South Australia (November 2004). Guideline 572/04:
Copper chromated arsenate (CCA) timber waste – storage and management. Accessed
March 15, 2015 from: http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/xstd_files/Waste/Guideline/guide_cca.pdf
3. Parliament of New South Wales, Hansard transcript 15 November 1991. Accessed
March 15, 2015 from:
http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LA19911115029
4. McGrath C, Mending holes in the green safety net. Precedent, Issue 113, November/
December 2012. .Accessed March 15, 2015 from:
http://envlaw.com.au/wp-content/uploads/green_safety_net.pdf
References 5. Environment Protection Authority New South Wales. Questions and answers on the
wood preservation industry. Accessed March 15, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/licensing/qaswood.htm#1
6. Beder S (2003). Timber Leachates Prompt Preservative Review. Engineers Australia
75(6), June 2003, pp. 32-4. Accessed March 15, 2015 from:
https://www.uow.edu.au/~sharonb/cca.html
7. Website, accessed March 15, 2015 from:
http://baddevelopers.nfshost.com/Docs/treatedtimber.htm#Treatment
8. Australian Government Department of the Environment. National Pollutant Inventory
Fact Sheet – Chromium VI compounds. Accessed March 14, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/chromium-vi-compounds
9. National Environment Protection Council (1999). National Pollutant Inventory Technical
Advisory Panel Final Report.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 43

3.6 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of organic solvent
Waste name:
Wastes from the production, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of organic category:Y6 code: A3140 G160
solvent
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9

Organic solvents are simply liquid organic chemicals that have the
ability to dissolve other substances. This usually assists their role in
an industrial application, such as cleaning and degreasing.
Solvents have three principal areas of use; as cleaning agents, as a
raw material or feedstock in the production and manufacture of other
substances, and as a carrying and/or dispersion medium in chemical
synthetic processes.
Description of Wastes deriving from solvents and their use may be either:
the waste
• relatively clean, derived from cleaning and washing processes
• inclusive of other reaction products and by products – from
synthesis/manufacture of other substances
• highly aqueous wastes, from chemical processes, washing and
extractions or
• be present as sludges from manufacturing by products, recycling
What is it?
residues and residues from cleaning processes.

Typically liquid but

Waste form
may include sludges

Many organic substances exhibit solvent type properties. Solvents

display a very wide range of properties and characteristics. Many
are flammable, some highly flammable, many are volatile and
evaporate quite rapidly to give off vapours. Such vapours may be
toxic or flammable - flammable vapours in confined spaces can be
explosive.
Physical/
Organic solvents include aliphatic hydrocarbons such as naphtha
chemical
solvents, aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and xylenes,
description
alcohols, glycols, epoxides, ketones and aldehydes. This category
does not include those solvents and their wastes that contain
halogens in their structure, such as fluorine, chlorine and bromine,
as these compounds may have different toxicity characteristics.
Halogenated organic solvents and their wastes are described by
Y41.

The word ‘flammable’ has the same

meaning as ‘inflammable’. Flammable
Why is it H3: Flammable liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or
Primary hazard
hazardous? liquids liquids containing solids in solution or
suspension (for example, paints, varnishes,
lacquers, etc, but not including substances

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 44

Waste name:
Wastes from the production, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of organic category:Y6 code: A3140 G160
solvent
or wastes otherwise classified on account of
their dangerous characteristics) which give
off flammable vapour at temperatures of not
more than 60.5°C, closed-cup test, or not
more than 65.6°C, open-cup test.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
hazard or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Substances or wastes which if released

present or may present immediate or
Other hazard(s) H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Other solvents, organic chemicals,

Main likely chemical contaminants petroleum residues, heavy metals, greases,
dirt.

Organic and Inorganic chemical manufacturing, fertiliser

Where does it manufacturing, agrichemical formulation, motor vehicle
Main sources
come from? manufacturing, adhesives manufacturing, metal coating and
finishing, printing.

Waste solvents are often subject to reclamation, with any residues

How is it
Main fates sent to energy recovery processes such as incineration or
managed?
hazardous waste landfill.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.19%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 13,730 ACT: 0 NSW: 761
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 11,195 SA: 26
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 44 Vic: 1,705 WA: 0

Some organic solvents (such as benzene) have been replaced with

other substances due to their carcinogenic properties, which is a
primary health concern for these types of wastes Other toxic
Overview properties can be varied, and include being narcotic and possibly
Potential health mutagenic or teratogenic.
impacts
The flammability risk also heightens the care in which this waste
should be handled.

Low - medium: Harmful if swallowed – may cause lung damage.

Acute toxicity
Vapours may cause drowsiness and dizziness. Acute effects may

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 45

Waste name:
Wastes from the production, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of organic category:Y6 code: A3140 G160
solvent
also range from an alcohol-like intoxication to narcosis (stupor or
insensibility) which may lead to unconsciousness.
May be irritating to skin.

Low - medium: Both short and long term exposure to certain

organic solvents has been found to be harmful to the kidney.
Chronic toxicity
Petroleum distillates, for example, gasoline, jet fuel and turpentine,
are among the most toxic.

High: Some organic solvents may cause cancer and heritable

genetic damage. Benzene is the main organic solvent which has
Carcinogenicity
definitively been proven to cause cancer in humans from industrial
use – the main cancer being leukaemia.

Reproductive Low: Limited evidence of reproductive impacts – possible risk of

toxicity impaired fertility.

Workplace
Inhalation is usually the most significant route of entry by which organic solvents enter the
health & safety
human body at work. Poor hygiene practices could result in skin absorption.
impacts

Most non-industrial applications of benzene, a natural constituent of crude oil and one of
the most elementary petrochemicals, have been limited by benzene’s carcinogenicity.
However, significant primary exposure occurs routinely in everyday activities, particularly
relating to petrol (gasoline) or other fossil fuel use. These include petrol vapour exposure
Population at fuel outlets, burning coal and oil, motor vehicle exhaust, cigarette smoke, wood burning
scale impacts fires, some adhesives and low concentrations in ambient air from all of these sources.
Population exposure studies from any particular exposure pathway have proved difficult to
ascribe health effects to a particular source/ activity due to the range of confounding
variables. However, epidemiologic studies provide clear evidence of a causal association
between exposure to benzene and a number of forms of leukaemia.

Organic solvents are highly toxic to aquatic environments. The risk

Overview of subsequent fire in the environment from a spill of this waste would
also have broader environmental impacts.

Potential Acute ecotoxicity High: Toxic to aquatic organisms.

environment
Chronic Extreme: May cause long-term adverse impacts in the aquatic
impacts
ecotoxicity environment.

Persistence Low.

Bioaccumulation Low.

Where are the Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of impacts
most likely? High Medium Medium Moderate High Low

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 46

Waste name:
Wastes from the production, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of organic category:Y6 code: A3140 G160
solvent
The contaminated site industry in Australia, in terms of identification, testing, classifying
Has anything and remediating legacy waste impacts to land, was borne out of ground pollution from
happened organic solvents or, more particularly, petroleum fuel leakages from underground storage
before in tanks. Thousands of contaminated sites have been registered by environmental regulators
Australia? across Australia and are in various stages of identification, quantification, remediation and
clean up.

Companies that handle organic solvents and their wastes are

Industry –
licensed by environmental regulators to control industrial processes
systematic
and equipment so as to limit environmental emissions of these
controls
pollutants.

Potential industrial sources of organic solvent waste have strict

emissions control and chemical handling equipment and systems in
Industry –
place. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate personal
What control exposure
protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to restricting
measures are in controls
exposure to airborne sources of, and skin contact with, solvents and
place to
their wastes.
manage risks
posed by this Regulatory levels are set by state and territory government agencies
waste? for exposure of workers to a range of volatile organic substances.
Government
Similar controls for emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
exist on companies through environmental licensing regimes.

Labels and containers of consumer products are required to carry

Community advice on safe handling of the contents, although components are
seldom identified.

1. UNEP (2002). Basel Convention. Technical Guidelines on Hazardous Waste from the
Production and Use of Organic Solvents (Y6). Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.basel.int/Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/meetings/sbc/
workdoc/old%20docs/tech-y6.pdf
2. Shell Trading International Ltd (2011). Naphtha (petroleum), solvent-refined light
Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.shell.com/content/dam/shell-new/local/corporate/trading-shipping/downloads
References /msds/in-country/uk-stasco/mogas-naphtha-petroleum-solvent-refined-light-cas-64741-
84-0---stil---en.pdf
3. National Occupational Health and Safety Commission (1990). Australian Government.
Industrial Organic Solvents. Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/157/
IndustrialOrganicSolvents_1990_PDF.pdf
4. US EPA. TEACH Chemical Summary – Benzene. Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.gov/teach/chem_summ/BENZ_summary.pdf

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 47

3.7 Wastes from heat treatment and tempering operations containing
cyanides
Waste name:
Wastes from heat treatment and Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
tempering operations containing category:Y7 code: A4050 A110
cyanides
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9 >5.0

Molten inorganic salts used to ‘case harden’ or ‘face harden’ iron or

Description of low-carbon steel or to control temperature in the tempering process.
the waste There is overlap between this category and Y32 wastes (inorganic
What is it? cyanides).

Waste form Solid

A mixture of a cyanide (typically potassium cyanide) and a

Physical/
carbonate (typically potassium carbonate or barium carbonate),
chemical
partly decomposed due to strong heating. Inorganic cyanides CASR
description
57-12-5.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Primary hazard
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Substances or wastes which if released

present or may present immediate or
Secondary
H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
Why is it hazard
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
hazardous? effects upon biotic systems.

Solids, or waste solids, other than those

classed as explosives, which under
H4.1: Flammable
Other hazard(s) conditions encountered in transport are
solids
readily combustible, or may cause or
contribute to fire through friction.

Main likely chemical contaminants Inorganic cyanides

Objects were case hardened by immersion in the molten mixture at

Where does it about 700oC. The bath is used repeatedly until depleted of cyanide,
Main sources
come from? the most active ingredient. Process no longer used in Australia, so
limited industrial sources of this waste.

After cooling the solid is either broken up and disposed of as solid

How is it
Main fates hazardous waste or dissolved in water for subsequent treatment to
managed?
render it non-hazardous.

How much is Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

generated in (% of national
Australia? tonnes in 2013) 0.0002%

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 48

Waste name:
Wastes from heat treatment and Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
tempering operations containing category:Y7 code: A4050 A110
cyanides
TOTAL: 13 ACT: 0 NSW: 0
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 13 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 0

This process is no longer used in Australia so there are no

implications for human or environmental health. Cyanides are highly
toxic if ingested or inhaled and can be absorbed through the skin.
Solid cyanides in contact with acids are converted to gaseous
Overview
hydrogen cyanide and exposure can occur via this route (Eight hour
time weighted exposure limit 11 mg/m3. Other uses of cyanide may
result in its release to waterways where it can pose a hazard to
Potential health human health and environmental species.
impacts
Acute toxicity Extreme: Very high acute toxicity.

Low - medium: Long term exposure to low levels of cyanide may

Chronic toxicity
cause deafness, vision problems and loss of muscle coordination.

Carcinogenicity Cyanides are not known to be carcinogenic.

Reproductive
Cyanides do not exhibit reproductive toxicity.
toxicity

Workplace This process is no longer used in Australia so there are no implications for human or
health & safety environmental health. Other processes using cyanides, such as electroplating or gold
impacts recovery may cause exposure to cyanides.

Population This process is no longer used in Australia so there are no implications for human or
scale impacts environmental health but other uses of cyanide may cause such impacts.

This process is no longer used in Australia so there are no

Overview implications for human or environmental health. However, other
uses of cyanide may result in its release to waterways.

Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Cyanides have high toxicity to animal species.

Potential
environment Chronic
Low: Cyanides can exhibit chronic effect on aquatic organisms.
impacts ecotoxicity

Low: A number of environmental processes destroy cyanides so

Persistence
they cannot be regarded as persistent.

Bioaccumulation Cyanides are not bioaccumulative.

Where are the Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of impacts
most likely? High Medium Medium Moderate N/A Low

Has anything
No incidents reported in recent years.
happened

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 49

Waste name:
Wastes from heat treatment and Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
tempering operations containing category:Y7 code: A4050 A110
cyanides
before in
Australia?

Industry –
systematic Past users were well-versed in safe handling of cyanides.
controls

What control
Industry – Since the process is no longer used in Australia there are no specific
measures are in
exposure controls. Controls exist for other uses of cyanide such as in
place to
controls electroplating and gold recovery.
manage risks
posed by this
waste? Government Workplace regulatory levels are in place.

Community exposure to cyanide used in gold recovery can occur

Community where cyanide is present in tailings that are discharged to tailings
dams.

1 G.E. Totten, ed., Steel Heat Treatment: metallurgy and technologies (Boca Raton,
Florida, 2007), 2nd ed.
2. Cyanide – information on handling, storage and first aid (2014):
www.commerce.wa.gov.au/publications/cyanide-information-storage-handling-and-first-
References aid.
3. S.P. Ayodeji, T.E. Aboye and S.O. Olanrewaju, Investigation of Surface Hardness of
Steels in Cyanide Salt Bath Heat Treatment Process, Proceedings of the International
MultiConferenceof Engineers and Computer Scientists 2011Vol II, IMECS 2011.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 50

3.8 Waste mineral oils unfit for their originally intended use
Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste mineral oils unfit for their
category:Y8 code: A3020 J100
originally intended use
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8

Waste mineral oils are used lubricating oils come from industrial and
Description of
domestic vehicle engines and machinery, and can be reclaimed or
the waste
recovered and recycled for other uses.

Predominantly liquid
What is it?
but also includes oily
Waste form rags (solid) and
contaminated
greases.

Physical/
Liquid, black and viscous material with, petroleum odour. May
chemical
present as solids in the form of oily rags or used oil filters.
description

The word ‘flammable’ has the same

meaning as ‘inflammable’. Flammable
liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or
liquids containing solids in solution or
suspension (for example, paints, varnishes,
H3: Flammable
Primary hazard lacquers, etc., but not including substances
liquids
or wastes otherwise classified on account of
their dangerous characteristics) which give
off flammable vapour at temperatures of not
more than 60.5°C, closed-cup test, or not
more than 65.6°C, open-cup test.

‘Spreading' potential to blanket environmental media, such as

Why is it Secondary
surface waters, when spilled, causing environmental impacts related
hazardous? hazard
to ‘oiling’ of animals and oxygen depletion of impacted waters.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.
Other hazard(s) Substances or wastes which if released
present or may present immediate or
H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Main likely chemical contaminants Iron, manganese and heavy metals.

Mining; manufacturing (various, including food, petroleum & metal

Where does it
Main sources coating), transport; retail (vehicle servicing shops) and the waste
come from?
sector.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 51

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste mineral oils unfit for their
category:Y8 code: A3020 J100
originally intended use
Waste oils are usually either reused or recycled (re-refined but may
How is it
Main fates also be composted or sent to some other form of biodegradation.
managed?
They may also be combusted for energy recovery.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 3.35%

TOTAL: 240,630 ACT: 1,510 NSW: 29,449

NT: 1,392 Qld: 72,504 SA: 1,267

How much is
generated in Tas: Not available Vic: 23,413 WA: 111,096
Australia?
Waste arising in These estimates are taken from jurisdictional tracking data collected as part of

2013 (tonnes) Australia’s Basel 2013 report. These numbers appear to be an underestimate, in part

due to regulatory exemption from tracking in NSW and potential exemption in Victoria,

but also due to the fact that Tas, NT and ACT have no tracking system and rely on

Controlled Waste NEPM data. No reliable data is available for Tasmania, given its
exports of oils are very low and expected to be dwarfed by management options within

Tasmania.

In addition to being a fire hazard, exposure to waste oils may give

Overview
rise to acute or chronic health impacts.

Low – medium: High vapour or mist concentrations may be harmful

if inhaled. High concentrations of vapour or mist may irritate the
Acute toxicity
respiratory tract (nose, throat, and lungs). Direct contact may cause
irritation to skin or eyes. May be harmful or fatal if swallowed.

Low – medium: Prolonged or repeated inhalation of oil mist may

cause oil pneumonia, lung tissue inflammation, and/or fibrous tissue
formation. Prolonged or repeated eye contact may cause
Potential health Chronic toxicity
inflammation of the membrane lining the eyelids and covering the
impacts
eyeball. Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause drying,
cracking, redness, itching, and/or swelling.

High: Contains substances that are known carcinogens. There may

be hydrocarbon and chlorinated solvents; metals, and polynuclear
Carcinogenicity aromatic hydrocarbons present which are listed as known, probable,
or possible carcinogens.
Risk of cancer depends on duration and level of exposure.

Reproductive High: Repeated exposure may impair fertility or cause harm to the
toxicity unborn child.

Common exposure risk to workers involved in motor vehicle or other mechanical repairs,
Workplace machine shops and maintenance of industrial machinery. Inhalation is a significant route of
health & safety entry into the body at work, most likely to contribute to chronic impacts. Skin contact is a
impacts more likely form of entry for acute effects - poor hygiene practices could result in skin
absorption.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 52

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste mineral oils unfit for their
category:Y8 code: A3020 J100
originally intended use
Oil spills at sea have occurred throughout history with catastrophic
impacts on local ecosystems. The infamous Exxon Valdez oil tanker
incident in Alaska in 1989 was shocking in terms of both its scale
and its impact. Immediate effects were over 100,000 birds and
mammals were killed1 and 16,000 – 21,000 gallons were estimated
to still remain on surrounding beaches as recently as 2014, 25 years
Overview
later.2
Dissolved oxygen starvation is a symptom of high organic loading of
waters, such as occurs with oil spills, which effects fish populations
both as a physical surface barrier to the atmosphere and from

Potential unnaturally active biochemical processes in response to degradation

environment of the organic waste discharge.

impacts High: Oils can cause devastating physical effects such as coating
animals and plants with oil and suffocating them by oxygen
Acute ecotoxicity
depletion, foul shorelines, clog water treatment plants and catch fire
when ignition sources are present.

Chronic High: Can destroy future and existing food supplies, breeding
ecotoxicity animals and habitats.

Medium: Oils will biodegrade in the environment, the rate

Persistence dependent on the type of oil spilled, but can form products that linger
in the environment for many years.

Bioaccumulation Low: Does not bioaccumulate in fish.

Where are the Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of impacts
most likely? High Medium Medium Moderate N/A Low

Spills of oils can occur on a scale varying from a vehicle or truck sized accident or spill
incident, all the way through to oil tanker spills at sea. In either case the environmental
damage that can result is due to oil’s immiscibility with water, and its consequent tendency
to spread across large distances by blanketing the surface of waterways.
While there have been no oil spill environmental disasters of the scale of the Exxon
Valdez, Australia has a large oil industry and there have been several large oil spills.
Has anything Three examples are described here.3
happened Kirki oil tanker spill (WA, 1991)
before in
On 21 July 1991, the Greek tanker Kirki lost its bow off the coast of Western Australia
Australia?
(WA). During the incident and the subsequent tow of the tanker to a safe haven some
17,280 tonnes of light crude was lost. Serious pollution of the West Australian coast was
avoided due to the dual combination of severe weather conditions and the effects of the
Leeuwin Current in dispersing the 7,900 tonnes of oil lost during the initial stages of the
spill off Cervantes and Jurien Bay.
The response to the Kirki spill involved in excess of 100 experts in salvage, pollution
clean-up and emergency response. In addition, to supplement existing stockpiles,

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 53

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste mineral oils unfit for their
category:Y8 code: A3020 J100
originally intended use
significant quantities of equipment from Brisbane, Geelong and Port Adelaide were moved
by air and road to Perth, Fremantle, Jurien Bay and Dampier (for the cargo transfer
process) at very short notice.
This was Australia’s largest oil spill at sea, by volume.

Montara Wellhead Platform spill (WA, 2009)

On Friday 21 August 2009, the Montara Wellhead mobile drilling unit located 140 miles
offshore from the NW Australian coast, had an uncontrolled release of hydrocarbons from
one of the platform wells. Consequently oil escaped to the surface and gaseous
hydrocarbons escaped into the atmosphere.
It was estimated that 64 tonnes per day (400 barrels) of crude oil were initially being lost,
amounting to 4,750 tonnes in total. The leak continued until 3 November 2009 and
response operations continued until the well was capped on 3 December 2009 (105 days).
A total of 844,000 litres of product was recovered. It is estimated that some 493,000 litres
of this oil-water mixture was oil.
Conservation group WWF described this as “Australia’s worst oil spill.”

MV Pacific Adventurer spill (Qld, 2009)

In March 2009, the 2009 southeast Queensland oil spill occurred, when 230 tonnes of fuel
oil, 30 tonnes of other fuel and 31 shipping containers containing 620 tonnes of
ammonium nitrate spilled from the MV Pacific Adventurer into the Coral Sea, north of
Moreton Bay during Cyclone Hamish. Over the following days, the spill washed ashore
along 60 km of coastline encompassing the Sunshine Coast, Moreton Bay, Bribie Island
and Moreton Island. Queensland Premier Anna Bligh described the spill as "worst
environmental disaster Queensland has ever seen". It took over 1,425 people 16 months
to clean up the affected areas at a total cost of $4 million.

Industries that handle or store significant amounts of waste oils are

licensed by environmental regulators to control industrial processes,
Industry –
tanks and equipment to prevent environmental emissions.
systematic
The waste oil recycling industry has operated within the Product
controls
Stewardship for Oil Program (PSO) (see ‘Government’ below) for
over a decade.

What control
measures are in
place to
manage risks Potential industrial sources of these wastes have strict emissions
Industry –
posed by this control equipment, site engineering and contingency plans in place.
exposure
waste? Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate personal protective
controls
equipment (PPE), relating to inhalation of oil mists and skin contact.

The Product Stewardship for Oil Program (PSO) was introduced by

Government the Australian Government in 2001 to provide incentives to increase
used oil recycling. The Program aims to encourage the

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 54

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste mineral oils unfit for their
category:Y8 code: A3020 J100
originally intended use
environmentally sustainable management and re-refining of used oil
and its re-use. The arrangements comprise a levy-benefit system,
where an 8.5 cents per litre levy on new oil, helps fund benefit
payments to used oil re-refiners and recyclers. These arrangements
provide incentives to increase used oil recycling and re-refining in
the Australian community.
State and territory governments regulate the management of
hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
disposal of all hazardous wastes, including this waste, through
licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.
In terms of marine oil spills, more stringent laws, rules, and
guidelines, and increased vigilance by industry and regulators—has
reduced accidental spills, at least in developed countries. For
instance, studies of tanker spills have prompted regulations for the
steady, ongoing replacement of single-hulled tankers in the world
fleet with double-hulled tankers.4

Cars, trucks, farm machines and boats all need regular lubricating oil
changes. It takes only one litre of oil to contaminate one million litres
of water and a single automotive oil change produces 4 to 5 litres of
used oil.
Community
By pouring your used oil back into an empty oil container and taking
it to your local used oil facility for recycling (which can be located by
contacting your local council), you are helping to conserve a
valuable resource and protect the environment.

1. Graham, S (2003). Environmental Effects of Exxon Valdez Spill Still Being Felt.
Scientific American.
2. PBS Newshour article, March 24, 2014. 25 years later, scientists still spot traces of oil
from Exxon Valdez spill. Accessed 23 April, 2015 from:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/25-years-later-scientists-remember-exxon-valdez-
spill/#the-rundown
3. Australian Government, Australian Maritime Safety Authority. Major historical incidents.
References Accessed 23 April, 2015 from:
https://www.amsa.gov.au/environment/major-historical-incidents/
4. Farrington, J and McDowell, J. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Mixing Oil and
Water: Tracking the sources and impacts of oil pollution in the marine environment.
Oceanus Magazine, Vol. 43, No.1, November 2004. Accessed 23 April 2015 from:
http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/mixing-oil-and-water
5. 'Used oil' MSDS: Accessed 23 April 2015 from:
http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/asp/pdf/06_0022_response_to_submissions_part_2.pdf

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 55

3.9 Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures, emulsions
Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water
category:Y9 code: A4060 J120
mixtures, emulsions
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0

This category describes the core waste Y8 (waste oils) in the context
of mixtures with water, which may result in high water content with
residual levels of oil contamination and mixtures of hydrocarbon
materials and water (oily water), or mixtures of same that have
formed an emulsion – oil droplets dispersed (but not dissolved) in
Description of water (the continuous phase).
the waste
This category describes oil contents in water up to a maximum of
50% oil and typically substantially below this.

What is it? Wastes include truck and vehicle washwaters, skimmer and
interceptor waters, vehicle coolant waters and potentially shipping
bilge water.

Waste form Liquid

Oil has similar properties and risks to the environment as a

‘contaminant’ in water than it does as a neat material. However, oily
waters may not be as obviously tainted, which could result in
Physical/
ingestion risks of oil products (for human health) and dissolved
chemical
oxygen impacts in the marine environment.
description
Oil and water emulsions cause oil to sink and disappear from the
surface, giving the visual illusion that it is gone and the threat to the
environment has ended.
H13: Capable of Capable, by any means, after disposal, of
yielding another yielding another material, e.g., leachate,
Primary hazard
hazard or hazardous which possesses any other hazardous
material characteristics.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
hazard or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
Why is it including carcinogenicity.
hazardous?
Substances or wastes which if released
present or may present immediate or
Other hazard(s) H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Oils, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, other

Main likely chemical contaminants
organic pollutants.

Metal ore and petroleum mining, metal processing and refining,

Where does it
Main sources aircraft maintenance, fossil fuel electricity supply, vehicle wash
come from?
services (retail), vehicle servicing (retail).

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 56

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water
category:Y9 code: A4060 J120
mixtures, emulsions
Chemical/ physical and biological treatment to remove the
How is it hydrocarbon content, then the water is reused or recycled for
Main fates
managed? another purpose. Some wastewaters are discharged to sewer under
regulatory agreements.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 5.79%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 416,523 ACT: 1,554 NSW: 97,481
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 489 Qld: 195,079 SA: 3,903
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 64 Vic: 63,866 WA: 54,088

This overview and component assessment of potential human

Overview health impacts from oily waters is based on the risks associated with
the oil component of the mixture or emulsion.

Acute toxicity Low – medium: May be harmful or fatal if swallowed.

Low – medium: Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause

Chronic toxicity
drying, cracking, redness, itching, and/or swelling.

Medium: Oil component contains substances that are known

Potential health
carcinogens. There may be hydrocarbon and chlorinated solvents;
impacts
metals, and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons present which are
listed as known, probable, or possible carcinogens.
Carcinogenicity
Risk of cancer depends on duration and level of exposure but also
route of exposure, since lwater contaminated with low levels of oil is
more likely to be swallowed than neat oil, particularly if it is from
contamination of a drinking water supply.

Reproductive High: Repeated exposure may impair fertility or cause harm to the
toxicity unborn child.

Common exposure risk to workers involved in motor vehicle or other mechanical repairs,
Workplace
machine shops and maintenance of industrial machinery. Skin contact is a likely form of
health & safety
entry for acute effects - poor hygiene practices could result in skin absorption of
impacts
contaminants in water.

This overview and component assessment of potential

environmental impacts from oily waters is based on the risks
associated with the oil component of the mixture or emulsion.
Potential
Dissolved oxygen starvation is a symptom of high organic loading of
environment Overview
waters, such as occurs with spills of oil-laden wastewaters, which
impacts
effects fish populations due to unnaturally active biochemical
processes in response to degradation of the waste discharge, which
is high in biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 57

Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water
category:Y9 code: A4060 J120
mixtures, emulsions
Low: While oils can cause devastating physical effects such as
Acute ecotoxicity coating animals and plants with oil, oily waters have more subtle
effects more likely to be chronic.

Chronic High: Can destroy future and existing food supplies, breeding
ecotoxicity animals and habitats.

Medium: Oils will biodegrade in the environment, the rate

Persistence dependent on the type of oil spilled, but can form products that linger
in the environment for many years.

Bioaccumulation Low: Does not bioaccumulate in fish.

Where are the Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of impacts
most likely? High Medium Medium Moderate N/A Low

No oily water incidents identified in Australia, but diffuse pollution of waterways with oil/
Has anything
water mixtures occurs every day, through stormwater run-off that includes millions of oil
happened
drips and leaks from vehicles, unburnt fuels in engine exhausts washed out of the
before in
atmosphere in rain and leaked fuel-contaminated waters from outboard engines of small
Australia?
boats and pleasure craft.

Industries that collect significant amounts of oil contaminated waters

are licensed by environmental regulators to control industrial
Industry – processes, tanks and equipment to prevent environmental
systematic emissions.
What control
measures are in controls These waters are typically recycled after oil separation through
place to technologies such as flotation separation, filtration, ultrafiltration and
manage risks reverse osmosis.
posed by this
State and territory governments regulate the management of
waste?
hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
Government place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
disposal of all hazardous wastes, including this waste, through
licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.

1. Farrington, J and McDowell, J. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Mixing Oil and
Water: Tracking the sources and impacts of oil pollution in the marine environment.
Oceanus Magazine, Vol. 43, No.1, November 2004. Accessed 23 April 2015 from:
http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/mixing-oil-and-water
2. 'Used oil' MSDS: Accessed 23 April 2015 from:
References http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/asp/pdf/06_0022_response_to_submissions_part_2.pdf
3. Australian Government. Water for the Future. Water Treatment and Reuse. Accessed
24 April 2015 from:
http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/73c2bfb0-2879-4915-b744-
90d7169cc192/files/weo-water-treatment-and-reuse.pdf

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 58

3.10 Waste substances and articles containing or contaminated with
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and/or polychlorinated terphenyls
(PCTs) and/or polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)
Waste name:
Waste substances and articles
containing or contaminated with NEPM code:
Basel waste Basel permit
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) category:Y10 code: A3180 M100
and/or polychlorinated terphenyls
(PCTs) and/or polybrominated
biphenyls (PBBs)
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9

Polychlorinated biphenyls were removed from service in the 1980s

and 1990s, but there remained paraffin oil contaminated with
Description of
commercial polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) mixtures.
the waste
What is it? Polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) and polybrominated biphenyls
(PBBs) are not known to have been used in Australia.

Waste form Liquid

Physical/
High boiling point dilute solution of the chlorinated substances in
chemical
paraffin oil.
description

Substances or wastes which if released

present or may present immediate or
Primary hazard H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
hazard or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Why is it The word ‘flammable’ has the same

hazardous? meaning as ‘inflammable’. Flammable

liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or
liquids containing solids in solution or
suspension (for example, paints, varnishes,
H3: Flammable
Other hazard(s) lacquers, etc., but not including substances
liquids
or wastes otherwise classified on account of
their dangerous characteristics) which give
off flammable vapour at temperatures of not
more than 60.5°C, closed-cup test, or not
more than 65.6°C, open-cup test.

Main likely chemical contaminants Commercial PCB mixture.

Where does it The waste was generated in the electricity industry where PCBs
Main sources
come from? were used as insulating and heat-conducting fluids in transformers

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 59

Waste name:
Waste substances and articles
containing or contaminated with NEPM code:
Basel waste Basel permit
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) category:Y10 code: A3180 M100
and/or polychlorinated terphenyls
(PCTs) and/or polybrominated
biphenyls (PBBs)
and other electrical installations. Starting in the late 1980s the
equipment was drained and refilled with paraffin oil. Because PCBs
were not completely removed, the result was a solution of PCBs in
paraffin oil. PCBs were also used in small items such as capacitors
and fluorescent-lighting ballasts.
PCBs have been shown to be present in materials such as caulking
compounds in Europe but data are lacking for this potential source of
waste in Australia.

Under a national PCB Management Plan introduced in 1996 the

contaminated oil has been removed and PCBs and other
contamination (or more usually the whole mixture) has been
How is it
Main fates destroyed. In 2004 the substance was listed under the Stockholm
managed?
Convention on persistent organic pollutants (to which Australia is a
signatory). Strict requirements placed on use, import, and
destruction.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.06%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 4,142 ACT: 25 NSW: 2,028
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 168 Qld: 1,556 SA: 27
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 22 Vic: 308 WA: 7

Toxic by skin contact or inhalation of fumes. PCBs are almost

ubiquitous in the Australian environment, being present in low
Overview concentrations in fish, animal fats (including butter) and in personal
body-burdens although no health effects can be attributed explicitly
to their presence in diet.

Potential health Acute toxicity Low: PCBs can produce skin pigmentation and affect liver function.
impacts
High: May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated
Chronic toxicity
exposure.

Carcinogenicity Extreme: Listed as a likely carcinogen.

Reproductive
Low – medium: Possible reproductive toxin.
toxicity

Workplace
health & safety Personal protective equipment required.
impacts

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 60

Waste name:
Waste substances and articles
containing or contaminated with NEPM code:
Basel waste Basel permit
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) category:Y10 code: A3180 M100
and/or polychlorinated terphenyls
(PCTs) and/or polybrominated
biphenyls (PBBs)
No impact on broader population. PCBs may have been used as components of caulking
Population
compounds with subsequent slow release to the environment. This has been
scale impacts
demonstrated in Europe but not in Australia.

Toxic to marine organisms and to other species who are exposed in

Overview
the food chain.

Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: PCBs are acutely toxic to aquatic organisms.

Potential
Chronic Extreme: PCBs are developmental and reproductive toxins in most
environment
ecotoxicity animal species.
impacts
Persistence Extreme: PCBs are persistent, with half-lives greater than 10 years.

Extreme: PCBs are bioaccumulative and concentrations undergo

Bioaccumulation
biomagnification up the food chain.

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low

Release to the environment before the impact of bans on the use of PCBs and the
Has anything
implementation of the PCB Management Plan have resulted in very low level
happened
contamination of the environment and contributions to the chemical body burden of
before in
Australians. The substance has a long half-life and so concentrations are decreasing
Australia?
slowly.

Industry – Industry has complied with the specifications of the PCB

systematic management plan for effective management and destruction of PCB
controls wastes.

Industry –
Personal protective equipment and waste-handling by licensed
What control exposure
companies.
measures are controls
in place to PCBs are listed under the Stockholm Convention on persistent
manage risks organic pollutants, to which Australia is a signatory. States and
posed by this Government
territories control the tracking and reporting of PCB waste under
waste? auspices of the national PCB Management Plan (1996).

The PCB Management Plan was developed through consultation

with representatives of environment groups, industries involved in
Community
the production, use and destruction of hazardous wastes, and
governments.

1. Polychlorinated Biphenyls management Plan, revised 2003:

References www.nepc.gov.au/system/files/resources/

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 61

Waste name:
Waste substances and articles
containing or contaminated with NEPM code:
Basel waste Basel permit
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) category:Y10 code: A3180 M100
and/or polychlorinated terphenyls
(PCTs) and/or polybrominated
biphenyls (PBBs)
2. States and territories control the tracking and reporting of PCB waste. For
example, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) management (EPA Victoria, 2009):
www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/IWRG643%201.pdf.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 62

3.11 Waste tarry residues arising from refining, distillation and any pyrolytic
treatment
Waste name:
Waste tarry residues arising from Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
refining, distillation and any pyrolytic category:Y11 code: A3190 J160
treatment
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 -4.9

Description of The waste consists of high-boiling material remaining after volatile

the waste substances have been removed.

What is it? Viscous liquid or

Waste form
gummy solid.

The main components are high molecular weight hydrocarbons,

Physical/
often polymeric in nature, but oxygenated species may also be
chemical
present and impurities such as black carbon and heavy metals may
description
be present, together with compounds of sulphur and phosphorus.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Primary hazard
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Substances or wastes which if released

Why is it present or may present immediate or
Secondary
hazardous? H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
hazard
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Other hazard(s) N/A N/A

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)

Main likely chemical contaminants
and heavy metals.

Tarry residues are produced in the refining of petroleum, re-refining

Where does it
Main sources of lubricating oils, production of metallurgical coke or town gas by
come from?
pyrolysis of coal.

Much of the material is disposed of by combustion, with subsequent

disposal of ash to landfill after appropriate treatment. Some has
How is it
Main fates been used as road-making material. Past use for production of
managed?
carbon black pigment. Spills and leaks at gasworks have resulted in
contaminated sites.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
How much is
tonnes in 2013) 0.38%
generated in
Australia? TOTAL: 27,599 ACT: 0 NSW: 8,612
Waste arising in
2013 (tonnes) NT: 19 Qld: 178 SA: 18,628

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 63

Waste name:
Waste tarry residues arising from Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
refining, distillation and any pyrolytic category:Y11 code: A3190 J160
treatment
Tas: 19 Vic: 132 WA: 12

Public exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated by

combustion processes including automobile exhausts, tobacco
smoking and uncontrolled combustion is widespread. Consequently
most exposure to PAHs is from fine particulate matter that is more
readily inhaled or ingested. That is not the case with tarry matter,
which poses risks from direct contact with the material or with soil
contaminated with it. In the workplace, naphthalene is taken as the
Overview
indicator component with an eight hour time weighted exposure limit
of 10 ppm with short term exposure not to exceed 15 ppm. The
Australian Drinking Water Quality Guideline is 10x10-9 g/L for the
Potential health potent carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene.
impacts Heavy metals such as zinc, copper, cobalt and others are often
present in tarry matter, especially coal tar. The hazards associated
with these components of tarry matter are described in other profiles.

Acute toxicity Low: Phenols present in the mixture can cause skin irritation.

High: Various components of the PAH mixture are known or

Chronic toxicity
suspected carcinogens with long term irreversible effects.

Carcinogenicity Extreme: The PAH mixture includes known carcinogens.

Reproductive
Low: There is no evidence of reproductive toxicity.
toxicity

Workplace
health & safety Personal protective equipment.
impacts

Population
No widespread impacts
scale impacts

Most exposure to PAHs is from fine particulate matter that is more

Overview readily inhaled or ingested. Low risk because the viscosity of the
tarry residue material limits its dispersal to and in the environment.

Extreme: The PAH mixture is toxic to marine organisms and birds.

Dispersal of tarry matter into the environment, especially into water,
Acute ecotoxicity
Potential would pose the same threat as an oil spill from a production well,
environment storage or transport would be.
impacts
Chronic Insufficient data are available for chronic effects on environmental
ecotoxicity species.

Extreme: The PAHs are persistent and only slowly degraded in the
Persistence
environment.

Bioaccumulation Extreme: PAHs are known to be bioaccumulative.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 64

Waste name:
Waste tarry residues arising from Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
refining, distillation and any pyrolytic category:Y11 code: A3190 J160
treatment
Where are the
Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low

Sites in Australia where town gas was produced from coal have been heavily
Has anything
contaminated by tarry matter. During remediation of the sites the tarry matter containing
happened
PAHs and heavy metals was removed to secure landfills. A recent example (2012-2014)
before in
is remediation of the site of the Toowoomba, Qld, gasworks
Australia?
(www.thiess.com.au/projects/toowoomba-gasworks-remediation-project/detail.

Industry –
No systematic controls of industrial management of tarry wastes
systematic
have been identified.
controls

What control Industry – Appropriate PPE is used by workers in the sampling, removal and
measures are exposure remediation of sites contaminated with tarry residue waste.
in place to controls
manage risks
State and territory environment agencies require residues destined
posed by this
Government for secure landfill as hazardous waste to be solidified and to meet
waste?
specifications for content and leachability of hazardous components.

The tarry materials are industrial wastes that the community is not
Community
normally exposed to.

1. Management of Coal Tar Waste and Coal Tar Contaminated Soils and Sediment (2002):
www.dec.ny.gov/regulations/2594.html.
2. Information for the Investigation of Former Gasworks Sites (Department of Environment
References and Conservation, NSW, 2005):
www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/clm/gasworks05237.pdf.
3. Australian Oil Recyclers Association: http://aora.asn.au/index.php.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 65

3.12 Wastes from production, formulation and use of inks, dyes, pigments,
paints, lacquers, varnish
Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of inks, dyes, pigments, category:Y12 code: A4070 F100
paints, lacquers, varnish
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0 3.9 -4.9

Waste from production and formulation of printing inks has been

reduced as a consequence of the introduction of water-based inks by
the major Australian manufacturer. A parallel innovation is the
introduction of vegetable oils and vegetable-based resins as vehicles
for printing inks, again avoiding organic vapours (wastes).
There is no manufacture of dyes or coloured pigments in Australia
but titanium dioxide pigment is produced from titanium minerals by
reaction with chlorine, separation of titanium tetrachloride, and
generation of titanium oxide from it with recovery of chlorine. When
ilmenite, FeTiO3, is treated with chlorine, iron chloride is also formed,
leading to production of iron oxide as a waste. Rutile, TiO2, is less
often used but some producers convert ilmenite to ‘synthetic rutile’
with low iron content that allows generation of iron oxide waste at an
Description of
earlier stage.
the waste
Paint and other surface coatings are produced in substantial
What is it? quantities in Australia. Most paint now consists of water-based
emulsions of polymeric material.
Wastes are generated during the use of inks, paints and surface
coatings.
A significant quantity of waste paint exists in the hands of
homeowners. Along with other domestic material such as pesticides
and solvents, this unused unwanted paint is collected from time to
time by local government operating in conjunction with industry and
state or territory governments.
Waste from glues and adhesives may contain polymeric materials
and solvents such as toluene.

Waste form Solid and liquid

In refining of titanium minerals for preparation of titanium dioxide

pigment, solid iron oxide Fe2O3 is produced for disposal.
Physical/
chemical The solid waste generated during use of paints and surface coatings

description consists of polymeric material such as polyacrylates and

methacrylates, together with pigments and small quantities of
substances like plasticizers and anti-oxidants.
The word ‘flammable’ has the same
Why is it H3: Flammable meaning as ‘inflammable’. Flammable
Primary hazard
hazardous? liquids liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or
liquids containing solids in solution or

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 66

Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of inks, dyes, pigments, category:Y12 code: A4070 F100
paints, lacquers, varnish
suspension (for example, paints, varnishes,
lacquers, etc, but not including substances
or wastes otherwise classified on account of
their dangerous characteristics) which give
off flammable vapour at temperatures of not
more than 60.5°C, closed-cup test, or not
more than 65.6°C, open-cup test.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
hazard or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Substances or wastes which if released

present or may present immediate or
Other hazard(s) H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Acrylate and methacrylates polymers,

Main likely chemical contaminants
solvents such as toluene.

Wastes are generated in production by poor process management

and by the need to reprocess batches that do not meet specification.
Where does it Solid polymer containing pigment is generated by over-spray in
Main sources
come from? coating of metal (notably, in the automobile industry) and the leather
industry as well as waste material from paint manufacturing itself
metal coating and finishing and the printing industry.

Wastes generated in production of paints and surface coatings are

kept to a minimum by quality control (QC) and, where necessary,
recycling into the process. This means that little waste is generated
so only small quantities are transferred to licensed disposal
companies. Solids are used as minor components in raw materials
for cement production. Solvents are recovered and after distillation
How is it used in cleaning operations.
Main fates
managed? When solvents are unable to be recovered they are transferred to
disposal companies for combustion with other solvent wastes.
Contaminated material such as cleaning rags and paper are
landfilled as hazardous waste.
Trials have been conducted on the incorporation of solid waste
generated by overspray into cement kiln feedstock but most such
waste is still sent to landfill.

How much is Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

generated in (% of national
Australia? tonnes in 2013) 0.61%

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 67

Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of inks, dyes, pigments, category:Y12 code: A4070 F100
paints, lacquers, varnish
TOTAL: 44,110 ACT: 206 NSW: 12,424
Waste arising in
NT: 86 Qld: 11,154 SA: 2,236
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 16,960 WA: 1,043

The advent of water-based paints and coatings has greatly reduced

the hazards that were associated with solvents incorporated into oil-
Overview
based paints. Similarly, vegetable oils have replaced petroleum
products in most printing inks.

Low: There is small risk from the presence of unpolymerized

Acute toxicity monomers such as butyl acrylate in water-based paints. Its
presence accounts for the smell of new paint.
Potential health
Low: Solvents present in oil-based paints, some inks and solvent-
impacts Chronic toxicity
based surface coatings can contribute to chronic toxicity.

Low - medium: No carcinogenic effects are known for common

constituents of inks, paints and surface coatings, although limited
Carcinogenicity
specialty (oil based) coatings may contain solvents with the potential
for carcinogenicity.

Reproductive Low: No impact on reproduction is expected from common

toxicity constituents of these industrial products.

Workplace Where solvents other than water are involved there is a need for good workplace
health & safety ventilation, system closed to the maximum extent, and availability of personal protective
impacts equipment where waste must be dealt with.

Population There are no population-wide risks arising from the production formulation and use of
scale impacts these industrial products.

Constituents of inks, paints and surface coatings etc. are seldom

released to the environment, except for organic solvents that
Overview
contribute to the Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) pollutant load
which is the source of ozone in the lower atmosphere.

High: Spills into aquatic environments constitute a form of waste that

Potential Acute ecotoxicity
could have acute toxic effects on biota.
environment
impacts High: Spills could have long term impact on the aquatic environment.
Chronic
Ozone formation from emissions of volatile organic compounds in
ecotoxicity
paint solvents is also a form of chronic environmental impact.

Persistence None of the constituents is persistent.

Bioaccumulation None of the constituent sis bioaccumulative.

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 68

Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of inks, dyes, pigments, category:Y12 code: A4070 F100
paints, lacquers, varnish
impacts most
High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low
likely?

Has anything
happened No major incidents have been reported. Risks to human health and the environment from
before in these industrial products are very low.
Australia?

Industry – Solvent- and oil-based materials posed flammability hazards during

systematic production, transport and use, but the advent of water-based
controls materials has largely removed this hazard.

Industry – Aromatic solvents such as toluene require measures to limit

exposure exposure of workers, but the other components of these products do
controls not require more than minimal caution.
What control
measures are Regulatory levels are set by government agencies for exposure of
in place to workers to a range of volatile organic substances. For example, the
manage risks eight hour exposure concentration for methyl methacrylates is 100
posed by this ppm.
Government
waste?
Industry and governments are working together to develop a
voluntary product stewardship programme to take back unused
paint.

Labels and containers of consumer products are required to carry

Community advice on safe handling of the contents, although components are
seldom identified.

1. Titanium Dioxide and Titanium Dioxide Pigment (1997):

www.chemlink.com.au/titanium.htm.
2. R.H. Leach et al. eds, The Printing Ink Manual (Springer 1993) available as eBook.
References 3. Modern printing Ink Manufacture (c.2010):
http://letterpressprinting.com.au/page11.htm.
4. Understanding Paint: www.paintquality.com/en/understanding-paint/water-based-vs-
solvenbt-based.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 69

3.13 Wastes from production, formulation and use of resins, latex, plasticizers,
glues/ adhesives
Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of resins, latex, plasticizers, category:Y13 code: A3050 F110
glues/ adhesives
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 -4.9

These products all involve polymers either as solid materials or

dissolved in organic solvents or dispersed in the form of latex in
water. Waste can consist of monomers used in production of the
polymers, waste products from the production site, or waste
generated in or after use of the products. Plasticizers may be
Description of present in the solid products.
the waste
A prominent use of resins, mainly epoxies, is in production of
fibreglass for use in interior construction, boats, surfboards and other
equipment.
Post-consumer waste is unlikely to be accepted by the recycling
industry.

Waste form Solid and liquid

The classes of polymers involved in such products include polyesters

What is it? in which cross-linking is achieved by incorporation of polyols and

polyacid monomers, or unsaturated monomers that provide cross-
linking points in the polymer chain. Small quantities of styrene,
maleic anhydride and epoxides such as ethylene and propylene
oxide may also be incorporated into copolymers. A second group
are the epoxy resins that involve specific monomers.
Hotmelt adhesives commonly used for gluing cardboard cartons are
Physical/ manufactured from ethyl-vinyl acetate copolymers.
chemical Phenol-formaldehyde and melamine-formaldehyde resins are
description adhesives for production of wood composites.
Low molecular weight polymers such as polymethyl methacrylates
and some polyurethanes may also find use as resins.
Glues and adhesives may be solvent-based or water-based. In the
first category, the active component may be a polymer of
intermediate molecular weight, and the carrier is a flammable solvent
such as toluene or petroleum spirit. Water-based adhesives
normally consist of stabilized emulsions of polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH)
in water, the polymer being derived from polyvinyl acetate.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

Why is it H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Primary hazard
hazardous? or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 70

Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of resins, latex, plasticizers, category:Y13 code: A3050 F110
glues/ adhesives
Substances or wastes which if released
present or may present immediate or
Secondary
H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
hazard
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Other hazard(s) N/A N/A

The polymers are the main components of

waste derived from manufacture and use of
these products and they are non-hazardous.
Main likely chemical contaminants
In some cases chemical additives may be
present, such as flame retardants (PBDEs)
or plasticizers (e.g. phthalate esters).

Some waste is generated at the site of production but since this is an

economic loss the quantity is minimized by the normal industrial
practices of Quality Control.
Where does it Manufacturers of resins, latex, plasticizers, glues and adhesives are
Main sources
come from? the main producers of this waste, along with major users of these
products such as plastic product manufacturers, motor vehicle, boat
and caravan manufacturers, other fibreglass product manufacturers
and the construction industry to a small extent.

Chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard (if required),

How is it then the stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous
Main fates
managed? waste landfill. Some waste may undergo energy recovery through
blending into waste-derived fuels.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.07%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 4,792 ACT: 7 NSW: 2,170
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 2 Qld: 881 SA: 442
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 447 WA: 843

The polymeric materials have very low toxicity mainly on account of

their low solubility. Some monomers pose workplace hazards –
methyl methacrylates, various isocyanates (components of
polyurethanes) and styrene.
Potential health
Overview Fat-soluble additives present in commercial products may be of more
impacts
concern, including plasticizers such as phosphate esters or
phthalates, and flame retardants such as polybrominated
compounds (see Y45). Some of the latter are banned under multi-
national environment agreements such as the Stockholm Convention

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 71

Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of resins, latex, plasticizers, category:Y13 code: A3050 F110
glues/ adhesives
on persistent organic pollutants but others remain on, or are just now
entering, the market.

Medium - high: Polymers and additives do not exhibit acute toxicity

but monomers such as methyl methacrylate, isocyanates and
Acute toxicity
styrene do. Similarly, formaldehyde used in, or released from,
phenol-formaldehyde resins is acutely toxic.

Medium – high: Developmental effects may eventuate from

Chronic toxicity
exposure to flame retardants.

Carcinogenicity Low: Polymers, monomers and additives are not carcinogenic.

Low: Some additives such as the brominated flame retardants and

Reproductive
certain phthalate esters can affect reproduction but these effects
toxicity
have not been demonstrated in humans.

Workplace
The main substances of concern for industrial health and safety are styrene, methyl
health & safety
methacrylates and isocyanates (see Y+3 Other Organic Chemicals).
impacts

Population Broader impacts of additives may come about by release of these substances and plastics
scale impacts containing them to the environment and subsequent uptake by food species.

Long-range transport to colder regions of the planet and

Overview
bioaccumulation of flame retardants has been observed.

Acute ecotoxicity Polymers and additives do not exhibit acute toxicity.

Medium: Pathways have been shown to exist whereby additives can

Potential Chronic
be carried by and sequestered by plastic litter and then released into
environment ecotoxicity
the food chain.
impacts
Medium - high: Many of the additives and other sequestered fat-
Persistence
soluble chemicals are persistent.

Medium – high: Many of the additives and other sequestered fat-

Bioaccumulation
soluble chemicals are bioaccumulative.

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low

Has anything
happened No specific incidents are known. See Y+3 Other organic chemicals for a spill of ethyl
before in acrylate, a related compound.
Australia?

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 72

Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of resins, latex, plasticizers, category:Y13 code: A3050 F110
glues/ adhesives
The amenity and toxicity hazards of reactive monomeric substances
Industry –
are recognized in industry and subject to workplace controls. Where
systematic
flammable solvents are involved in production of glues and
controls
adhesives appropriate precautions need to be taken.

Exposure controls are common in larger industrial organizations, but

Industry – not present in many small-to-medium enterprises (SME) nor
exposure implemented by home-operators and single traders. Exposure to
What control
controls glass fibres when fibre-glass products are cut or abraded is more of
measures are
a hazard than exposure to the resins themselves.
in place to
manage risks Regulatory levels are set by government agencies for exposure of
posed by this workers to a range of volatile organic substances. For example, the
Government
waste? eight hour exposure concentration for methyl methacrylates is 100
ppm.

Community members may be exposed to waste monomers when

undertaking construction or maintenance work with commercially-
available two-component mixtures that form polyesters,
Community
polyurethanes or epoxies. Labels and containers of consumer
products are required to carry advice on safe handling of the
contents, although components are seldom identified.

1. 1. Methyl acrylate – product safety assessment (Dow Chemical, 2010):

https.msdssearch.dow.com
2. 2. Safe Working with Fibreglass (CSBP, Allen Borham, 2009:
References http://csbp.com.au/Media/Contractor-resources/Saftey/GM-11-031-47.aspx
3. 3. Results from Australia were reported by E.M. Chua et al., ‘Assimilation of
Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers from Microplastics by the Marine Amphipod, Allorchestes
compressa’, Environmental Science and Technology, 48 (2014), S127-S134.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 73

3.14 Wastes of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation
Waste name: NEPM code:
Basel waste Basel permit
Wastes of an explosive nature not T200, D340,
category:Y15 code: A4080
subject to other legislation D350, E100
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0

In addition to NEPM code T200, which is a direct translation to this y-

code, this is a catch-all category that captures a number of wastes
classified in Australia under the National Environment Protection
(Movement of Controlled Waste between States and Territories)
Measure, but not reflected in any Basel Y codes. The other NEPM
wastes are:
• D340 Perchlorates
• D350 Chlorates
• E100 Waste containing peroxides other than hydrogen peroxide.

The common property of this waste category is the potential to cause

Description of fire or explosion on account of the presence of strong oxidising
the waste chemicals.
Strong regulation in Australia is applied to most explosive
What is it? substances: nitroglycerine for military purposes, cordite for military
and recreational ammunition, pentanitro-erythritol (PETN) for fuse
manufacture, primary explosives such as lead azide, lead styphnate
and mercury fulminate for detonators, and ammonium nitrate for
mining and quarrying. Black powder, the traditional mixture of
saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal is little used these days.
Explosive substances also subject to regulation include chlorate and
perchlorate salts and some peroxides such as methyl ethyl ketone
peroxide used as a polymerization initiator.

Waste form Solid and liquid

Most of the substances derive their explosive power from the

presence of chlorine, nitrogen or oxygen in high oxidation states.
Physical/ Nitro groups are present in organic nitrate esters such as
chemical nitroglycerine (glyceryl trinitrate), and in nitro-aromatics such as
description trinitrotoluene (TNT). The nitrate ion is the oxidant in ammonium
nitrate. Primary explosives rely on high-energy structures of nitrogen
or oxygen.

An explosive substance or waste is a solid

or liquid substance or waste (or mixture of
substances or wastes) which is in itself
Why is it
Primary hazard H1: Explosive capable by chemical reaction of producing
hazardous?
gas at such a temperature and pressure
and at such a speed as to cause damage to
the surroundings.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 74

Waste name: NEPM code:
Basel waste Basel permit
Wastes of an explosive nature not T200, D340,
category:Y15 code: A4080
subject to other legislation D350, E100
Substances or wastes which, while in
themselves not necessarily combustible,
Secondary
H5.1: Oxidizing may, generally by yielding oxygen cause, or
hazard
contribute to, the combustion of other
materials.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Other hazard(s)
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Nitro compounds, chlorates and

Main likely chemical contaminants
perchlorates.

The production and use of all explosive materials are subject to

regulation in Australia. Sources are primarily chemical
manufacturing, metal product manufacturing, water supply drainage
Where does it
Main sources & sewerage and oil and gas extraction. Also, soap and detergent
come from?
manufacture and ‘crisp’ manufacturing (as in potato crisps and
related snack foods) are sources which arises in small amounts
annually.

How is it Wastes are mostly contained within the industries themselves and
Main fates
managed? destroyed under controlled conditions.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.03%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 2,441 ACT: 0 NSW: 10
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 2,329 SA: 3
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 81 WA: 18

Since it used in the paper industry, sodium chlorate is taken as an

Overview
example (see MSDS – reference 3, below).

Extreme: Sodium chlorate is an irritant to the skin and to mucous

membranes (eyes, throat and nose) if dust is inhaled. Humans
appear to be more susceptible than animals to acute effects of
Potential health
ingestion of sodium chlorate with doses of 100 grams or more
impacts
Acute toxicity invariably fatal.
If ingested, sodium chlorate affects the oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood and can cause dizziness and damage to internal organs.
The risk of explosion presents an immediate and significant health
risk.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 75

Waste name: NEPM code:
Basel waste Basel permit
Wastes of an explosive nature not T200, D340,
category:Y15 code: A4080
subject to other legislation D350, E100
Low: Chronic effects may result from repeated exposure to these
Chronic toxicity wastes. For example perchlorates can potentially inhibit iodide
uptake by the thyroid and result in a decrease in thyroid hormone.

Carcinogenicity Sodium chlorate is not carcinogenic.

Reproductive Low: The effects of sodium chlorate on blood can result in

toxicity reproductive effects.

Workplace
Protection against dust is essential, particularly because of this category’s explosivity,
health & safety
although these chemicals are usually handled in solution.
impacts

Population There are no population-scale impacts because exposure to sodium chlorate is confined to
scale impacts industrial settings.

Very little information is available on the environmental impacts of

Overview
sodium chlorate.

Medium: Sodium chlorate exhibits low acute toxicity to animals by

Acute ecotoxicity ingestion of dust exposure. The former use of sodium chlorate as a
Potential weedicide shows that it can be toxic to plant life, especially grasses.
environment
Chronic
impacts No information is available about chronic toxicity of sodium chlorate.
ecotoxicity

Sodium chlorate is not persistent in the environment since it is

Persistence
readily reduced to chloride.

Bioaccumulation Sodium chlorate is not bioaccumulative.

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low

Has anything
No incidents involving sodium chlorate are known in Australia. However, the Bali bombing
happened
in 2002 involved potassium chlorate, probably diverted illegally from safety match
before in
production (an industry not replicated in Australia).
Australia?

Manufacturers of explosives for commercial, sporting or military

purposes are tightly regulated in Australia. Some substances used
What control Industry – by firework manufacturers are also controlled under security
measures are systematic regulations. Some of these chemicals have other – examples are
in place to controls sodium chlorate that is used to generate chlorine dioxide for paper
manage risks pulp bleaching, and ammonium nitrate used as nitrogenous fertilizer
posed by this – and so regulations extend to those industries, too.
waste? Industry –
Most of the substances are not toxic and most industry controls are
exposure
directed at avoidance of explosive risks and illegal diversion (theft).
controls

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 76

Waste name: NEPM code:
Basel waste Basel permit
Wastes of an explosive nature not T200, D340,
category:Y15 code: A4080
subject to other legislation D350, E100
Under Australia’s National Code of Practice for Chemicals of
Security Concern there are 11 chemicals considered high risk. The
list includes sodium and potassium chlorates, perchlorates, and
nitrates and sodium azide, Most of the chemical substances in the
Government list of 96 chemicals of security concern are those that could be
involved in chemical weapons and do not possess explosive
potential.
Ammonium nitrate is separately regulated by state and territory
governments.

Community members are not involved in management of these

Community
industrial chemicals.

1. www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/ChemicalSecurity/Pages/default.aspx.
2. Explosives and fireworks – example of state regulations and guidance:
References www.dmp.wa.gov.au/6684.aspx.
3. Sodium chlorate: http://www.hillbrothers.com/msds/pdf/n/sodium-chlorate.pdf

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 77

3.15 Wastes from production, formulation and use of photographic chemicals
and processing materials
Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of photographic chemicals category:Y16 code: A4090 T120
and processing materials
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8

Description of Wastes from photographic processes include chemical substances

the waste used in developing and fixing the image.

Waste form Liquid

What is it?
Waste solutions contain variable amounts of phenolic (such as
hydroquinone) or other substances used in developing the image
Physical/
after the latent image is created by light-induced changes in the
chemical
silver salts on the surface of the photographic medium. After fixing,
description
the silver image remains on the photographic medium. Fixer waste
contains unused sodium thiosulfate and silver salts,

Substances or wastes which, by chemical

action, will cause severe damage when in
contact with living tissue, or, in the case of
Primary hazard H8: Corrosives leakage, will materially damage, or even
destroy, other goods or the means of
transport; they may also cause other
hazards.

Substances or wastes which if released

Why is it present or may present immediate or
hazardous? Secondary
H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
hazard
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Other hazard(s)
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Main likely chemical contaminants Phenols, thiosulfate and silver.

A number of chemical substances are used in film and print

photography. Traditional black-and-white photography employed
light-sensitive film and paper that was coated with an emulsion
(usually comprising gelatine) of silver halide. Exposure to light
Where does it
Main sources began the process of reducing silver ions to silver metal, and this
come from?
was accelerated and completed with a ‘developer’ (usually a phenol
or heterocyclic equivalent such as a pyrazolidone). The print was
then ‘fixed’ with ‘hypo’ (sodium thiosulfate) that dissolved unexposed
silver halide. Wastes from the fixing process contains silver ions.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 78

Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of photographic chemicals category:Y16 code: A4090 T120
and processing materials
Film use has declined since the advent of the digital camera and is
now confined to medical imaging (X-ray and MRI), dentistry,
industrial radiography, and a small market sector of ‘art’
photographers and enthusiasts.
Colour printing from digital files is now provided by machines located
in department stores or stationery suppliers. No silver is involved.

Medical and industrial X-ray images are captured on film in

automatic processors that use traditional chemical solutions.
Wastes are collected for disposal (and recovery of silver where
How is it feasible) by licensed companies. Small quantities of waste
Main fates
managed? generated by artists and enthusiasts are normally discarded to sewer
like trade waste. Silver, because of its intrinsic value, is recovered
from X-ray films by specialist companies and recycled, at an
indicative rate of 4kg/ tonne of film.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.01%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 826 ACT: 20 NSW: 144
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 159 SA: 10
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 7 Vic: 476 WA: 9

Chemicals in the developer can cause skin irritation. Thiosulfates

Overview
are toxic by ingestion. Silver ions are oxidants.

Medium: Irritation to exposed unprotected skin. Harmful if

Acute toxicity
swallowed. Risk of serious eye damage.

High: Irritation from prolonged exposure. Possible risk of irreversible

Potential health Chronic toxicity
effects.
impacts
Low: Limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect. But possibility of
Carcinogenicity cancer or mutagen-causing effects from some chemicals used in the
fixing process.

Reproductive
Photographic chemicals do not exhibit reproductive toxicity.
toxicity

Workplace
In the workplace these photographic processes are carried out in closed systems so
health & safety
exposure is minimal and would only occur during charging and cleaning equipment.
impacts

Mild hazards exist for photographic enthusiasts who do not take steps to protect
Population
themselves by, for example, wearing water-resistant gloves while handling solutions and
scale impacts
damp papers.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 79

Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of photographic chemicals category:Y16 code: A4090 T120
and processing materials
Thiosulfates are toxic to a wide range of organisms, and silver ions
Overview can cause irritation of tissues. Because silver is valuable it is
recovered from wastes for reuse so little enters the environment.

High: It is not commonly realised that thiosulfate is about as toxic as

Potential Acute ecotoxicity cyanide, although it does not give rise to volatiles like hydrogen
environment cyanide and so the toxicity is only evidenced on ingestion.
impacts
Chronic High: Only silver poses a chronic hazard, since other photographic
ecotoxicity chemical substances have short half-lives in the environment.

Persistence High: Silver ion is persistent.

Bioaccumulation None of the photographic chemicals are bioaccumulative.

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium Medium Low

Has anything
happened
No incidents involving photographic chemicals have been reported.
before in
Australia?

Closed systems are routinely used. Colour printing, following digital

Industry –
photography, is now done by dry processes in which dyes are
systematic
transferred from a ribbon to the polymer-coated paper blank. No
controls
silver is involved, and no developer or fixer solution.

Industry –
A number of companies in Australia collect X-ray films and destroy
exposure
What control them using a thermal process that allows recovery of silver.
controls
measures are
in place to State and local governments encourage and assist with collection of
Government
manage risks X-ray films.
posed by this
waste?

Community Community groups such as Scouts collect X-ray films for disposal.

1. 1. Http://recyclingnearyou.com.au/xray/.
2. 2. C. Swedlund and E.Y. Swedlund, Photography, a handbook of history, materials and
References processes (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 2nd ed., 1981.
3. Photographic Industry (OECD Emission Scenario Document) 2004. DOI:
10.1787/9789264221222-en.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 80

Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of photographic chemicals category:Y16 code: A4090 T120
and processing materials
4. Ilford Photo. MSDSs for various Photographic developer and fixer chemicals used in
Australia. Accessed April 2015 from:
http://www.ilfordphoto.com/healthandsafety/datasheet.asp?n=1

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 81

3.16 Wastes resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics
Basel Basel permit
Waste name:
waste code: NEPM code:
Wastes resulting from surface category: Dependant on A100
treatment of metals and plastics Y17 chemicals used
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0

The wastes derive from overspray of coating materials together with

excess material removed in cleaning of equipment.
Surface treatments of metals provide protection against corrosion.
After thorough cleaning of the surface (an alkaline or acid wash) a
coating of manganese, zinc or iron phosphate is applied. Zinc
chromate is commonly used for aluminium surfaces but some
coatings contain chromate, fluoride and other anionic species (see
Description of
MSDS for Alodine 1200S).
the waste
What is it? Plastic items may be coated with protective films applied as powder
(followed by thermal fusion) or spray (in the case of polyurethane).
Chemical coatings are being replaced by surface modification
techniques, especially in the case of non-polar materials such as
polyethylene and polypropylene. These use plasma or corona
discharge to improve adhesion of inks, adhesives and sealants to
the treated surface.
Waste form Solid and liquid

Waste from metal coating can contain metal phosphates or

Physical/
chromates (see Y21 Hexavalent chromium compounds). Waste
chemical
from surface treatment of plastics consists of polymers such as
description
polyurethanes.

Substances or wastes which, by chemical

action, will cause severe damage when in
contact with living tissue, or, in the case of
Primary hazard H8: Corrosives leakage, will materially damage, or even
destroy, other goods or the means of
transport; they may also cause other
hazards.

Substances or wastes which if released

Why is it present or may present immediate or
hazardous? Secondary
H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
hazard
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Other hazard(s)
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Main likely chemical contaminants Some metals such as Ni, Cr and Zn.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 82

Waste name: Basel Basel permit
waste code: NEPM code:
Wastes resulting from surface category: Dependant on A100
treatment of metals and plastics Y17 chemicals used
The main sources of this waste are: marine fishing; in the context of
Where does it shipyards and slipways; mining: including coal and gold mining;
Main sources
come from? petroleum refining; metal manufacturing and, to a large extent, metal
coating and finishing: such as electroplaters and galvanisers.

Non-toxic materials such as the metal phosphates and

How is it
Main fates polyurethanes are disposed to landfill. Chromates would be
managed?
immobilised and disposed at hazardous waste landfill.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.07%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 5,080 ACT: 0 NSW: 110
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 4,466 SA: 87
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 416

Overview The only coating materials of health concern are the chromates.

Extreme: Acute toxicity of chromates is associated with their

Acute toxicity oxidizing power. They can cause skin burns and damage to eyes
and other sensitive tissues.

Potential health Low – medium: Chronic effects can include allergic responses and
Chronic toxicity
impacts chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

High: Chromates are carcinogenic, especially by inhalation of

Carcinogenicity
chromium-containing dusts.

Reproductive High: Suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child and may
toxicity cause genetic defects.

Workplace
health & safety Personal protective equipment is needed by workers handling chromates.
impacts

Population
No population impacts for these industrial chemicals.
scale impacts

Chromium toxicity from chromates use extends to other animal

species in the environment. This can mean death of animals, birds or
fish and death or low growth rate in plants. Chromium (VI) does not
Overview
breakdown or degrade easily and there is a high potential for
Potential
accumulation of chromium (VI) in fish life.
environment
Cr (VI) is highly mobile, soluble and bioavailable in the environment.
impacts
Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Very toxic to aquatic organisms.

Chronic Extreme: May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic

ecotoxicity environment.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 83

Waste name: Basel Basel permit
waste code: NEPM code:
Wastes resulting from surface category: Dependant on A100
treatment of metals and plastics Y17 chemicals used
High: Chromium compounds are persistent in the environment and
Persistence
could contaminate water.

Bioaccumulation Chromium is not bioaccumulated.

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low

Has anything
happened Chromium releases from the chemical industry have been reported (see Y21) but not from
before in the metal surface treatment sector.
Australia?

Higher risk workplaces like chrome plating and associated metal

industries, where worker exposure to Cr (VI) compound wastes may
Industry – be possible, routinely monitor at-risk staff via blood or respiratory
systematic testing.
controls Such companies are licensed by environmental regulators to control
industrial processes and equipment so as to limit environmental
emissions of pollutants like Cr (VI).

Potential industrial sources of hexavalent chromium waste have

What control strict emissions control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters,
measures are electrostatic precipitators and stringent trade waste emissions
Industry –
in place to agreements. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate personal
exposure
manage risks protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to restricting
controls
posed by this exposure to airborne sources of chromium.
waste? The advent of trivalent, as opposed to hexavalent (chromate) surface
treatment is limiting exposure to the most hazardous species.

State and territory governments regulate the management of

hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
Government place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
disposal of all hazardous wastes, including this waste, through
licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.

The community is not exposed to wastes from the use of metal

Community
surface treatment substances such as chromates.

1. www.henkelna.com/adhesives/complete-product-line-21163.htm.
2. www.telfordinfustries.com.au/system/products/pdf1/0000/0404/Alodine_1200S.pd
References f.
3. Protective coatings for plastic items www.rhinolinings.com.au/industrial.
4. www.epw.com.au/trivalent.html.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 84

Waste name: Basel Basel permit
waste code: NEPM code:
Wastes resulting from surface category: Dependant on A100
treatment of metals and plastics Y17 chemicals used
5. SafeWork Australia: Health Monitoring for Exposure to hazardous Chemicals.
Guide for persons Conducting a Business or Undertaking
(www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/.)

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 85

3.17 Residues arising from industrial waste disposal operations
Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Residues arising from industrial Dependant on
category:Y18 (also N150,
waste disposal operations residue
characteristics N160)
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 - 4.9

This is a catch-all waste category that captures a number of wastes

classified in Australia under the National Environment Protection
(Movement of Controlled Waste between States and Territories)
Measure, but not reflected in any Basel Y codes. The most significant
contribution by volume comes from biosolids, a material not
specifically classified by either the Basel Convention or NEPM. This
collection of wastes is:
• N205 Residues arising from industrial waste treatment/disposal
operations
• Biosolids
• N150 Fly ash, excluding fly ash generated from Australian coal
fired power stations
• N160 Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerised
wastes

Residues arising from industrial waste treatment/disposal

operations
What is it? This is a broad category of treatment residues that may contain
Description of residual hazardous material from chemical/ physical treatment plants,
the waste thermal treatment residues such as bottom ash, landfill leachate and
tailings from colliery washeries.

Biosolids
The vast majority of waste in this category by tonnage is biosolids
(80%), a product of sewage sludge (the sludge collected from
wastewater treatment) once it has undergone further treatment to
reduce disease causing pathogens and volatile organic matter,
producing a stabilised product.
Biosolids are typically 75-80% water in their ‘wet’ state, compared to
sewage sludge which is approximately 97% water.
Suitable quality biosolids can be applied as a fertiliser to improve and
maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth.

Fly ash
Fly ash is a residue generated from combustion that comprises
particles so fine they mix and rise with combustion flue gases in
chimneys and post-combustion chambers of thermal plant, and are
captured by particle filtration equipment such as electrostatic
precipitators. Fly ash usually refers to ash produced during

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 86

 Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Residues arising from industrial Dependant on
category:Y18 (also N150,
waste disposal operations residue
characteristics N160)
combustion of coal, which makes the NEPM classification of “fly ash,
excluding fly ash generated from Australian coal fired power stations”
somewhat curious.

Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerised wastes

Chemical/ physical treatment plants, an industry known as ‘waste
treaters’, are oftern used as an intermediate processing step to
remove/ reduce or ameliorate the hazard in wastes, to enable lawful
final disposal. This category contains those wastes that are outputs
from such treatment processes, which may be encapsulated
chemically or physically for recycling into other uses or for safe landfill
disposal.

Typically solid and

Waste form sludge but liquid in
some cases.

Residues arising from industrial waste treatment/disposal

operations
This category contains a variety of waste residues in a variety of
physical and chemical forms, sometimes as outputs of processes
designed to reduce the hazard – either through volume reduction
(such as incineration) or hazard amelioration (chemical/ physical
treatment).
These output residues may be of reduced hazard (compared to
inputs) or increased hazard (such as a concentration process).

Biosolids

Biosolids may have their own distinctive odour depending on the type
of treatment it has been though. Some biosolids have a stronger
Physical/
odour that may be offensive to some people, while most biosolids
chemical
have a slightly musty, ammonia odour. Sulphur and ammonia
description
compounds (both plant nutrients) in biosolids are normally the cause
of these odours.

Fly ash
Fly ash is characterised by the fineness of its particles, as opposed to
‘bottom ash’ from combustion processes, which falls to the bottom of
combustion chambers. Fly ash often contains hazardous materials
such as heavy metals at low concentrations derived from their
composition in input fuel – either as constituent of fine combustion
particles or as gaseous combustion products themselves. The major
constituents are crystalline silica and oxides of iron and calcium.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 87

 Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Residues arising from industrial Dependant on
category:Y18 (also N150,
waste disposal operations residue
characteristics N160)

Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerised wastes

These wastes are usually solid as the fixing matrix can be materials
such as concrete, polymers or purified low hazard chemical
compounds/ commodities.

Substances or wastes which, if they are

H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Primary hazard
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Substances or wastes which if released

present or may present immediate or delayed
Secondary
H12: Ecotoxic adverse impacts to the environment by
hazard
means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects
upon biotic systems.

Biosolids is a special case. It is not a controlled waste under the

NEPM and consequently is not tracked in all jurisdictions. However,
because of the potential for contaminants such as heavy metals and
other organic pollutants to be present, above criteria set to protect
Why is it environmental and human health values, biosolids have been included
hazardous? in Australia’s annual hazardous waste reporting to the Basel
Convention as a precaution.
Biosolids guidelines exist in all jurisdictions that allow appropriate
Are biosolids
beneficial uses of biosolids matched to their inherent hazard (with
hazardous?
respect to chemical contaminants such as heavy metals like cadmium,
lead and mercury). While it is highly conservative to classify biosolids
as hazardous waste, it is logical that those biosolids with
concentrations of these pollutants above the highest classification
levels outlined in biosolids guidelines may be deemed to be
hazardous waste. A good analogy is that soils, if contaminated to the
same extent, would be classified as contaminated soils (another
controlled waste) in all jurisdictions in Australia.

Many organic pollutants, inorganic pollutants

Main likely chemical contaminants
and heavy metals.

Residues arising from industrial waste treatment/disposal

operations
Chemical/ physical treatment plants, incineration, landfill leachate,
Where does it wastewater treatment plants, fossil fuel, electricity supply, collieries,
Main sources Defence, coal seam gas extraction, aluminium smelting, petroleum
come from?
refining.

Biosolids
Wastewater treatment plants.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 88

 Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Residues arising from industrial Dependant on
category:Y18 (also N150,
waste disposal operations residue
characteristics N160)

Fly ash
Incineration, meat processing, cement kilns, coal-fired power stations
(despite the waste classification name), asphalt plants, iron and steel
manufacturing and petroleum refining.

Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerised wastes

Physical/ chemical treatment plants, petroleum refining, chemical
manufacturing.

Residues arising from industrial waste treatment/disposal

operations
Other chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard, then the
stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill.
Also hazardous waste landfill directly.

Biosolids
Biosolids may be productively used depending on their quality,
measured against state-based guidelines, for uses such as
agricultural land application, landscaping or land rehabilitation.
How is it Biosolids contaminated above guideline levels (in contaminants such
Main fates as heavy metals, for example) may be stockpiled onsite at treatment
managed?
plants or landfilled.

Fly ash
Fly ash is either stored in onsite storage ponds or landfills, hazardous
waste landfilled off-site or managed as a reuse product in concrete,
structural fill or road base.

Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerised wastes

Hazardous waste landfill. Some wastes may be sufficiently
ameliorated to allow reuse in applications such as concrete, road base
or building products.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 25.46%

TOTAL: 1,830,611 ACT: 51,768 NSW: 429,902

How much is Waste arising in
NT: 5,101 Qld: 528,700 SA: 188,844
generated in 2013 (tonnes)
Australia? Tas: 30,334 Vic: 451,357 WA: 144,604

The numbers above refer to all four waste types. A brief national level
Individual waste breakdown for each is provided below.
arisings Residues arising from industrial waste treatment/disposal
operations (N205)

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 89

 Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Residues arising from industrial Dependant on
category:Y18 (also N150,
waste disposal operations residue
characteristics N160)
293,411 tonnes = 20% of this category and 4.1% of national tonnes
overall in 2013

Biosolids*
1,468,883 tonnes (on a ‘wet’ basis) = 80% of this category and 20.4%
of national tonnes overall in 2013

Fly ash (N150)**

5,001 tonnes = 0.3% of this category and 0.07% of national tonnes
overall in 2013

Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerised wastes

(N160)
62,901 tonnes = 3% of this category and 0.9% of national tonnes
overall in 2013
oooooo

* Tonnages of biosolids that may be deemed ‘contaminated biosolids’

have been estimated to be 266,653 ‘wet’ tonnes, or 18% of total
biosolids produced in 20131.
** Actual quantities of fly ash generated from coal-fired electricity
generation in Australia, which are largely managed onsite and
therefore not deemed a hazardous waste for the purpose of tracking,
are likely to dwarf this tonnage by approximately three orders of
magnitude2.

The least toxic wastes in this category with respect to human health
impacts are likely to be biosolids, which contributes 80% of the
category’s volume. Encapsulated wastes, by definition, should have
their hazards contained, rendering them very low impact to human
health.
Industrial waste treatment/disposal residues and fly ash have the
potential for higher human health impact, on account of the chemical
Overview
contaminants that may be present and, in the case of fly ash, the
inhalation risk of fine particles that may contain these contaminants.
Potential
While the likely levels of heavy metal contaminants in fly ash are low,
health
the concentrating effect of fly ash collection means that they may be
impacts
present at levels 10 times greater than in the original coal.2 Another
consideration of fly ash is its major constituent – crystalline silica – can
cause chronic health problems through prolonged inhalation.

Acute toxicity Low.

Medium - high: Heavy metal contaminants are likely to be present in

fly ash at low concentrations, but crystalline silica is a major
Chronic toxicity
constituent. If fly ash handling creates dust, inhalation of crystalline
silica can cause silicosis.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 90

 Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Residues arising from industrial Dependant on
category:Y18 (also N150,
waste disposal operations residue
characteristics N160)

Medium - high: Crystalline silica has been classified as a human lung

carcinogen. Some heavy metals such as cadmium, with the potential
Carcinogenicity
to be present in fly ash or other industrial residues at low
concentrations, may cause cancer through prolonged inhalation.

Reproductive
Low.
toxicity

Residues such as fly ash present an inhalation risk due to the potential for very fine
particles to penetrate deep into the lungs. However, workplaces with large scale combustion
Workplace processes such as boilers or incinerators typically have very stringent controls in place such
health & as enclosed hoppers. Although crystalline silica is a large constituent of fly ash, worker
safety impacts inhalation exposure risk is much greater in industries such as sand blasting, foundries and
construction, due to close worker involvement in cutting, grinding or other abrasive
activities.

Encapsulated wastes, by definition, should have their hazards

contained, rendering them low environmental impact.
Industrial waste treatment/disposal residues, fly ash and biosolids (if
known to be contaminated) have the potential for higher
Overview
environmental impact, on account of the persistent and
bioaccumulative nature of heavy metals and (in the case of
contaminated biosolids) the potential for low levels of persistent
Potential organic pollutants (POPs) to be present.
environment
Acute ecotoxicity Low.
impacts
Chronic Low - medium: Dependent on the concentration of heavy metals or
ecotoxicity other contaminants in the waste.

High: Heavy metals and POPs (potentially at low concentrations in

Persistence
biosolids) are highly persistent in the environment.

Medium: Heavy metals and POPs (potentially at low concentrations in

Bioaccumulation
biosolids) can bioaccumulate to varying degrees in the environment.

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? Medium Medium Medium Moderate N/A Moderate

Has anything
happened
Unable to identify specific incidents that would reflect this broad waste category.
before in
Australia?

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 91

 Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Residues arising from industrial Dependant on
category:Y18 (also N150,
waste disposal operations residue
characteristics N160)

Higher risk workplaces with large scale combustion processes and

Industry – waste treatment plants, where worker exposure to some of these
systematic residual wastes may be possible, are licensed by environmental
controls regulators to control industrial processes and equipment so as to limit
What control environmental emissions of pollutants.
measures are
in place to Potential industrial sources of these wastes have strict emissions
manage risks control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters, dust extraction
Industry –
posed by this systems, electrostatic precipitators and stringent trade waste
exposure
waste? emissions agreements. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate
controls
personal protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to restricting
exposure to airborne sources of such wastes.

Regulators, such as State departments of Health and Environment

Government
strictly control the application, production and quality of biosolids

1. Blue Environment, Ascend Waste and Environment and Randell Environmental

Consulting (2015). Hazardous waste infrastructure needs and capacity assessment, draft
report (not yet published) for the Australian Government Department of the Environment.
2. KMH Environmental (2014), report prepared for the Australian Government Department
of the Environment. Hazardous Waste Data Summary (2010/11) Final Report. Accessed 24
April 2015 from:
http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/national-waste-policy/publications/hazardous-
waste-data-assessment
3. US Geological Survey (1997). Fact Sheet FS-163-97: Radioactive Elements in Coal and
References Fly Ash: Abundance, Forms, and Environmental Significance. Accessed 27 April, 2015
from: http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs163-97/FS-163-97.pdf
4. US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (2002). OSHA
Fact Sheet: Crystalline Silica Exposure Health Hazard Information. Accessed 27 April 2015
from: https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_General_Facts/crystalline-factsheet.pdf
5. Sunstate Cement Ltd. MSDS for Fly Ash. Accessed 27 April 2015 from:
http://www.sunstatecement.com.au/downloads/flyash_msds.pdf
6. Australia and New Zealand Biosolids Partnership (ANZBP) website. Questions &
Answers (FAQ) about biosolids in Australia and New Zealand. Accessed 27 April 2015 from:
http://www.biosolids.com.au/q-a-aust-nz.php

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 92

3.18 Metal carbonyls
Waste name: Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Metal carbonyls category:Y19 code: A1040 D100
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 - 4.9

Metal carbonyls are regarded as extremely hazardous due to both

their toxicity and their flammability.
Description of
Nickel carbonyl is the most common metal carbonyl, which has been
the waste
used as a catalyst or coating agent in the mining/ mine processing

What is it? and manufacturing industries and is extremely toxic to humans.

Liquid (and
Waste form
occasionally solid)

Most metal carbonyls as neat chemicals are colourless or pale

Physical/ yellow volatile liquids, although they may occasionally exist as solids.
chemical They may have a pungent odour and are highly water soluble, which
description contributes to their mobility and toxicity. Metal carbonyls include
nickel carbonyl, cobalt carbonyl and iron pentacarbonyl.
Substances or wastes liable to cause death
H6.1: Poisonous
or serious injury or to harm human health if
(acute)
swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact.
Primary hazard Substances or wastes which, if they are
H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Liquids which give off a flammable vapour

Why is it
Secondary H3: Flammable at temperatures of not more than 60.50C,
hazardous?
hazard liquids closed cup test, or not more than 65.50C,
open\-cup test.

Substances or wastes which if released

present or may present immediate or
Other hazard(s) H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.

Main likely chemical contaminants Nickel, cobalt, manganese

Where does it Electricity supply, gas extraction, mining, mine processing,

Main sources
come from? petroleum refining and inorganic chemical manufacturing.

Chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard, then the

How is it stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill.
Main fates
managed? Metal carbonyls are also put through specialist recycling/reclamation
processes.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 93

Waste name: Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Metal carbonyls category:Y19 code: A1040 D100
(% of national
0.01%
tonnes in 2013)
How much is
TOTAL: 373 ACT: 0 NSW: 0
generated in
Waste arising in
Australia? NT: 67 Qld: 243 SA: 48
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 13 WA: 2

Metal carbonyls are very toxic to humans by inhalation The Merck

Index (the authoritative encyclopaedia of chemical compounds and
substances) describes one of the chemicals in this category, nickel
carbonyl, as "one of the most toxic chemicals encountered in
Overview
industrial processes." Long term effects such as carcinogenicity and
reproductive impacts are possible. Metal carbonyls are also
extremely flammable, and will rapidly vaporise (at room temperature)
if spilled, which also acts to increase the inhalation hazard.
Extreme: Very toxic by inhalation. Primary routes of exposure are
Potential health via inhalation and skin absorption. Inhalation may be fatal.
impacts Acute toxicity Metal carbonyls affect tissue directly and they also break down to
toxic carbon monoxide and products of the metal, which have
additional toxic effects.
Chronic toxicity Low.

Medium: Material is a probable carcinogen in humans. May cause

Carcinogenicity lung and nasal sinus cancer. Shown to cause lung cancer in
animals.
Reproductive High: May cause harm to the unborn child.
toxicity

Workplace
health & safety Low use chemical/ waste generated in Australia. No specific workplace impacts known.
impacts

Population Low use chemical/ waste generated in Australia. No specific population scale impacts
scale impacts known.

Metal carbonyls such as nickel carbonyl are both acutely and

Overview
chronically toxic to organisms in an aquatic environment.

Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Very toxic to aquatic organisms.

Potential
environment Chronic Extreme: May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic
impacts ecotoxicity environment.

Persistence Low.

Bioaccumulation Medium.

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High Medium Medium Medium Medium Low

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 94

Waste name: Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Metal carbonyls category:Y19 code: A1040 D100
Has anything
happened
No evidence found of an Australian incident.
before in
Australia?

Companies that handle metal carbonyls and their wastes are

Industry –
licensed by environmental regulators to control industrial processes
systematic
and equipment so as to limit environmental emissions of these
controls
pollutants.

Potential industrial sources of metal carbonyl waste have strict

Industry – emissions control and chemical handling equipment and systems in
exposure place. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate personal
controls protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to restricting
What control exposure to airborne sources of, and skin contact with, pollutants.
measures are
in place to State and territory governments regulate the management of
manage risks hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
posed by this place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
Government
waste? disposal of all hazardous wastes, including this waste, through
licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.
Metal carbonyls are part of this hazardous waste control regime.

The National Pollutant Inventory, a legislated community right to

know reporting program (http://www.npi.gov.au), includes nickel
carbonyl as one of the chemical pollutants it tracks for emissions to
Community
air, water and land, and transfers of waste, in Australia. No nickel
carbonyl emissions were reported in Australia in its most recent year,
2013/14

1. Australian Government Department of the Environment. National Pollutant Inventory

Fact Sheet – nickel carbonyl. Accessed March 14, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/nickel-carbonyl
2. Strem Chemicals Inc. MSDS for nickel carbonyl. Accessed March 14, 2015 from:
References http://www.strem.com/catalog/msds/28-1150
3. Ni carbonyl risk phrases. Accessed March 14, 2015 from:
http://www.inchem.org/documents/ukpids/ukpids/ukpid68.htm
4. National Environment Protection Council (1999). National Pollutant Inventory Technical
Advisory Panel Final Report.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 95

3.19 Beryllium; beryllium compounds
Basel permit
Waste name: Basel waste NEPM code:
code: A1010,
Beryllium; beryllium compounds category:Y20 D160
A1020
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 - 4.9

Waste from machining of alloys of beryllium with copper or

Description of aluminium. E-waste. Emissions to air from coal-burning. Because
the waste beryllium alloys are used in electrical and electronic equipment,
What is it? beryllium may be present as a minor component of E-waste.

Waste form Solid

Beryllium-containing wastes may be mixed with other components in

Physical/
solid E-waste. The species emitted to air by coal-fired power
chemical
stations is beryllium oxide, BeO (CASR# 1304-56-9) that is very
description
high-melting and almost insoluble in water.
Substances or wastes which, if they are
H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Primary hazard
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Solids, or waste solids, other than those

Why is it classed as explosives, which under
hazardous? Secondary H4.1: Flammable
conditions encountered in transport are
hazard solids
readily combustible, or may cause or
contribute to fire through friction.

Other hazard(s) N/A N/A

Main likely chemical contaminants Beryllium metal.

Beryllium is used as a moderator and reflector of neutrons in nuclear

reactors such as that operated by ANSTO at Lucas Heights, NSW.
Post-service this would become part of a nuclear waste stream.
Pure beryllium metal is used to make aircraft disc brakes from which
it would be abraded and so enter the environment. Copper alloys
containing beryllium are widely used in electrical connectors and
relays, springs, precision instruments, aircraft engine parts, tools,
Where does it cable-housing and moving parts such as wheels. Beryllium-
Main sources
come from? containing alloys have also been used in some sporting goods.
Beryllium oxide is used in specialty glasses and ceramics. In
Australia these uses are very small and are mainly confined to
electronic equipment.
The major source of waste beryllium and compounds in Australia is
emissions to air from coal-burning. These amount to approximately
4000 kg/year. The solid beryllium oxide would be widely dispersed
and remain in the environment.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 96

Waste name: Basel permit NEPM code:
Basel waste
code: A1010,
Beryllium; beryllium compounds category:Y20 D160
A1020
The mineral beryl (beryllium aluminium silicate) occurs widely and
can be found at some minesites. Because of its insolubility it is
cannot be regarded as a hazardous material.

Beryllium is a minor component of E-waste but is unlikely to be

recovered – the main aim being to recover precious metals - so any
How is it
Main fates beryllium would become part of consolidated mixed wastes going to
managed?
landfill. There is no active management of emissions to air or of on-
site mining waste.

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.0001%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 5 ACT: 0 NSW: 0
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 1 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 4 WA: 0

The effects of beryllium on human health are not well understood.

Breathing beryllium-containing dust can cause inflammation of the
lungs and repeated exposure can bring about sensitization of the
Overview lungs, leading to permanent damage, and skin sensitization leading
to inflammation and ulcers. Beryllium is considered to have cancer-
causing potential. Because beryllium is mostly bound in alloys that
are incorporated into devices, the risk of exposure is negligible.
Potential health
impacts Acute toxicity Extreme: Damage to respiratory tract.

Extreme: Irritation and sensitization of lungs and skin on prolonged

Chronic toxicity
exposure.

Carcinogenicity High: Possible carcinogen.

Reproductive
No information available.
toxicity

Workplace
Control of dusts containing beryllium. The eight hour time weighted workplace exposure
health & safety
limit is 0.002 mg/m3.
impacts

Beryllium is contained in manufactured equipment and may represent a hazard during

Population assembly or disassembly, but the general population is not at risk from exposure to
scale impacts industrial products. There could be health impacts of exposure to beryllium oxide that is
emitted to air and remains in the environment, but no impacts have been reported.

Potential Beryllium oxide is released to the environment as fine dust that will
environment Overview be incorporated into soils. The resulting risk to plant and animal
impacts species is very low risk.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 97

 NEPM code:
Waste name: Basel waste Basel permit
K100, K110,
Controlled putrescible/ organic waste category:Y+4 code: N/A
K140, K190
Tas: 22,150 Vic: 140,222 WA: 79,817

Grease trap waste is made up solids and sludges from cooking of

both animal and vegetable oils, which are obviously edible oils.
However, the cooking process degrades these oils and, in
combination with residues of cooked foods, can form trace levels of
harmful organic pollutants such as PAHs.
Overview
Animal wastes share amenity characteristics with grease trap waste
although more so, and contribute some risk of pathogenicity through
ingestion.
Potential health
impacts Despite these concerns the overall human health impacts from these
wastes are smaller than the potential for environmental impacts.

Acute toxicity Low

Chronic toxicity Low

Carcinogenicity Low

Reproductive
No reproductive toxicity impacts are expected from these wastes.
toxicity

Workplace Hygiene is important in both food preparation and processing industries, for the purposes
health & safety of food standards and safety to the consumer as well as exposure to raw animal blood and
impacts associated carcass wastes of slaughtered animals.

Grease trap wastes have environmental impact properties similar to

waste oils and tarry residues. There is evidence in the literature that
food oil such as vegetable oil spills occur and impact the
environment similar to petroleum oil spills.1
Both grease trap and animal industry wastes share a common
property of having high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), due to
their high biological organic content. BOD is a measure of the
Overview quantity of oxygen used by microorganisms in the oxidation of
organic matter. Oxygen consumed in the decomposition process of
organic wastes discharged to waterways robs other aquatic
Potential
organisms of the oxygen they need to live.
environment
impacts Consequently oxygen starvation is a symptom of high organic
loading of waters, both as a physical surface barrier (oil pollution)
and as an unnaturally active biochemical process in the vicinity of
organic waste discharge.

High: Animal fats and vegetable oils can cause devastating physical
effects such as coating animals and plants with oil and suffocating
Acute ecotoxicity
them by oxygen depletion, foul shorelines, clog water treatment
plants and catch fire when ignition sources are present.

Chronic Low - medium: Can destroy future and existing food supplies,
ecotoxicity breeding animals and habitats.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 222

 NEPM code:
Waste name: Basel waste Basel permit
K100, K110,
Controlled putrescible/ organic waste category:Y+4 code: N/A
K140, K190
Medium: Although vegetable oils in particular will biodegrade
Persistence relatively quickly in the environment, large spills can form products
that linger in the environment for many years.

Bioaccumulation Low: Biological wastes such as these do not bioaccumulate in fish.

Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High High Medium Medium Medium Low

There are numerous historical incidents in Australia of illegal dumping of wastes like
grease trap wastes and animal industry wastes.
While not illegal dumping per se, a rendering company in Wodonga, Victoria was fined
Has anything
$5841 for its stockpiling of 4,000 tonnes of rotting abattoir waste at a property on the city’s
happened
outskirts in 2010. The fine was levied following the completion of EPA Victoria’s
before in
investigation of community complaints about a stench coming from the property.
Australia?
The EPA received eight complaints in a day about the odour coming from the property.
The stockpiles of odorous waste material were identified as paunch — the contents of an
animal’s stomach, and sludge generated from the rendering process.

Animal and food processing industries, depending on their size and

Industry – emissions characteristics, may be licensed by environmental
systematic regulators to control industrial processes and equipment so as to
controls limit environmental emissions of odorous compounds and waste
water discharge.

Potential industrial sources of these wastes have strict emissions

Industry – control equipment in place, particularly to address odour issues, and
exposure stringent trade waste emissions agreements. Additionally at-risk
What control
controls workers wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE),
measures are
relating to inhalation of odours and skin contact.
in place to
manage risks State and territory governments regulate the management of
posed by this hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
waste? place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
disposal of all hazardous wastes, including this waste, through
licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.
Government In Victoria the EPA has issued a classification for the management of
grease interceptor trap waste to achieve the best environmental
outcome. Under the classification, disposal of grease interceptor trap
waste, or residual solids derived from the treatment of grease
interceptor trap waste, is prohibited and this waste must be reused or
recycled.

1. US EPA website. Accessed March 22, 2015 from:: http://www2.epa.gov/emergency-

References response/vegetable-oils-and-animal-fats

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 223

 NEPM code:
Waste name: Basel waste Basel permit
K100, K110,
Controlled putrescible/ organic waste category:Y+4 code: N/A
K140, K190
2. North East Waste Forum. Fact Sheet – Grease trap waste. Accessed 23 April 2015
from: http://www.newaste.org.au/docs/ATOZ/GREASE%20TRAP%20WASTE.pdf
3. EPA Victoria (2009). INDUSTRIAL WASTE RESOURCE GUIDELINES —
CLASSIFICATION FOR REUSE: GREASE INTERCEPTOR TRAP WASTE. Accessed 23
April 2015 from:
http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/IWRG421.pdf
4. The Border Mail newspaper, July 21, 2010: $5840 fine for stinking Wodonga stockpile.
Accessed 23 April, 2015 from:
http://www.bordermail.com.au/story/52209/5840-fine-for-stinking-wodonga-stockpile/

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 224

3.49 End of life tyres
Basel waste
Waste name: Basel permit NEPM code:
category:
End of life tyres code: B3140 T140
Y+8
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 0 – 2.5

Tyres or ‘waste tyres’ are used, discarded or rejected tyres that have
Description of reached the end of their useful life, i.e., when they can no longer be
the waste used for their original purpose, and are subsequently removed from
What is it?
a vehicle.

Waste form Solid

Physical/
Tyres are composed of approximately 75% rubber and, as waste,
chemical
they are found in large stockpiles.
description

Tyres per se are not hazardous in the context of traditional human

health and environmental impact measures shown in the headings
below, which is why there is no quantitative score provided above.
They are something of a special case.
Primary hazard
Their hazard comes about as a result of the practice of stockpiling
large quantities of them, which introduces a serious fire risk (with
characteristic thick black (and toxic) smoke and polluting run-off from
fire extinguishing efforts).

Mosquito and other vermin-borne disease (health) risk, due to the

Secondary
stockpile’s provision of an environment conducive to still water
hazard
capture and breeding.
Why is it
Tyres are made from flammable materials, and when they are stored
hazardous?
in a concentrated mass such as a stockpile, they pose a fire risk.
Tyres are designed to absorb heat generated by the friction of road
contact. While this makes their combustion point much higher (about
twice that of materials such as paper or wood), their ability to absorb
Why are tyre heat also makes them difficult to extinguish once ignited. Even if the
stockpile fires a open flames of the fire have been smothered, the stored heat in
risk? tyres can persist for an extended period, meaning there is a high
chance of re-ignition.
As tyre fires are difficult to control, they are often left to burn out
under supervision, lasting several weeks or months, increasing the
health and environmental impacts as well as risk of personal or
property damage.

Passenger vehicle tyres (27%), truck tyres (30%) and off-the-road

tyres (43%), such as those used on machinery or equipment used in
Where does it
Main sources areas such as forestry, agriculture, mining and construction and
come from?
demolition, make up the total estimate of tyres that reached end of
life in 2009/10 1.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 225

Waste name: Basel waste NEPM code:
Basel permit
category:
End of life tyres code: B3140 T140
Y+8
Domestic fates: recycling, energy recovery, civil engineering,
licensed landfill and an unknown category made up of permanent
stockpiles and illegal dumping
How is it Export fates: reuse and retreading, recycling and energy recovery.
Main fates
managed? The rate of tyre recycling in Australia remains relatively low – recent
Victorian data estimates recycling to account for 20% of all tyres
generated as waste, with 26% exported and 54% unaccounted for
and presumed to be either stockpiled or illegally dumped.2

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 6.1%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 435,233 ACT: 3,372 NSW: 104,212
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 5,636 Qld: 92,383 SA: 58,668
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 10,000 Vic: 87,873 WA: 73,089

Tyres per se are not hazardous in the context of traditional human

health impact measures shown in the headings below and would
consequently be rated very low.
However, these health impacts can occur from large stockpiles of
tyres:
Overview
a) if a fire starts or
b) from incubating environments created by uncovered large tyre
stores (stockpiles), which increase mosquito and vermin breeding,
increasing the risk of diseases such as dengue fever and Ross River
virus.

Can result from inhalation of smoke from tyre fires, which emit
characteristic thick black smoke containing dangerous soot-laden
Potential health Acute toxicity
particulates from incomplete combustion, as well as other air
impacts
pollutants.

Contraction of mosquito-borne diseases from the still-water breeding

environments that tyre stockpiles provide. Aedes albopictus, a
Chronic toxicity secondary dengue fever vector in Asia, has spread to North America
and Europe largely due to the international trade in used tyres (a
breeding habitat) 3.

Tyre fires emit black smoke, volatile organic compounds and

hazardous pollutants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
dioxins, furans, hydrochloric acid, benzene, polychlorinated
Carcinogenicity
biphenyls, arsenic, cadmium, nickel, zinc, mercury, chromium and
vanadium 4. Many of these are carcinogens or suspected
carcinogens.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 226

Waste name: Basel waste NEPM code:
Basel permit
category:
End of life tyres code: B3140 T140
Y+8
Reproductive
No definitive evidence of risk to the unborn child.
toxicity

Workplace
health & safety N/A, unless in the event of fire – as above.
impacts

Repeated exposure to smoke from fires in general result in increased cases of respiratory
Population illness.
scale impacts Increased breeding habitats for disease-bearing mosquito vectors contributes to an
increase in cases of the disease.

Tyres per se are not hazardous in the context of traditional

environmental impact measures shown in the headings below, and
would consequently be rated very low.
However, environmental impacts can occur from large stockpiles of
tyres, especially in relation to stockpile fires.
If burned, 1 million tyres will generate some 200,000 litres of run-off
oil, as tyre combustion causes pyrolysis of the rubber, which results
in oily decomposition waste that is both highly polluting and
Overview flammable. In addition to the problems caused by oil run-off, the
waste may be carried by water, if it is used to extinguish the fire, or
via percolation through the soil, reaching the groundwater or nearby
streams. 4
The leachate of pollutants with rainwater may also lead to soil and
water contamination. This may occur through two atmospheric
Potential
processes known as wash-out (small particles that cling together
environment
and are brought in by rainwater) and rain-out (larger particles that
impacts
are directly affected by rainfall).

May occur from various toxic contaminants of run-off or wash-out/

Acute ecotoxicity rain-out from tyre stockpile fires, such as persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals.

May occur from various toxic contaminants of run-off or wash-out/

Chronic
rain-out from tyre stockpile fires, such as persistent organic
ecotoxicity
pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals.

May occur from various toxic contaminants of run-off or wash-out/

Persistence rain-out from tyre stockpile fires, such as persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals.

May occur from various toxic contaminants of run-off or wash-out/

Bioaccumulation rain-out from tyre stockpile fires, such as persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals.

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 227

Waste name: Basel waste NEPM code:
Basel permit
category:
End of life tyres code: B3140 T140
Y+8
Where are the
risks of impacts Low Low High N/A Medium Medium
most likely?

In NSW, fire services estimate a total of 256 tyre fires have burnt since 2009, with an
average of 50 a year.2 Fire activity relative to this would also apply in other Australian
states and territories.
For example, in January 2015, an investigation was launched into a large stockpile of tyres
Has anything which were burned in fires in Moyston, Victoria. Concerns were raised by the Environment
happened Protection Authority who are investigating whether a pile of 30,000 tyres that caught fire
before in was illegally dumped. 5
Australia? Overseas there have also been many examples of large tyre stockpile fires. A stockpile of
10million tyres illegally dumped near Knighton, Powys in Wales caught fire in 1989.
Unable to access the area, fire fighters could not extinguish the blaze and it burnt for at
least 15 years. Polluting leachate from the site contaminated drinking water supplies by
polluting the River Teme.6

In response to suspected illegal operators undercutting legitimate

recyclers (who had the requisite licences, planning approvals and
Industry –
safety measures), the Australian Tyre Recycling Association
systematic
developed a best practice standard of operation.
controls
Also see Tyre Product Stewardship Scheme and the formation of
Tyre Stewardship Australia below.

Industry –
exposure N/A
controls

The Australian Government launched Tyre Stewardship Australia

What control
(TSA) on behalf of the tyre industry on 20 January 2014. TSA has
measures are in
been established by tyre importers to administer a national tyre
place to
product stewardship scheme. TSA will also promote environmentally
manage risks
sustainable collection and recycling of end-of-life tyres and explore
posed by this
and promote new uses for recycled end-of-life tyres.
waste?
TSA will administer the tyre product stewardship scheme and
conduct education, communication, compliance assessment and
Government market development activities.
The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC)
granted authorisation for the scheme for five years until 3 May 2018.
The scheme is funded through an ACCC-authorised levy on the sale
of tyres in Australia.
Victoria is currently proposing regulations relating to the storage of
waste tyres, as evidenced by their Regulatory Impact Statement
comment process in late 2014 2. From 29 April 2015, tyre stockpiles
in Victoria have been managed under the Environment Protection

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 228

Waste name: Basel waste NEPM code:
Basel permit
category:
End of life tyres code: B3140 T140
Y+8
(Scheduled Premises and Exemptions) Regulations 2007 which will
require an EPA works approval.
In July 2015 NSW will commence new Waste Regulations to lower
the licensing threshold for the storage of waste tyres and introduce
tracking requirements on the movement of tyres to ensure end-of-life
tyres are being sent to lawful facilities.

Community N/A

1. COAG Standing Council on Environment and Water. Study into domestic and
international fate of end- of-life tyres, Final Report (2012). Hyder Consulting.
2. EPA Victoria Storage of waste tyres – Regulatory impact statement (RIS) (2014).
Publication number 1576.
3. World Health Organization. Dengue and severe dengue, fact sheet No.117 (2015).
Accessed March 12, 2015 from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs117/en/
4. Secretariat of the Basel Convention. Revised technical guidelines for the
environmentally sound management of used and waste pneumatic tyres (2011).
References
5. EPA Victoria. Media release: EPA investigates Moyston tyre stockpile fire (9 January
2015). Accessed March 12, 2015 from: http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/about-us/news-
centre/news-and-updates/news/2015/january/09/epa-investigates-moyston-tyre-stockpile-
fire
6. Environment Agency Wales: Regulation of Waste Management, p.31. Report prepared
for the Auditor General for Wales by the National Audit Office Wales (2004). Accessed
March 12, 2015 from:
https://web.archive.org/web/20120308220156/http://www.wao.gov.uk/assets/
englishdocuments/Environment_Agency_Wales_Waste_Management_agw_2004.pdf

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 229

 Appendix A
Basel Y-code to NEPM code conversion
Basel Convention
NEPM code2
Code Waste description (Annex 1)
Y1 Clinical wastes from medical care in hospitals, medical centres and clinics R100
Y2 Wastes from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products R140
Y3 Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines R120
Y4 Wastes from the production…... of biocides and phytopharmaceuticals H100
Y5 Wastes from the manufacture…... of wood preserving chemicals H170
Y6 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of organic solvent G160
Y7 Wastes from heat treatment and tempering operations containing cyanides A110
Y8 Waste mineral oils unfit for their originally intended use J100
Y9 Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures, emulsion J120
Y10 Waste substances ….containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs, PBBs M100
Y11 Waste tarry residues ... from refining, distillation and any pyrolytic treatment J160
Y12 Wastes from production…... of inks, dyes, pigments, paints, etc. F100
Y13 Wastes from production……resins, latex, plasticizers, glues, etc. F110
Y14 Waste chemical substances arising ….. environment are not known T100
T200, D340, D350,
Y15 Wastes of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation
E100
Y16 Wastes from production, formulation and use of photographic chemicals… T120
Y17 Wastes resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics A100
N205, N150,
Y18 Residues arising from industrial waste disposal operations
N160, N230
Wastes having as constituents …
Y19 Metal carbonyls D100
Y20 Beryllium; beryllium compounds D160
Y21 Hexavalent chromium compounds D140
Y22 Copper compounds D190
Y23 Zinc compounds D230
Y24 Arsenic; arsenic compounds D130
Y25 Selenium; selenium compounds D240
Y26 Cadmium; cadmium compounds D150
Y27 Antimony; antimony compounds D170
Y28 Tellurium; tellurium compounds D250
Y29 Mercury; mercury compounds D120
Y30 Thallium; thallium compounds D180
Y31 Lead; lead compounds D220
Y32 Inorganic fluorine compounds excluding calcium fluoride D110
Y33 Inorganic cyanides A130
Y34 Acidic solutions or acids in solid form B100
Y35 Basic solutions or bases in solid form C100
Y36 Asbestos (dust and fibres) N220
Y37 Organic phosphorus compounds H110
Y38 Organic cyanides M210
Y39 Phenols; phenol compounds including chlorophenols M150
Y40 Ethers G100
Y41 Halogenated organic solvents G150
Y42 Organic solvents excluding halogenated solvents G110
Y43 Any congenor of polychlorinated dibenzo-furan M170

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 2

 Basel Convention
NEPM code2
Code Waste description (Annex 1)
Y44 Any congenor of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin M180
Y45 Organohalogen compounds other than …(e.g. Y39, Y41, Y42, Y43, Y44) M160
Categories of wastes requiring special consideration (Annex II)
Y46 Wastes collected from households N/A4
Y47 Residues arising from the incineration of household wastes N/A5
Additional waste categories not included in Y-Codes (‘+8’)
D200, D210, D270,
1 Other metal compounds
D290
D300, D310, D330,
2 Other inorganic chemicals
D360
M220, M230,
3 Other organic chemicals
M250, M260
K100, K110, K140,
4 Controlled putrescible/ organic waste
K190
Waste packages and containers containing Annex 1 substances in concentrations sufficient to
5 N100
exhibit Annex III hazard characteristics
6 Soils contaminated with residues of substances in Basel Y-codes 19-45 N120
7 Sludges contaminated with residues of substances in Basel Y-codes 19-45 N140, N190
8 Tyres T140

Notes:
1. Taken from Annex III of the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and Their Disposal
2. Translation of Y-code to NEPM code(s) as described in Reporting hazardous waste under the Basel
Convention - guidance to states, territories and the Commonwealth (2014 version), Blue Environment,
Ascend and REC (Table 4)
3. Y46 Wastes collected from households not classified as hazardous waste in Australia and is not within scope
for this project
4. Y47 Residues arising from the incineration of household wastes not within scope of this project as, in the
main, this is not carried out in Australia

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 3

 Appendix B
NEPM code to Basel Y-code conversion

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 4

 NEPM 15 Y code
‘15’ code ‘75’ code Waste description (NEPM Schedule A, List 1)
description
A Plating and heat A100 Waste resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics Y17
treatment A110 Waste from heat treatment and tempering operations containing cyanides Y7
A130 Cyanides (inorganic) Y33
B Acids B100 Acidic solutions or acids in solid form Y34
C Alkalis C100 Basic solutions or bases in solid form Y35
D Inorganic chemicals D100 Metal carbonyls Y19
D110 Inorganic fluorine compounds excluding calcium fluoride Y32
D120 Mercury; mercury compounds Y29
D130 Arsenic; arsenic compounds Y24
D140 Chromium compounds (hexavalent and trivalent) Y21
D150 Cadmium; cadmium compounds Y26
D160 Beryllium; beryllium compounds Y20
D170 Antimony; antimony compounds Y27
D180 Thallium; thallium compounds Y30
D190 Copper compounds Y22
D200 Cobalt compounds Y+1
D210 Nickel compounds Y+1
D220 Lead; lead compounds Y31
D230 Zinc compounds Y23
D240 Selenium; selenium compounds Y25
D250 Tellurium; tellurium compounds Y28
D270 Vanadium compounds Y+1
D290 Barium compounds (excluding barium sulphate) Y+1
D300 Non-toxic salts Y+2
D310 Boron compounds Y+2
D330 Inorganic sulfides Y+2
D340 Perchlorates Y15
D350 Chlorates Y15
D360 Phosphorus compounds excluding mineral phosphates Y+2
E Reactive chemicals E100 Waste containing peroxides other than hydrogen peroxide Y15
F Paints, resins, inks, F100 Waste from the production, formulation and use of inks, dyes, pigments,
Y12
organic sludges paints, lacquers and varnish
F110 Waste from the production, formulation and use of resins, latex, plasticisers,
Y13
glues and adhesives
G Organic solvents G100 Ethers Y40
G110 Organic solvents excluding halogenated solvents Y42
G150 Halogenated organic solvents Y41
G160 Waste from the production, formulation and use of organic solvents Y6
H Pesticides H100 Waste from the production, formulation and use of biocides and
Y4
phytopharmaceuticals
H110 Organic phosphorous compounds Y37
H170 Waste from manufacture, formulation and use of wood-preserving chemicals Y5
J Oils J100 Waste mineral oils unfit for their original intended use Y8
J120 Waste oil/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures or emulsions Y9
J160 Waste tarry residues arising from refining, distillation, and any pyrolytic
Y11
treatment

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 5

 NEPM 15 Y code
‘15’ code ‘75’ code Waste description (NEPM Schedule A, List 1)
description
K Putrescible/ organic K100 Animal effluent and residues (abattoir effluent, poultry and fish processing
Y+4
waste wastes)
K110 Grease trap waste Y+4
K140 Tannery wastes (including leather dust, ash, sludges and flours) Y+4
K190 Wool scouring wastes Y+4
M Organic chemicals M100 Waste substances and articles containing or contaminated with
polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated naphthalenes, polychlorinated Y10
terphenyls and/or polybrominated biphenyls
M150 Phenols, phenol compounds including chlorophenols Y39
M160 Organo halogen compounds—other than substances referred to in this Table Y45
M170 Polychlorinated dibenzo-furan (any congener) Y43
M180 Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (any congener) Y44
M210 Cyanides (organic) Y38
M220 Isocyanate compound5 Y+3
M230 Triethylamine catalysts for setting foundry sands Y+3
M250 Surface active agents (surfactants), containing principally organic constituents
Y+3
and which may contain metals and inorganic materials
M260 Highly odorous organic chemicals (including mercaptans and acrylates) Y+3
N Soil/ sludge N100 Containers and drums that are contaminated with residues of substances
Y+5
referred to in this list
N120 Soils contaminated with a controlled waste Y+6
N140 Fire debris and fire wash waters Y+7
N150 Fly ash, excluding fly ash generated from Australian coal fired power stations Y18
N160 Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerised wastes referred to in
Y18
this list
N190 Filter cake contaminated with residues of substances referred to in this list Y+7
N205 Residues from industrial waste treatment/disposal operations Y18
N220 Asbestos Y36
N230 Ceramic-based fibres with physico-chemical characteristics similar to those of
Y18
asbestos
R Clinical and R100 Clinical and related wastes Y1
pharmaceutical R120 Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines Y3
R140 Waste from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products Y2
T Miscellaneous T100 Waste chemical substances arising from research and development or
teaching activities, including those which are not identified and/or are new and Y14
whose effects on human health and/or the environment are not known
T120 Waste from the production, formulation and use of photographic chemicals
Y16
and processing materials
T140 Tyres Y+8
T200 Waste of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation Y15

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 6

 Appendix C
Approach to quantifying relative hazard

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 7

Hazard scoring method

To establish a defensible basis for quantifying relative hazard, a modified form of the
National Pollutant Inventory’s (NPI) risk scoring approach, which quantifies environmental
and human health hazard, was used. The NPI Technical Advisory Panel (TAP) developed a
risk scoring methodology2 in the late 1990’s for taking a long list of industrial chemical
contaminants and comparatively assessing their risk so that they could be ranked for
inclusion into the program. This approach is well suited to comparatively assess the hazards
posed by a list of hazardous wastes, so that a default categorisation can be arrived at using
a quantitative approach based on risk.

We used a modified version of the NPI TAP’s risk scoring approach to quantify relative
hazard, excluding assessment of potential exposure, as this is variable and dependant on
management controls and its life-cycle stage. This exclusion defines it as hazard scoring
approach.
• The general approach for each waste can be described as:
- Score human health effects on a scale of 0 – 3 per dimension, quantified based on
the allocated European risk phrases. The four component dimensions for human
health are: acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity.
Obtain a total human health score out of 3 by dividing all dimension scores by four
(the total number of dimensions).
- Score environmental effects on a scale of 0 – 3, quantified based on the allocated
risk phrases. The component dimensions for human health are: acute toxicity,
chronic toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation. Obtain a total environmental score
out of 3 by dividing all dimension scores by four (the total number of dimensions).
- Add the two component scores together to obtain a hazard score (out of a possible
6).

A worked example is shown for the waste Metal Carbonyls below in Figure C.1 overleaf.

Hazard scores were calculated by sourcing EC risk phrases for each hazardous waste (or
substance for those wastes whose hazard is clearly substance- based, such as ‘lead and
lead compounds’ or ‘Polychlorinated dibenzo-furan (any congener)’ for example). For those
not overtly substance-based (such as ‘clinical and related waste’), industry knowledge and
desktop research was used to understand the waste’s salient properties, so sound
professional judgement could be made about the primary hazard posed by the waste. Once
the primary hazard was clear, this was sufficient to undertake hazard scoring for these
wastes.

Apart from the TAP report itself, key references for this work were material safety data
sheets, Safe Work Australia’s Hazardous Substance Information System database and a
number of other literature references such as the World Health Organisation’s health and
safety guides.

The resulting hazard scores for each waste are shown in each impact profile, accompanied
by a colour-based scoring graphic, or ‘hazard scoring bar’, based on six ranges of hazard
score as follows:

2 Rae, I (1999), National Pollutant Inventory Technical Advisory Panel. Final report to the National Environment
Protection Council.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 8

 Hazard grouping
Extreme hazard: >5.0
High hazard: 3.9 - 4.9
Medium hazard: 3.1 - 3.8
Moderate hazard: 2.6 - 3.0
Low hazard: 0 - 2.5
No hazard score applied

A key thing to note about the default waste categorisation table is that it is built on generic
assumptions about waste contaminants, properties and industrial processes. Particularly in
the case of wastes with chemical contaminants (for example lead; lead compounds), there is
no account taken of the concentration of the contaminant in the waste – because this is
entirely variable - which in turn varies the scale of hazard posed. Because individual wastes
will vary, scoring is by nature precautionary; the core assumption is:

Hazard of the contaminant (or primary influencing hazard property) = hazard of the
waste.

In the case where a waste is primarily a lead-containing waste, but the lead concentration is
typically low compared to hazardous waste contaminant criteria, it is assumed that such a
waste would not be classified as hazardous in the first place.

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 9

Figure C.1 Example hazard scoring approach for Y10 Metal Carbonyls

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 10

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 11