Encoding and Modulating As we discussed in Chapter 4, information must be transformed into signals before it can be transported across communication media. We must transform data into signals send them Tron one place to another How information is transformed depends on its original format and on the format used by the communication hardware. If you want to send a love letter by smoke signal, you need to know which smoke patterns match which words in your message before you actually build your fire. Words are information and puffs of smoke are a representation of that information, A simple signal by itself does not carry information any more than a straight line conveys words, The signal must be manipulated so that it contains identifiable changes that are recognizable to the sender and receiver as representing the information intended. First the information must be translated into agreed-upon patterns of Os and 1, for example, using American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) tabulated in Appendix A. Data stored in a computer are in the form of Os and Is. To be carried from one place to another (inside or outside the computer), data are usually converted to digital signals, This is called digital-to-digital conversion or encoding digital data into a digi- tal signal. Somet We need to convert an analog signal (such as voice in a telephone con- versation) into a digital signal for several reasons, such as to decrease the effect of noise. This is called analog-to-digital conversion ot digitizing an analog signal. At other times, we want to send a digital signal coming out of a computer through a medium designed for an analog signal. For example, to send data from one place 10 another using the public telephone line, the digital signal produced by the computer should be converted to an analog signal. This is called digital-to-analog conversion or modulating « digital signal. Often an analog signal is sent over long distances using analog media, For exam ple, voice or music from a radio station, which is naturally an analog signal, is transmit ted through the air. However, the frequency of the voice or music is not appropriate for oyCHAPTER 9 ENCODING AND MODULA ING this kind of transmission; the signal should be carried by a higher-frequency signal. This is called analog-to-analog conversion or modulating an analog signal. Figure 5.1 shows these four different conversion methods. Figure 8.1 Different conve mn schemes Conversion methods I | | Dighalsigita J Avalouigial J [Digitaanatog } Analoe/analog ] | 5.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION Digital-to-digital encoding or conversion is the representation of digital information by a digital signal. For example, when you transmit data from your computer to your printer, both the original data and the transmitted data are digital. In this type of encod- ing, the binary Is and Os generated by a computer are translated into a sequence of voltage pulses that can be propagated over a wire. Figure 5.2 shows the relationship between the digital information, the digital-to-digital encoding hardware, and the resultant digital signal. Figure 5.2 Digital-to-digital encoding Digitaigital o1oritos C3 encoding Of the many mechanisms for digital-to-digital encoding, we will discuss only those most useful for data communication, These fall into three broad categories: uni- polar, polar, and bipolar (see Figure 5.3). Unipolar encoding is simple, with only one technique in use. Polar encoding has three subcategories, NRZ, RZ, and biphase, two of which have multiple variations of their own. The third option, bipolar encoding, has three variations: AMI, B8ZS, and HDB3. Unipolar Unipolar encoding is very simple and very primitive. Although it is almost obsolete today, its simplicity provides an easy introduction to the concepts developed with theSECTION 5.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION 93 igure 3 Types of digital-to-digital encoding Digital/digital encoding a more complex encoding systems and allows us to examine the kinds of problems that any digital transmission system must overcome. Digital transmission systems work by sending voltage pulses along a medium link, usually a wire or cable. In most types of encoding, one voltage level stands for binary 0 and another level stands for binary 1. The polarity of a pulse refers to whether it is pos- itive or negative. Unipolar encoding is so named because it uses only one polarity. This polarity is assigned to one of the two binary states, usually the 1. The other state, usu- ally the 0, is represented by zero voltage. ‘Unipolar encoding uses only one level of value. Figure 5.4 shows the idea of unipolar encoding. In this example, the 1s are encoded as a positive value and the Os are encoded as the zero value. In adi being straightforward, unipolar encoding is inexpensive to implement. Figure 5.4 Unipolar encoding Amplitude Time — However, unipolar encoding has at least two problems that make it less desirable: a DC component and synchronization. DC Component The average amplitude of a unipolar encoded signal is nonzero. This creates what is called a direct current (DC) component (a component with zero frequency). When aCIAL E 9 LNCUDING AN MUL ies oes signal contains a DC component, it cannot travel through media that cannot handle DC components. ‘When a signal is unvarying, the receiver cannot determine the beginning and ending of each bit. Therefore, a synchronization problem in unipolar encoding can occur when- ever the data stream includes a long uninterrupted series of 1s or Os. Digital encoding schemes use changes in voltage level to indicate changes in bit type. A signal change also indicates that one bit has ended and a new bit has begun. In unipolar encoding, however, a series of one kind of bit, say seven 1s, occurs with no voltage changes, just an unbroken positive voltage that lasts seven times as long as a single | bit. Whenever there is no signal change to indicate the start of the next bit in a sequence, the receiver has to rely on a timer. Given an expected bit rate of 1000 bps, if the receiver detects a Positive voltage lasting 0.005 second, it reads one 1 per 0.001 second, or five Is. Unfortunately, lack of synchronization between the sender's and the receiver's Clocks distorts the timing of the signal so that, for example, five 1s can be stretched to 0.006 second, causing an extra 1 bit to be read by the receiver. That one extra bit in the data stream c: 0 control the synchronization of unipolar transmission is to use a separate, parallel line that carries a clock pulse and allows the receiving device to resynchronize its timer to that of the signal. But doubling the number of lines used for transmis cost and so proves uneconomical jon increases the Polar Polar encoding uses two voltage levels: one positive and one negative. By using both levels, in most polar encoding methods the average voltage level on the line is reduced and the DC component problem of unipolar encoding is alleviated, In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding (sce page 97), each bit consists of both positive and negative voltages, so the DC component is totally eliminated, Polar encoding uses two levels (positive and negative) of amplitude, Of the many existing variations of polar encoding, we will examine only the three ‘most popular: nonreturn to zero (NRZ), return to zero (RZ), and biphase. NRZ encoding includes two methods: nonreturn to zero, level (NRZ-L), and nonreturn to zero, invert (NRZ-D). Biphase also refers to two methods. The first, Manchester, is the method used by ethernet LANs. The second, Differential Manchester, is. the method used by Token Ring LANs (see Figure 5.5). Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ) In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal is always either positive or negative. The two most popular methods of NRZ transmission areSECTION 5.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION 95 Figure 5.5 Types of polar encoding Biphase ‘1 Differential NRZ-L | NRZ-I | | eae NRZ-L In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the type of bit it rep- resents. A positive voltage usually means the bit is a 0, and a negative voltage means the bit is a I (or vice versa); thus, the level of the signal is dependent upon the state of the bit. In NRZ-L the level of the signal is dependent upon the state of the Bit. A problem can arise when there is a long stream of Os or Is in the data. The receiver receives a continuous voltage and should determine how many bits are sent by relying on its clock, which may or may not be synchronized with the sender clock. NRZ-1__ In NRZ-1, an inversion of the voltage level represents a | bit. It is the transi- tion between a positive and a negative voltage, not the voltages themselves, that repre- sents a | bit. A 0 bit is represented by no change. NRZ-l is superior to NRZ-L due to the synchronization provided by the signal change each time a | bit is encountered. The existence of 1s in the data stream allows the receiver to resynchronize its timer to the actual arrival of the transmission. A string of Os can still cause problems, but because Os are not as likely, they are less of a problem, Tn NRZ-1 the signal is inverted if'a | is encountered. Figure 5,6 shows the NRZ-L and NRZ-I representations of the same series of bits. In the NRZ-L sequence, positive and negative voltages have specific meanings: positive for 0 and negative for 1. In the NRZ-I sequence, the voltages per se are meaningless, Instead, the receiver looks for changes from one level to another as its basis for recog- nition of Is. Return to Zero (RZ) As you can see, anytime the original data contain strings of consecutive Is or Os, the receiver can lose its place. As we mentioned in our discussion of unipolar encoding, one96 CHAPTER S$ ENCODING AND MODULATING igure 5.6 NRZ-L and NRZ-1 encoding Amplitude Time NRZ-L. NRZ-1 js way to assure synchronization is to send a separate timing signal on a separate channel However, this solution is both expensive and prone to errors of its own. A better solution is to somehow include synchronization in the encoded signal, something like the solu- tion provided by NRZ-1, but one capable of handling strings of Os as well as 1s, To assure synchronization, there must be a signal change for each bit. The receiver can use these changes to build up, update, and synchronize its clock. As we saw above, NRZ-1 accomplishes this for sequences of 1s. But to change with every bil, we need more than just two values. One solution is return to zero (RZ) encoding, which uses three values: positive, negative, and zero, In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during each bit. Like NRZ-L, a positive voltage means 1 and a negative voltage means 0. But, unlike NRZ-L, halfway through each bit interval, the si ignal returns to zero. A I bit is actually represented by positive-to-zero and a 0 bit by negative-to-zcro, rather than by positive and negative alone, Figure 5.7 illustrates the concept. The main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires two signal changes to encode one bit and therefore occupies more bandwidth. But of the three alternatives we have examined so far, itis the most effective. A good encoded digital signal must contain a provision for synchronization. Biphase Probably the best existing solution to the problem of synchronization is biphase encod- ing. In this method, the signal changes at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero. Instead, it continues to the opposite pole. As in RZ, these midinterval transitions allow for synchronization. As mentioned earlier, there are two types of biphase encoding in use on networks today: Manchester and differential Manchester.SECTION 5.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION 97 Figure §.7 RZ encoding “These transitions can bbe used for synchronization, Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways: Manchester and differential Manchester Manchester Manchester encoding uses the inversion at the middle of each bit jnter- val for both synchronization and bit representation, A negative-to-positive transition represents binary | and a positive-to-negative transition represents binary 0. By using a ingle transition for a dual purpose, Manchester encoding achieves the same level of synchronization as RZ but with only two levels of amplitude, Tn Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit iy used for both sy tion and bit representation, Differential Manchester In differential Manchester, the inversion at the middle of the bit interval is used for synchronization, but the presence or absence of an additional transition at the beginning of the interval is used to identify the bit. A transition means binary 0 and no transition means binary 1, Differential Manchester requires two signal changes to represent binary 0 but only one to represent binary | Tn differentia synchronization, The bit representation is shown by the inversion or noninversion at the beginning of the bit Manchester encoding, the wansition at the middle of the bit is used only for Figure 5.8 shows the Manchester and differential Manchester signals for the same bit pattern. Bipolar Bipolar encoding, like RZ, uses three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero Unlike RZ, however, the zero level in bipolar encoding is used to represent binary 0.98 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING Figure 5.8. Manchester and differential Manchester encoding Time Manchester | Time Differential Manchester Presence of transition atthe beginning ‘of bit time means zero, - | The Is are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages. If the first 1 bit is represented by the positive amplitude, the second will be represented by the negative amplitude, the third by the positive amplitude, and so on. This alternation occurs even when the I bits are not consecutive. In bipolar encoding. we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative Three types of bipolar encoding are in popular use by the data communications industry: AMI, B8ZS, and HDB3 (see Figure 5.9), Figure 8.9 Types of bipolar encoding =] Ce] Bipolar Alte Bipolar alternate mark inversion (AMI) is the simplest type of bipolar encoding. In the name alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes from telegraphy and means 1 So AMI means alternate | inversion. A neutral, zero voltage represents binary 0. Binary nversion (AMISECTION 5.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION 99 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages. Figure 5.10-gives an example, Figure 5.10 Bipolar AM! encoding ‘The Is are positive andl negative alternately. A variation of bipolar AMI is called pseudoternary, in which binary 0 alternates between positive and negative voltages. By inverting on each occurrence of a 1, bipolar AMI accomplishes two things: first, the DC component is zero, and second, a long sequence of 1s stays synchronized. ‘There is no mechanism to ensure the synchronization of a long string of Os. Two variations of bipolar AMI have been developed to solve the problem of syn- chronizing sequential Os, especially for long-distance transmission, The first, used in North America, is called bipolar 8-zero substitution (B8ZS). The second, used in Europe and Japan, is called high-density bipolar 3 (HDB3), Both are adaptations of bipolar AMI that modify the original pattern only in the case of multiple consecutive Os Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS) B8ZS is the convention adopted in North America to provide synchronization of long strings of 0s. In most situations, B8ZS functions identically to bipolar AMI. Bipolar AMI changes poles with every 1 it encounters. These changes provide the synchroniza- tion needed by the receiver. But the signal does not change during a string of 0s, so sy chronization is often lost. he difference between B8ZS and bipolar AMI occurs whenever eight or more consecutive Os are encountered in the data stream. The solution provided by B8ZS is to force artificial signal changes, called violations, within the 0 string. Anytime eight Os occur in succession, B8ZS introduces changes in the pattern based on the polarity of the previous | (the | occurring just before the Os). See Figure 5.11. If the previous 1 bit was positive, the eight Os will be encoded as zero, zero, zero, positive, negative, zero, negative, positive. Remember that the receiver is looking for alternating polarities to identify 1s, When it finds two consecutive positive charges sur- rounding three Os, it recognizes the pattern as a deliberately introduced violation and not ‘an error. It then looks for the second pair of the expected violations, When it finds them, the receiver translates all eight bits to Os and reverts back to normal bipolar AMI mode.100 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING If the polarity of the previous 1 is negative, the pattern of violations is the same but with inverted polarities. Both positive and negative patterns are shown in Figure 5.11. Figure 5.11 8825 encoding evn pent +}ojolojololololo ofololofofo | TT wien it Vil ehngew Tae Vision «@ (b) Tn BEZS ieight Os come ane ater anothers we change the pate iv one of two Ways Bed on the polarity of the previous 1 High-Density Bipolar 3 (HDB3) The problem of synchronizing strings of consecutive Os is solved differently in Europe and Japan than in the United States. This convention, called HDB3, introduces changes into the bipolar AMI pattern every time four consecutive Os are encountered instead of waiting for the eight expected by B8ZS in North America. Although the name is HDB3, the pattern changes whenever there are four Os in succession (see Figure 5.12). Figure 5.12 HDB3 encoding [+] +Jofolofo -Jolofolo +]-folo]- -|+fofo}+ (b) Ifthe number of 1s since the last substitution is evenSECTION 5.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION 101 In HDB3 if four Os come one after another. we change the pattern in one of four ways based oon the polarity of the previous | and the number of Is since the kist substitution, As in B8ZS, the pattern of violations in HDB3 is based on the polarity of the previ- ous 1 bit, But unlike B8ZS, HDB3 also looks at the number of Is that have occurred in the bit stream since the last substitution. Whenever the number of Is since the last sub- stitution is odd, B8ZS puts a violation in the place of the fourth consecutive 0. If the polarity of the previous bit was positive, the violation is positive. IF the polarity of the previous bit was negative, the violation is negative Whenever the number of Is since the last substitution is even, B8ZS puts viola- tions in the places of both the first and the fourth consecutive Os. IF the polarity of the previous bit was positive, both violations are negative. If the polarity of the previous bit ‘was negative, both violations are positive. All four patterns are shown in Figure 5.12. As you can see, the point is to violate the standard pattern in ways that a machine -an recognize as deliberate, and to use those violations to synchronize the system. Example 5.1 Using B8ZS, encode the bit stream 1000000000010. Assume that the polarity of the first 1 is positive, Solution See Figure 5.13 Figure 5.13 Solution 10 Example 5.1 Amplitude a Example 5, Using HDB3, encode the bit stream 1000000000100, Assume that the number of 1s so far is ‘odd and the first 1 is positive. Solution See Figure 5.14.102 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING Figure 5.14 Solution to Example 5.2 Amplitude 5.2. ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION We sometimes need to digitize an analog signal. For example, to send human voice over a long distance, we need to digitize it since digital signals are less prone to noise. This is called an analog-to-digital conversion or digitizing an analog signal. This requires a reduction of the potentially infinite number of values in an analog message so that they can be represented as a digital stream with a minimum loss of information Several methods for analog-to-digital conversion will be discussed later in this chapter. Figure 5.15 shows the analog-to-digital converter, called a codec (coder-decoder) Figure 5.15 Analog-to-digital conversion * t AB nla t . (codec) In analog-to-digital conversion, we are representing the information contained in a continuous wave form as a series of digital pulses (1s or 0s). ‘Analog-to-digital conversion can make use of any of the digital signals discussed in Section 5.1. The structure of the transporting signal is not the problem. Instead, the problem is how to translate information from an infinite number of values to a discrete number of values without sacrificing sense or quality. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) ‘The first step in analog-to-digital conversion is called pulse amplitude modulation (PAM). This technique takes an analog signal, samples it, and generates a series ofSECTION 5.2. ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION 103 pulses based on the results of the sampling. The term sampling means measuring the amplitude of the signal at equal intervals. ‘The method of sampling used in PAM is more useful to other areas of engineering than it is to data communication, However, PAM is the foundation of an important analog-to-digital conversion method called pulse code modulation (PCM). In PAM, the original signal is sampled at equal intervals as shown in Figure 5.16, PAM uses a technique called sample and hold. At a given moment, the signal level is Figure 5.16 PAM Amplitude Amplitude a. Analog signal b. PAM signal read, then held briefly. The sampled value occurs only instantaneously in the actual wave form, but is generalized over a still short but measurable period in the PAM result. The reason PAM is not useful to data communications is that, although it translates the original wave form to a series of pulses, these pulses are still of any amplitude (still an analog signal, not digital). To make them digital, we must modify them by using pulse code modulation (PCM). Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) has some applications, bu it not wsed by isell in date communication, However itis the first step in another very popular conversion method called pulse code modulation (PCM), Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) PCM modifies the pulses created by PAM to create a completely digital signal. To do so, PCM first quantizes the PAM pulses. Quantization is a method of assigning integral values in a specific range to sampled instances. The result of quantization is presented in Figure 5.17.104 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING Figure 8.17 Quantized PAM signal Amplitude +127 +100 4075 +4050 +025 000 ~025 050 | -o7s 100 127 438 HS 439 426 Time Figure 5.18 shows a simple method of assigning sign and magnitude values to quantized samples. Each Value is translated into its seven-bit binary equivalent. The eighth bit indicates the sign. Figure 5.18 Quantizing using sign and magnitude 01001 10 080 11010000 on101t10 00110000 -050 10110010 1011010 0100111 40520110110 01011000 0011010 +127 ONLI 01001101 {0001 1000 151000111 o1ttti01 ‘The binary digits are then transformed into a digital signal using one of the digital- to-digital encoding techniques. Figure 5.19 shows the result of the pulse code modula- tion of the original signal encoded finally into a unipolar signal. Only the first three sampled values are shown. PCM is actually made up of four separate processes: PAM, quantization, binary encoding, and digital-to-digital encoding. Figure 5.20 shows the entire process in graphic form. PCM is the sampling method used to digitize voice in T-line transmission in the North American telecommunication system (see Chapter 8) Sampling Rate As you can tell from the preceding figures, the accuracy of any digital reproduction of, an analog signal depends on the number of samples taken, Using PAM and PCM, weSECTION 5.2. ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION 105 Figure 5.19 PCM 4024 4038 4088 DooT1000 DHTOHI10 DOL10000 . < Direction of tansfer Figure 5.20. From analog signal 10 PCM digital code oe me ——_ 1] on:taoeaaio0410 +++ ouantvaton \ +4107 Digita/igital | encoding 900 =127 47 4038 ——_ 00011000 90100110 Binary | encoding Direction of wansfer can reproduce the wave form exactly by taking infinite samples, or we can reproduce the barest generalization of its direction of change by taking three samples. Obviously, we prefer to find a number somewhere between these wo extremes. So the question is, How many samples are sufficient? Actually, it requires remarkably little information for the receiving device to recon- struct an analog signal. According to the Nyquist theorem, to ensure the accurate reproduction of an original analog signal using PAM, the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency of the original signal. So if we want to sample tele- phone voice with maximum frequency 4000 Hz, we need a sampling rate of 8000 sam- ples per second. ‘According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times the highest frequency.106 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING ‘A sampling rate of twice the frequency of x Hz means that the signal must be sam- pled every 1/2 x seconds. Using the voice-over-phone-lines example above, that means one sample every 1/8000 second. Figure 5.21 illustrates the concept Figure 5.21 Nyquist theorem Amplitude Highest frequency =x Hz ‘Sampling rate = 2x samples/second Example 5.3 ‘What sampling rate is needed for a signal with a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1,000 to 11,000 Hz)? Solution ‘The sampling rate must be twice the highest frequency in the signal: ‘Sampling rate = 2(1 1,000) = 22,000 samples/second How Many Bits per Sample? After we have found the sampling rate, we need to determine the number of bits to be transmitted for each sample. This depends on the level of precision needed. The num- ber of bits are chosen such that the original signal can be reproduced with the desired precision in amplitude. Example 5.4 A signal is sampled. Each sample requires at least 12 levels of prec How many bits should be sent for each sample? n (40 to +5 and ~0 to-5). Solution We need four bits; one bit for the sign and three bits for the value. A three-bit value can represent 2} =8 levels (000 to 111), which is more than what we need. A two-bit value is not enough since 4.A four-bit value is too much because 24 = 16.SECTION 5.3, DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION 107 Bit Rate After finding the number of bits per sample, we can calculate the bit rate using the fol- lowing formula: Bit rate = Sampling rate x Number of bits per sample Example 5.5 We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate assuming eight bits per sample? Solution ‘The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the sampling rate is ‘Sampling rate = 4000 x 2 = 8000 samples/second ‘The bit rate can be calculated as: Bit rate = Sampling rate x Number of bits per sample = 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bits/s = 64 Kbps 5.3. DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION Digital-to-analog conversion or digital-to-analog modulation is the process of chang- ing one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in a digital signal (Os and 1s). When you transmit data from one computer to another across a public access phone line, for example, the original data are digital, but because telephone wires carry analog signals, the data must be converted. The digital data must be modulated on an analog signal that has been manipulated to look like two distinct values correspond- ing to binary 1 and binary 0. Figure 5.22 shows the relationship between the digital information, the digital-to-analog modulating hardware, and the resultant analog signal. igure §.22 Digital-ro-analog modulation Digital/anatog ‘modulation Of the many mechanisms for digital-to-analog modulation, we will discuss only those most useful for data communications. As discussed in Chapter 4, a sine wave is defined by three characteristics: amp! tude, frequency, and phase. When we vary any one of these characteristics, we create a second version of that wave. If we then say that the original wave represents binary 1, the variation can represent binary 0, or vice versa. So, by changing one aspect of a sim- ple electrical signal back and forth, we can use it to represent digital data. Any of the8 CHAPTER $_ ENCODING AND MODULATING three characteristics listed above can be altered in this way, giving us at least three mechanisms for modulating digital data into an analog signal: amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (PSK), and phase shift keying (PSK). In addition, there is a fourth (and better) mechanism that combines changes in both amplitude and phase called quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). QAM is the most efficient of these mis and is the mechanism used in all modern modems (see Figure 5.23). Figure 5.23 Types of digital-to-analog modulation Digitalanalog modulation ASK FSK PSK Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion Before we discuss specific methods of digital-to-analog modulation, two basic issues must be defined: bivbaud rate and carrier signal. Bit Rate and Baud Rate ‘Two terms used frequently in data communication are bit rate and baud rare. Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during one second, Baud rate refers to the number of signal units per second that are required to represent those bits. In discussions of com- puter efficiency, the bit rate is the more important—we want to know how long it takes to process each piece of information. In data transmission, however, we are more con- cerned with how efficiently we can move those data from place to place, whether in pieces or blocks. The fewer signal units required, the more efficient the system and the less bandwidth required to transmit more bits; so we are more concerned with baud rate. The baud rate determines the bandwidth required to send the signal. Bit rate equals the baud rate times the number of bits represented by each signal unit. The baud rate equals the bit rate divided by the number of bits represented by each signal shift. Bit rate is always greater than or equal to the baud rate. Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate is the number of signal units per second, Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate. An analogy can clarify the concept of bauds and bits, In transportation, a baud is analogous to a car, a bit is analogous to a passenger. A ar can carry one or moreSECTION 5.3 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION 109 passengers. If 1000 cars go from one point to another carrying only one passenger (the driver), then 1000 passengers are transported. However, if each car carries four passen- gers (carpooling), then 4000 passengers are transported. Note that the number of cars, not the number of passengers, determines the traffic and, therefore, the need for wider highways. Similarly, the number of bauds determines the required bandwidth, not the number of bi Example 5.6 ‘An analog signal carries four bits in each signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per sec- ond, find the baud rate and the bit rate. Solution Baud rat Number of signal elements = 1000 bauds per second Bit rate = Baud rate x Number of bits per signal element = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps Example 5.7 ‘The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal element carries six bits, what is the baud rate? Solution Baud rate = Bit rate / Number of bits per signal element 100 baud per second Carrier Signal In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency signal that acts as a basis for the information signal. This base signal is called the carrier signal or car- rier frequency. The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal that it expects from the sender. Digital information is then modulated on the carrier signal by modifying one or more of its characteristics (amplitude, frequency, phase). This kind of modification is called modulation (or shift keying) and the information signal is called a modulating signal. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) In amplitude shift keying (ASK), the strength of the carrier signal is varied to repre- sent binary | or 0. Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes. Which voltage represents | and which represents 0 is left to the system designers. A bit duration is the period of time that defines one bit, The peak amplitude of the signal during each bit duration is constant and its value depends on the bit (0 or 1), The speed of transmission using ASK is limited by the physical characteristics of the transmission medium, Figure 5.24 gives a conceptual view of ASK. Unfortunately, ASK transmission is highly susceptible to noise interference. The term noise refers to unintentional voltages introduced onto a line by various phenomena such as heat or electromagnetic induction created by other sources, These unintentional voltages combine with the signal to change the amplitude. A 0 can be changed to I, and a1 to 0. You can see how noise would be especially problematic for ASK, which relies solely on amplitude for recognition. Noise usually affects the amplitude: therefore, ASK is the modulating method most affected by noise,110 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING Figure $.24 ASK Amplitude Bitrate:S Baud rate: 5 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit Tbaud || baud 1 Ebaud ——————1 second ————. | A popular ASK technique is called on-off-keying (OOK). In OOK one of the bit values is represented by no voltage. The advantage is a reduction in the amount of energy required to transmit information, Bandwidth for ASK As you will recall from Chapter 4, the bandwidth of a signal is the total range of fre- quencies occupied by that signal. When we decompose an ASK-modulated signal, we get a spectrum of many simple frequencies. However, the most significant ones are those between f ~ Nyayj/2 and f, + Nyu/2 with the carrier frequency, /., at the middle. (see Figure 5.25), Figure $.25 Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in ASK Amplitude Minimum bandwidth = Nyaa FrequencySECTION 5.3 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION {AL Bandwidth requirements for ASK are calculated using the formula BW=(1+d)X Ny where BW is the bandwidth Nigus is the baud rate dis a factor related to the condition of the line (with a minimum value of 0) As you can see, the minimum bandwidth required for transmission is equal to the baud rate. Although there is only one carrier frequency, the process of modulation produces a complex signal that is a combination of many simple signals, each with a different frequency, Example 5.8 Find the minimum bandwidth for an ASK signal transmitting at 2000 bps. The transmission mode is half-duplex, Solution In ASK the baud rate and bit rate are the same. The baud rate is therefore 2000. An ASK signal requires a minimum bandwidth equal to its baud rate. Therefore, the minimum bandwidth is 2000 Hz. Example 5.9 Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an ASK signal, what are the baud rate and bit rate? Solution In ASK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth, which means the baud rate is 5000. But because the baud rate and the bit rate are also the same for ASK, the bit rate is 5000 bps. Example 5.10 Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz), draw the full-duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the carriers and the bandwidths in each direction, Assume there is no gap between the bands in two directions. Solution Por full-duplex ASK, the bandwidth for each direction is BW 10,000/2 = 5000 Hz ‘The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of each band (see Figure 5.26), Jaicouuiy = 1000 + 5000/2 = 3500 Hz Frspackaan = 11,000 ~ 5000/2 = 8500 Hz Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) In frequency shift keying (FSK), the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to repre- sent binary | or 0. The frequency of the signal during each bit duration is constant and112 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING Figure 5.26 Solution to Example 5.10 Amplitude Sodoaciwand) Fesfoewaes) Frequency 1000 3500 ‘6000 8500 11,000) its value depends on the bit (0 or 1): both peak amplitude and phase remain constant. Figure 5.27 gives the conceptual view of FSK. FSK avoids most of the noise problems of ASK. Because the receiving device is looking for specific frequency changes over a given number of periods, it can ignore voltage spikes. The limiting factors of FSK are the physical capabilities of the carrier, Figure 5.27 PSK Amplitude Baud rate: 5 1 bit Time Tbaud =! Lbaud =! I baud —1 second Bandwidth for FSK Although FSK shifts between two carrier frequencies, it is easier to analyze as two coexisting frequencies. We can say that the FSK spectrum is the combination of two ASK spectra centered around f-y and f,,. The bandwidth required for FSK transmission is equal to the baud rate of the signal plus the frequency shift (difference between the two carrier frequencies): BW = (f., — fig) + pays: See Figure 5.28, Although there are only two carrier frequencies, the process of modulation pr duces a composite signal that is a combination of many simple signals, each with a d ferent frequency.SECTION 5.3 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION 113 Figure 5.28 Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in FSK _ Sn DENNEN OEE IEEE BW= fer foo+ Mus | Amplitude Frequency Example 5.11 Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal transmitting at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode and the carriers must be separated by 3000 Hz, Solution For FSK, iff, and fg are the carrier frequencies, then BW = Baud rate + (f,, ~ La) However, the baud rate here is the same as the bit rate. Therefore, W = Bit rate + (f,, — fe) = 2000 + 3000 = 5000 Hz Example 5.12 Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the bandwidth of the medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference between the two carriers must be at least 2000 Hz, Transmission is in full-duplex mode. Solution Because the transmi Sy and fg are the ear full duplex, only 6000 Hz is allocated for each direction. For FSK, if F frequencies, BW = Baud rate + (f4~foa) Baud rate = BW ~ (,, ~f9) = 6000 - 2000 = 4000 But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the bit rate is 4000 bps. Phase Shift Keying (PSK) In phase shift keying (PSK), the phase of the carrier is varied to represent binary 1 or 0, Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes. For example, if we start with a phase of 0 degrees to represent binary 0, then we can change the phase to 180 degrees to send binary I. The phase of the signal during cach bit duration is constant and its value depends on the bit (0 or 1). Figure 5.29 gives a conceptual view of PSK.14 CHAPTERS ENCODING AND MODULATING Figure 5.29 psk Amplitude Bit rate:S Baud rate: 5 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit 0 taud | Tbaud | I baud 1 second | The above method is often called 2-PSK, or binary PSK, because two different phases (0 and 180 degrees) aré used, Figure 5.30 makes this point clearer by showing the relationship of phase to bit value. A second diagram, called a constellation or phase-state diagram, shows the same relationship by illustrating only the phases. Figure 5.30 PSK constellation \ an _ | Bit Phase 1 180 Constellation diagram Bits i PSK is not susceptible to the noise degradation that affects ASK, nor to the band- width limitations of FSK. This means that smaller variations in the signal can be detected reliably by the receiver. Therefore, instead of utilizing only two variations of a signal, each representing one bit, we can use four variations and let each phase shift represent two bits (see Figure 5.31) The constellation diagram for the signal in Figure 5.31 is given in Figure 5.32. A phase of 0 degrees now represents 00; 90 degrees represents 01; 180 degrees represents 10; and 270 degrees represents 11. This technique is called 4-PSK or Q-PSK. The pair of bits represented by each phase is called a dibit. We can transmit data two times as fast using 4-PSK as we can using 2-PSK. We can extend this idea to 8-PSK. Instead of 90 degrees, we now vary the signal by shifts of 45 degrees. With eight different phases, each shift can represent three bits (one tribit) at a time. (As you can see, the relationship of number of bits per shift to numberSECTION 5.3 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION 11S Figure 5.31 4-PsK Amplitude Bit rate: 10 Baud rate: 5 2 bits 2bits 2bits 2bits 2 bits 10 10 " 00 Vaud | Haus! I baud | 1 baud . — 1 second Figure 5.32 4-PSK characteristics | Dibit Phase a { 00 0 OL 90, Ww 700 | 10 180 " 270 Dibit " | bits) Constellation diagram of phases is a power of two. When we have four possible phases, we can send two bits at a time—2? equals 4. When we have eight possible phases, we can send three bits at a time—2' equals 8). Figure 5.33 shows the relationships between the phase shifts and the tribits each one represents: 8-PSK is three times faster than 2-PSK. Bandwidth for PSK ‘The minimum bandwidth required for PSK transmission is the same as that required for ASK transmission—and for the same reasons. As we have seen, the maximum bit rate in PSK transmission, however, is potentially much greater than that of ASK, So while the maximum baud rates of ASK and PSK are the same for a given bandwidth, PSK bit rates using the same bandwidth can be two or more times greater (see Figure 5.34). Example 5.13 Find the bandwidth for a 4-PSK signal transmitting at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode.16 CHAPTER S$ ENCODING AND MODULATING Figure §.33 _8-PSK characteristics ‘Tribit [Phase o10 000 | 0 on oo oor | 45 010 | 90 on | os | 0 ‘00 00 | 180 tor | 225 ho | 270 tor um un | 3s Tribits uo | bits) Constellation diagram Figure $.34 Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in PSK Amplitude “ f- Minimum bandwidth = Njayg Frequency Solution For 4-PSK the baud rate is half of the bit rate. The baud rate is therefore 1000. A PSK signal requires a bandwidth equal to its baud rate. Therefore, the bandwidth is 1000 Hz. Example 5.14 Given a bandwidth of $000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal, what are the baud rate and bit rate? Solution For PSK the baud rate is the sume as the bandwidth, which means the baud rate is 5000. But in 8- PSK the bit rate is three times the baud rate, so the bitrate is 15,000 bps. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to distinguish small differences in phase. This factor limits its potential bit rate So far, we have been altering only one of the three characteristics of a sine wave at a time, but what if we alter two? Bandwidth limitations make combinations of FSKSECTION 5.3 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION 117 with other changes practically useless. But why not combine ASK and PSK?-Then we could have x variations in phase and y variations in amplitude, giving us x times y po sible variations and the corresponding number of bits per variation. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) does just that. The term quadrature is derived from the restrictions required for minimum performance and is related to trigonometry. ‘Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) means combining ASK and PSK in such a way that we have maximum contrast between each bit, dibit, tribit, quadbit, and so on. Possible variations of QAM are numerous. Theoretically, any measurable number of changes in amplitude can be combined with any measurable number of changes in phase. Figure 5.35 shows two possible configurations, 4-QAM and 8-QAM. In both cases, the number of amplitude shifts is fewer than the number of phase shifts, Because amplitude changes are susceptible to noise and require greater shift differences than do phase changes, the number of phase shifts used by a QAM system is always larger than the number of amplitude shifts. The time-domain plot corresponding to the 8-QAM signal in Figure 5.35 is shown in Figure 5.36. "00 | 110 | ML | 4-QAM 8-QAM | 1 amplitude, 4 phases 2 amplitudes, 4 phases Other geometric relationships are also po tions are shown in Figure ble. Three popular 16-QAM configura- 7. The first example, three amplitudes and 12 phases, han- tude. It is the ITU-T mn. The second example, four amplitudes and eight phases, is the OSI recommendation. If you examine the graph carefully, you will notice that although it is based on concentric circles, not every intersection of phase and amplitude is utilized. In fact, 4 times 8 should allow for 32 possible variations. But by using only half of those possibilities, the measurable differences between shifts are increased and greater signal readability is ensured. In addition, several QAM designs link specific amplitudes with specific phases. This means that even with the noise problems associated with ampli- tude shifting, the meaning of a shift can be recovered from phase information. In gen- eral, therefore, a second advantage of QAM over ASK is its lower susceptibility to noise. dles noise best because of a greater ratio of phase shift to amy recommenda118. {APTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING Figure 5.36 Time domain for an 8-QAM signal ; ine comain fe 4 Amplitude Bitrate: 24 Baud rate: 8 3 bits —3bits 3 bits 3 bits bits 3 bits 101 , 100 , 001 , 000 , O10 , O11 3 bits 3 bits , 0, 1d i ' ' ' Vaud I baud baud 1 baud I baud Ubaud baud I baud i secon ———! Figure 5.37 _16-QAM constellations 3 amplitudes, 12 phases 4 amplitudes, 8 phases 2 amplitudes, 8 phases 16-QaM Bandwidth for QAM ‘The minimum bandwidth required for QAM transmission is the same as that required for ASK and PSK transmission. QAM has the same advantages as PSK over ASK. Bit/Baud Comparison Assuming that an FSK signal over voice-grade phone lines can send 1200 bits per sec- ond, the bit rate is 1200 bps. Each frequency shift represents a single bit; so it requires 1200 signal elements to send 1200 bits. Its baud rate, therefore, is also 1200 bps. Each signal variation in an 8-QAM system, however, represents three bits. So a bit rate of 1200 bps, using 8-QAM, has a baud rate of only 400, As Figure 5.38 shows, a dibit sys- tem has a baud rate of one-half the bit rate, a tribit system has a baud rate of one-third the bit rate, and a quadbit system has a baud rate of one-fourth the bit rate.SECTION 5.3 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION 119 Figure 5.38 Bir and baud Baud rate =N Bit rate =") | ofifo]s}olofo}ijofrjfofrfojyrpe] | Dibit Baud rate = Bitrate =2V i) =A ol: oft ofo oft of 1 oft tft eo Tribit +f): Table 5.1 shows the comparative bit and baud rates for the various methods of digital-to-analog modulation. Table $.1. Bir and baud rate comparison ‘Modulation Gaits | Bis/Baud | Baud Rate | BitRate | ASK, FSK, 2-PSK Bit 1 N N 4-PSK, 4-QAM Dibit 2 N 2N 8-PSK, 8-QAM Tribit 3 N 3Nn 16-QAM Quadbit 4 N aN | 32-QAM Pentabit 5 N SN 64-QAM Hexabit 6 N 6N | 128-QAM Septabit 1 N 1N 256-QAM Ociabit_ | 8 N sv | Example 5.15 ‘A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced points on a circle, I the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the baud rate? Solution ‘The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45 degrees apart. Since 2° = 8, three bits are transmitted with each signal element, Therefore, the baud rate is 4800/3 = 1600 baudTe 20 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING Example 5.16 Compute the bit rate for a 1000-baud 16-QAM signal. — Solution > \ 16-QAM signal means that there are four bits per signal element since 2* = 16. Thus. (100044) = 4000 bps. Example 5.17 ot Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal. Solution A 64-QAM signal means that there are six bits per signal element since 2° = 64. Thus, 72,0006 = 12,000 baud 5.4 ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog information by an analog signal. Radio, that familiar utility, is an example of an analog-to-analog communica- tion, Figure 5.39 shows the relationship between the analog information, the analog-to- analog conversion hardware, and the resultant analog signal. Analog-to-analog modulation can be accomplished in three ways: amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM). See Figure 5.40. igure $.39 Analog-to-analog modulation LAP) ee te 5-1 tite pat ist L jon onstel’ nitted Figure $40 Types of analog-to-analog modulation Analog/analog | modulationSECTION 5.4. ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION 121 Amplitude Modulation (AM) In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the amplitude changes to follow variations in the information. Figure 5.41 shows how this concept works. The modulating signal becomes an enve~ lope to the carrier. Figure 5.41 Amplitude modulation t loclulating signal (audio) Carrier frequency AM Bandwidth The bandwidth of an AM signal is equal to twice the bandwidth of the modulating sig- nal and covers a range centered around the carrier frequency (see Figure 5.42). The shaded portion of the graph is the frequency spectrum of the signal. The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and music) is usually 5 KHz. Therefore, an AM radio station needs a minimum bandwidth of 10 KHz, In fact, the Federal Com- munications Commission (FCC) allows 10 KHz for each AM station. AM stations are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 530 and 1700 KHz (1.7 MHz). However, each station’s carrier frequency must be separated from those on either side of it by at least 10 KHz (one AM bandwidth) to avoid interference. If one station uses a carrier frequency of 1100 KHz, the next station’s carrier frequency can- not be lower than 1110 KHz (see Figure 5.43). ‘The total bandwidth required for AM ean be determined from the bandwidth of the audio sig- nak: BW, = 2x BW,122 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING Figure 5.42 AM bandwidth BW,,= Bandwidth of the modulating signal (audio) BW, = Total bandwidth (radio) J. Frequency of the carrier Amplitude Frequency 530 KH Example 5.18 ‘We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 4 KHz. What is the bandwidth needed if we modu: late the signal using AM? Ignore FCC regulations, for now. Solution An AM signal requires twice the bandwidth of the original signal: BW =2x4 KHz=8 KHz Frequency Modulation (FM) In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the -changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude andSECTION 5.4. ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION 123 phase of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier changes correspondingly. Figure 5.44 shows the relationships of the modulating signal, the carrier signal, and the resultant FM signal. Figure 5.44 Frequency modulation ‘Amplitude | - Modulating signal (audio) | | | -~ ‘Carrier frequency / - | ” | A FM signal ane U " FM Bandwidth The bandwidth of an FM signal is equal to 10 times the bandwidth of the modulating signal and, like AM bandwidths, covers a range centered around the carrier frequency. Figure 5.45 shows both the bandwidth, and, in the shaded portion, the frequency spec trum of an PM signal. ‘The total bandwidth required Tor PM can be determined from the bandwidth oF the audio Sig nal: BW, = 10x BW,, The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and music) broadcast in stereo is almost 15 KHz. Each FM radio station, therefore, needs a minimum bandwidth of 150 KHz. The FCC allows 200 KHz (0.2 MHz) for each station to provide some room for guard bands.ia CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING ‘The bandwidth of a stereo audio signal is usually 15 KHz, Therefore, an FM station needs at least a bandwidth of 150 KHz. The FCC requires the minimum bandwidth to be at least 200 KHz (0.2 MH7), Figure 5.43. FM bandwidth i — Amplitude BW,, = Bandwidth of the modulating signal (audio) BW, =Total bandwidth (radio) Se Frequency of the cartier Frequency FM stations are allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 88 and 108 MHz. Stations must be separated by at least 200 KHz to keep their bandwidths from overlap- ping. To create even more privacy, the FCC requires that in a given area, only alternate bandwidth allocations may be used. The others remain unused to prevent any possibil- ity of two stations interfering with each other. Given 88 to 108 MHz as a range, there are 100 potential FM bandwidths in dn area, of which 50 can operate at any one time. Figure 5.46 illustrates this concept. Figure 5.46 FM band allocation Jo=Carter frequency of the station fe fe fe fe f * A A a a No No No station station station’ here here here 88 — 108 MHz, 200 MHz KHzSECTION 5.5. KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS — 125 Example 5.19 ‘We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 4 MHz. What is the bandwidth needed if we modu- late the signal using FM? Ignore FCC regulations. Solution ‘An FM signal requires 10 times the bandwidth of the original signal: |W = 10 x4 MHz = 40 MHz Phase Modulation (PM) Due to simpler hardware requirements, phase modulation (PM) is used in some sys- tems as an alternative to frequency modulation. In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level (amplitude) of the mod ulating signal, The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the pha correspondingly. The analysis and the final result (modulated those of frequency modulation. of the carrier changes nal) are similar to 5.5 | KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS alternate mark inversion (AMI) amplitude amplitude modulation (AM) amplitude shift keying (ASK) analog-to-analog modulation analog-to-digital conversion baud rate biphase (encoding) bipolar 8-zero substitution (B8ZS) bipolar encoding carrier signal constellation dibit differential Manchester encoding digital-to-analog modulation digital-to-digital encoding encoding frequency frequency modulation (FM) frequency shift keying (FSK) high-density bipolar 3 (HDB3) Manchester encoding nonreturn to zero (NRZ) nonretumn to zero, invert (NRZ-1) nonreturn to zero, level (NRZ-L) Nyquist theorem126 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING phase quadbit phase modulation (PM) quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) phase shift return to zero (RZ) phase shift keying (PSK) polar encoding sampling pseudoternary sampling rate pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) ibit pulse code modulation (PCM) unipolar encoding 5.6 SUMMARY ‘There are four types of conversion: a. Digital-to-digital b. Analog-to-digital. al-to-analog. d. Analog-to-analog. Categories of digital-to-digital encoding include the following: a, Unipolar—one voltage level is used. b. Polar—two voltage levels aré used. Variations of polar encoding include the following: NRZ (non-return to zero) NRZ-L (non-return (o zero, level) NRZ-I (non-return (0 zero, invert) RZ (return to zero) Biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester c. Bipolar—ones are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages: AMI (alternate mark inversion) BB8ZS (bipolar 8-zero substitution) HDB3 (high-density bipolar 3) Analog-to-digital conversion relies on PCM (pulse code modulation). PCM involves sampling, quantizing each sample to a set number of bits, and then assigning voltage levels to the bits. ‘The Nyquist theorem says that the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency component in the original signal. Digital-to-analog modulation can be accomplished using the following a. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)—the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. b. Frequency shift keying (FSK)—the frequency of the carrier signal varies,SECTION 5.7. PRACTICE SET — 127 c. Phase shift keying (PSK)—the phase of the carrier signal varies, d. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)—both the phase and amplitude of the carrier signal vary. QAM enables a higher data transmission rate than other digital-to-analog methods. Baud rate and bit rate are not synonymous. Bit rate is the number of bits transmit- ted per second. Baud rate is the number of signal units transmitted per second. One signal unit can represent one or more bits, The minimum required bandwidth for ASK and PSK is the baud rate. The minimum required bandwidth (BW) for FSK modulation is BW = f., — fo + Nwuss Where f., is the frequency representing a I bit, fg is the frequency represent- ing 0 bit, and Mj is the baud rate. Analog-to-analog modulation can be implemented using the following: a. Amplitude modulation (AM). b, Frequency modulation (FM), ¢. Phase modulation (PM). In AM the amplitude of the carrier wave varies with the amplitude of the modulat- ing wave. In FM the frequency of the carrier wave varies with the amplitude of the modulat- ing wave. In AM radio, the bandwidth of the modulated signal must be twice the bandwidth of the modulating signal. In FM radio, the bandwidth of the modulated signal must be 10 times the band- width of the modulating signal, In PM the phase of the carrier signal va signal. ies with the amplitude of the modulating 5.7 PRACTICE SET Review Questions ‘What is the difference between encoding and modulation? What is digital-to-digital encoding? What is analog-to-digital conversion? What is digital-to-analog conversion? . What is analog-to-analog conversion? Why is frequency modulation superior to amplitude modulation? . What is the advantage of QAM over ASK or PSK? . How do the three categories of digital-to-digital encoding differ? |. What is the DC component? Why is synchronization a problem in data communications?128 CHAPTERS ENCODING AND MODULATING Me 12, 13, 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19, 29, 30. 31 32. Multiple Choice Questi 34. 35. - What is the . How is baud rate related to transmii . How is baud rate related to How does NRZ-L differ from NRZ-1? Discuss the two types of biphase encoding in use on networks. What is the major disadvantage in using NRZ encoding? How do RZ encoding and biphase encoding attempt to solve the problem? Compare and contrast RZ and bipolar AML What are the three types of bipolar encoding? Compare and contrast B8ZS and HDB3 encoding. List the steps that take an analog signal to PCM digital code. How does the sampling rate affect the transmitted digital signal? How does the number of bits allotted for each sample affect the transmitted digi- tal signal? What are the four methods that convert a digital si nal to an analog signal? ference between bit rate and baud rate? Give an example where both are the same. Give an example where they are different. What is modulation? What is the purpose of a carrier signal in modulation? n bandwidth in ASK? How is baud rate related to transmission bandwidth in FSK? How is baud rate related to transmission bandwidth in PSK? What kind of information can be obtained from a constellation diagram? ransmission bandwidth in QAM? How is QAM related to ASK and PSK? What is the major factor that makes PSK superior to ASK? How does AM differ from ASK? How does FM differ from FSK?: - Compare the FM bandwidth with the AM bandwidth in terms of the modulating signal. ns ASK, PSK, FSK, and QAM are examples of ____ modulation. a. digital-to-digital b. digital-to-analog ©. analog-to-analog 4. analog-to-digital Unipolar, bipolar, and polar encoding are types of _____ encoding. . digital-to-digital b. digital-to-analog ©. analog-to-analog 4d. analog-to-digital39. 40, 41 42, . If the bit rate for an FSK signal is 1200 bps, the baud rat CTION 5.7. PRACTICE SET 129 PCM is an example of ‘a, digital-to-digital b. digital-to-analog ¢. analog-to-analog d. analog-to-digital . AM and FM are examples of ____ modulation digital-to-digital b. digital-to-analog c. analog-to-analog d. analog-to-digital . In QAM, both phase and of a carrier frequency are varied, a. amplitude b. frequency c. bit rate d. baud rate Which of the following is most affected by noise? a, PSK b. ASK c. FSK Ud. QAM If the frequency spectrum of a signal has a bandwidth of 500 Hz. with the highest frequency at 600 Hz, what should be the sampling rate according to the Nyquist theorem? a, 200 samples/sec b. 500 samples/sec c. 1000 samples/see d. 1200 samples/see If the baud rate is 400 for a 4-PSK signal, the bit rate is___ bps. a, 100 b. 400 c. 800 d, 1600 If the bit rate for an ASK signal is 1200 bps, the baud rate is a, 300 b. 400 c. 600 , 1200 a. 300 b. 400log-to log-to Mb * plitude quency rate 1d rate p of th K CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING 45. 46. 47. 48. 49, 50, c. 600 d. 1200 . If the bit rate for a QAM signal is 3000 bps and a signal element is represented by a tribit, what is the baud rate? a. 300 b. 400 ©, 1000 d. 1200 If the baud rate for a QAM signal is 3000 and a signal element is represented by a tribit, what is the bit rate? a. 300 b. 400 c. 1000 d. 9000 If the baud rate for a QAM signal is 1800 and the bit rate is 9000, how many bits are there per signal element? s wee 46 In 16-QAM, there are 16 a. combinations of phase and amplitude b. amplitudes c. phases d. bits per second Which modulation technique involves tribits, eight different phase shifts, and one amplitude? . a, FSK b. &PSK c. ASK . 4-PSK ‘The Nyquist theorem specifies the minimum sampling rate to be. a, equal to the lowest frequency of a signal . equal to the highest frequency of a signal . twice the bandwidth of a signal d. twice the highest frequency of a signal Given an AM radio signal-with a bandwidth of 10 KHz and the highest frequency component at 705 KHz, what is the frequency of the carrier signal? a. 700 KHz b. 705 KHz,56. 37. SECTION 5.7 PRACTICE SET 131 ©. 710 KHz, 4d. cannot be determined from given information One factor in the accuracy of a reconstructed PCM signal is the a. signal bandwidth b. carrier frequency ¢. number of bits used for quantization 4d baud rate 2. Which encoding type always has a nonzero average amplitude? a. unipolar b. polar ©. bipolar d. all of the above Which of the following encoding methods does not provide for synchronization? a. NRZ-L b RZ ©. B8ZS (. HDB3 encoding method uses alternating positive and negative values for Is? a, NRZ-I b.RZ ©. Manchester d. AMI . Deliberate violations of alternate mark inversion are used in which type of digital- to-digital encoding? a. AMI b. B8ZS ce RZ d. Manchester A modulated signal is formed by a. changing the modulating signal by the carrier wave b. changing the carrier wave by the modulating signal ¢. quantization of the source data 4d. sampling at the Nyquist frequency If FCC regulations are followed, the carrier frequencies of adjacent AM radio sta- tions are___ apart. a. 5 KHz b. 10 KHz . 200 KHz . 530 KHz132 CHAPTERS ENCODING AND MODULATING 58. 60. 6 62. 63. 64. If FCC regulations are followed, potential FM stations are theoret possible in a given area. a. 50 b. 100 133 . 150 In PCM, an analog-to- conversion occurs a. analog b. digital cc. QAM d. differential If the maximum value of a PCM signal is 31 and the minimum value is ~31, how many bits were used for coding? ad bs ©. 6 a7 When an ASK signal is decomposed, the result is S one sine wave b. always two sine waves a. alwa c. an infinite number of sine waves. 4. none of the above RZ encoding involves level(s) of signal amplitude. 1 b.3 : i d.5 Which quantization level results in a more faithful reproduction of the signal? a2 b.8 ©. 16 a. 32 Which encoding technique attempts to solve the loss of synchronization due to Jong strings of Os? a. B8ZS b. HDB3 c. AMI d. aand bSECTION 5.7. PRACTICE SET — 133 65. Which conversion type involves modulation of a signal? a, digital-to-digital conversion b. analog-to-digital conversion ¢. digital-to-analog conversion d. all of the above 66. Which conversion type needs sampling of a signal? a, digital-to-digital conversion b, analog-to-digital conversion c. digital-to-analog conversion 4d. all of the above 67. The bandwidth of an FM signal requires 10 times the bandwidth of the - signal. a, carrier b. modulating c. bipolar d. sampling 68. Modulation of an analog signal can be accomplished through modulation of the ____ of the carrier signal. a. amplitude b, frequency . phase d. any of the above 69. Modulation of a digital signal can be accomplished through modulation of the of the carrier signal. ude a, ampli b. frequency c. phase d. any of the above Exercises 70. If the bit rate of a signal is 1000 bits/seconds, how many bits can be sent in 5 sec ‘onds? How many bits in 1/5 second? How many bits in 100 milliseconds? 71. Assume a data stream is made of ten Os. Encode this stream using the following, encoding schemes. How many changes (vertical line) can you find for each scheme? a, unipolar b. polar NRZ-L c. polar NRZ-1134 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING a RZ €. Manchester f, Differential Manchester g. AMI h. pseudoternary i, B8ZS j. HDB3 72. Repeat Exercise 71 for a data stream of ten Is, 73, Repeat Exercise 7] for a data stream of ten alternating Os and Is. 74, Repeat Exercise 71 for a data stream of three 0s followed by two Is followed by two Os and another three Is, 75. Figure 5.47 is the unipolar encoding of a data stream, What is the data stream? Figure 5.47 Exercise 75 76. Figure 5.48 is the NRZ-L encoding of a data stream, What is the data stream? igure 5.48 Exercises 76 and 77 77. Repeat Exercise 76 if the figure is the NRZ-I encoding of a data stream. 78. Figure 5.49 is the RZ encoding of a data stream. What is the data stream? Figure 5.49 Exercise 78SECTION 5.7 PRACTICE SET 135 | | 79. Figure 5.50 is the Manchester encoding of a data stream, What is the data stream? | Figure 5.50 Exercises 79 and 80 | 80. Repeat Exercise 79 if the figure is the differential Manchester encoding of a data stream? 81. Figure 5.51 is the AMI encoding of a data stream. What is the data stream? | Figure 5.51 Exercises 81 and 82 . * 82. Repeat Exercise 81 if the figure is the pseudoternary encoding of a data stream. | 83. Figure 5.52 is the B8ZS encoding of a data stream. What is the data stream? 84. Figure 5.53 is the HDB3 encoding of a data stream. What is the data stream? Figure 5.53 Exercise 84136 CHAPTER 5 ENCODING AND MODULATING 85. How many amplitude levels are there for each of the following methods? a. Unipolar b. NRZ-L c. NRZ a RZ ce. Manchester f. Differential Manchester 86. What is the sampling rate for PCM if the frequency ranges from 1000 to 4000 Hz? 87. Using the Nyquist theorem, calculate the sampling rate for the following analog signals a. An analog signal with bandwidth of 2000 Hz. b. An analog signal with frequencies from 2000 to 6000 Hz. c. A signal with a horizontal line in the time-domain representation, d. A signal with a vertical line in the time-domain representation. 88. If a signal is sampled 8000 times per second, what is the interval between each sample? ‘ 89. If the interval between two samples in a digitized signal is 125 microseconds, what is the sampling rate? 90. A signal is sampled. Each sample represents one of four levels. How many bits are needed to represent each sample? If the sampling rate is 8000 samples per second, what is the bit rate? 91. Calculate the baud rate for the given bit rate and type of modulation: 2000 bps, FSK . 4000 bps, ASK 6000 bps, 2-PSK 6000 bps, 4-PSK 6000 bps, 8-PSK 4000 bps, 4-QAM g. 6000 bps, 16-QAM h. 36,000 bps, 64-QAM 92. Calculate the baud rate for the given bit rate and bit combination: a. 2000 bps, dibit b, 6000 bps, tribit . ©. 6000 bps, quadbit 4. 6000 bps, bit 93. Calculate the bit rate for the given baud rate and type of modulation. a. 1000 baud, FSK b, 1000 baud, ASK ¢. 1000 baud, 8-PSK . 1000 baud, 16-QAM 2SECTION 5.7 PRACTICE SET 94, Draw the constellation diagram for the following: a. ASK, amplitudes of 1 and 3 b, 2-PSK, amplitude of | at 0 and 180 degreés, 137 95. Data from a source ranges in value between —1.0 and 1.0. To what do the data points 0.91, -0.25, 0.56, and 0.71 transform if eight-bit quantization is used? 96. The data points of a constellation are at (4, 0) and (6, 0). Draw the constellation, Show the amplitude and phase for each point. Is the modulation ASK, PSK, or QAM? How many bits per baud can one send with this constellation? 97. Repeat Exercise 96 if the data points are at (4, 5) and (8, 10). 98. Repeat Exercise 96 if the data points are at (4, 0) and (-4, 0). 99. Repeat Exercise 96 if the data points are at (4, 4) and (4, 4), 100. Repeat Exercise 96 if the data points are at (4, 0), (4, 4), (-4, 0), and (-4, -4), 101. Does the constellation in Figure 5.54 represent ASK, FSK, PSK, or QAM? igure 5.54 Exercise 101 102. Does the constellation in Figure 5.55 represent ASK, FSK, PSK, or QAM? Figure 5.55 Exercise 102 103. Does the constellation in Figure 5.56 represent ASK, FSK, PSK, or QAM? 104. Does the constellation in Figure 5.57 represent ASK, FSK, PSK, or QAM? 105. Can a constellation have 12 points? Why or why not? 106. Can a constellation have 18 points? Why or why not? 107. Can you define a general rule for the number of points in a constellation? 108. If the number of points in a constellation is eight, how many bits can we send per baud?138, CHAPTER 5. ENCODING AND MODULATING Figure 5.56 Exercise 103 ; = Figure 5.57 Exercise 104 109. Calculate the bandwidth required for each of the following AM stations, Disre- gard FCC rules. &. Modulating signal with a bandwidth of 4 KHz, b. Modulating signal with a bandwidth of 8 KHz. c. Modulating signal with frequencies of 2000 to 3000 Hz. 110. Calculate the bandwidth required:for each of the following FM stations, Diste- gard FCC rules, a, Modulating signal with a bandwidth of 12 KHz. b. Modulating signal with a bandwidth of 8 KHz. c. Modulating signal with frequencies of 2000 to 3000 Hz.