Chapter I
What is teacher professional development?
Background information
Professional development, in a broad sense, refers to the development
of a person in his or her professional role. More specifically, “Teacher
development is the professional growth a teacher achieves as a result of gaining
increased experience and examining his or her teaching systematically”
(Glatthorn, 1995, p. 41). Professional development includes formal experiences
(such as attending workshops and professional meetings, mentoring, etc.) and
informal experiences (such as reading professional publications, watching
television documentaries related to an academic discipline, etc.) (Ganser, 2000).
This conception of professional development is, therefore, broader than career
development, which is defined as “the growth that occurs as the teacher
moves through the professional career cycle” (Glatthorn, 1995, p. 41), and
broader than staff development, which is “the provision of organized in-service
programmes designed to foster the growth of groups of teachers; it is only
one of the systematic interventions that can be used for teacher development”
(Glatthorn, 1995, p. 41). When looking at professional development, one
must examine the content of the experiences, the processes by which the
professional development will occur, and the contexts in which it will take
place (Ganser, 2000; Fielding and Schalock, 1985).
This perspective is, in a way, new to teaching. For years the only form
of ‘professional development’ available to teachers was ‘staff development’
or ‘in-service training’, usually consisting of workshops or short-term courses
that would offer teachers new information on a particular aspect of their
work. This was often the only type of training teachers would receive and
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Teacher professional development: an international review of the literature
was usually unrelated to the teachers’ work. Only in the past few years has
the professional development of teachers been considered a long-term process
that includes regular opportunities and experiences planned systematically
to promote growth and development in the profession. This shift has been so
dramatic that many have referred to it as a ‘new image’ of teacher learning, a
‘new model’ of teacher education, a ‘revolution’ in education, and even a
‘new paradigm’ of professional development (Cochran-Smith and Lytle, 2001;
Walling and Lewis, 2000).
There has recently been a significant increase in the level of interest and
support that teachers throughout the world are receiving in their professional
development. Evidence of this include the following:
• The extensive literature which is available; including documents, essays
and research reports on models and practices of professional development.
The long reference list at the end of this document is only a sample of
the many studies that have been published since the beginning of the
1990s alone.
• International and national donor agencies have acknowledged the
importance of teachers’ professional development and have commissioned
studies (many of which are reported in this document) with the purpose
of learning how to support such efforts more effectively.
• Many national and international organizations have supported the
implementation of initiatives which aim to improve the professional skills
and knowledge of teachers. One good example is the efforts of the Asia-
Pacific Economic Cooperative (APEC) to improve teacher education,
as the economy of these 18 countries that border the Pacific Ocean have
identified teacher education as being a key issue in economic development
(Cobb, 1999).
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What is teacher professional development?
• Most educational reforms currently being designed and/or implemented
include a component of teacher professional development as one of the
key elements in the change process.
This new perspective of professional development has several
characteristics:
1. It is based on constructivism rather than on a ‘transmission-oriented
model’. As a consequence, teachers are treated as active learners
(Lieberman, 1994; McLaughlin and Zarrow, 2001) who are engaged in
the concrete tasks of teaching, assessment, observation and reflection
(Dadds, 2001; Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin, 1995; King and
Newmann, 2000).
2. It is perceived as a long-term process as it acknowledges the fact that
teachers learn over time. As a result, a series of related experiences
(rather than one-off presentations) is seen to be the most effective as it
allows teachers to relate prior knowledge to new experiences (Cohen,
1990; Ganser, 2000; Lieberman, 1994; Dudzinski et al., 2000). Regular
follow-up support is regarded as an “indispensable catalyst of the change
process” (Schifter, Russell, and Bastable, 1999, p. 30).
3. It is perceived as a process that takes place within a particular context.
Contrary to the traditional staff development opportunities that did not
relate ‘training’ to actual classroom experiences, the most effective form
of professional development is that which is based in schools and is
related to the daily activities of teachers and learners (Abdal-Haqq, 1996;
Ancess, 2001; Baker and Smith, 1999; Darling-Hammond, 1998;
Dudzinski et al., 2000; Ganser, 2000; McLaughlin and Zarrow, 2001).
Schools are transformed into communities of learners, communities of
inquiry (McLaughlin and Zarrow, 2001), professional communities (King
and Newmann, 2000) and caring communities (Jenlink and Kinnucan-
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Teacher professional development: an international review of the literature
Welsch, 1999) because teachers are engaged in professional development
activities (Lieberman, 1994). The most successful teacher development
opportunities are ‘on-the-job learning’ activities such as study groups,
action research and portfolios (Wood and McQuarrie, 1999).
4. Many identify this process as one that is intimately linked to school
reform (Guskey, 1995b; Loucks-Horsley, 1998), as professional
development is a process of culture building and not of mere skill training
(Cochran-Smith and Lytle, 2001) which is affected by the coherence of
the school programme (King and Newmann, 2000). In this case, teachers
are empowered as professionals, and therefore should receive the same
treatment that they themselves are expected to give their students
(McLaughlin and Zarrow, 2001). A teacher professional development
programme that is not supported by the school or curricular reform is
not effective (Guzman, 1995; Schifter, Russell, and Bastable, 1999).
5. A teacher is conceived of as a reflective practitioner, someone who
enters the profession with a certain knowledge base, and who will acquire
new knowledge and experiences based on that prior knowledge (Cochran-
Smith and Lytle, 2001; Jenlink and Kinnucan-Welsch, 1999; Lieberman,
1994). In so doing, the role of professional development is to aid teachers
in building new pedagogical theories and practices (Darling-Hammond
and McLaughlin, 1995; Schifter, Russell, and Bastable, 1999), and to
help them develop their expertise in the field (Dadds, 2001).
6. Professional development is conceived of as a collaborative process
(Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin, 1995). Even though there may be
some opportunities for isolated work and reflection, most effective
professional development occurs when there are meaningful interactions
(Clement and Vanderberghe, 2000), not only among teachers themselves,
but also between teachers, administrators, parents and other community
members (Grace, 1999).
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What is teacher professional development?
7. Professional development may look and be very different in diverse
settings, and even within a single setting, it can have a variety of
dimensions (Scribner, 1999). There is not one form or model of
professional development better than all others and which can be
implemented in any institution, area or context. Schools and educators
must evaluate their needs, cultural beliefs and practices in order to decide
which professional development model would be most beneficial to their
particular situation. It is clear in the literature that different factors within
a workplace (one significant variable of ‘the context’), such as school
structure and school culture, can influence the teachers’ sense of efficacy
and professional motivation (Scribner, 1999). Apparent contradictory
results reported in the literature (such as the fact that some studies conclude
that the best professional development is that designed and implemented
on a smaller scale, while others say that it is more effective when
implemented on a larger, system-approach scale) may be explained, not
by deciding that one study is more accurate than another, but by examining
the contexts in which the different studies were completed. Guskey
(1995b) argues strongly the importance of paying attention to context so
that the “optimal mix” (p. 3) of professional development processes can
be identified and planned. In other words, professional development has
to be considered within a framework of social, economic and political
trends and events (Woods, 1994). “The uniqueness of the individual
setting will always be a critical factor in education. What works in one
situation may not work in another… Because of the enormous variability
in educational contexts, there will never be ‘one right answer’. Instead,
there will be a collection of answers, each specific to a context. Our
search must focus, therefore, on finding the optimal mix – that assortment
of professional development processes and technologies that work best
in a particular setting” (Guskey, 1995a, p. 117).
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Systems and/or models of professional development?
It is important to bear in mind the difference between a professional
development system and a professional development model (Ingvarson, 1998).
Models are specific processes and opportunities that are planned to provide
professional development to teachers from the beginning of their preparation.
(Chapter IV of this book describes a number of models that have been used
in different parts of the world to promote the professional development of
teachers, and also briefly refers to some national systems of professional
development.)
However, a system requires a wider perspective that includes the
interconnections between:
• the goals, objectives and purposes of professional development;
• the context in which professional development is to take place;
• the personal and professional characteristics of the participants of the
system;
• the models, techniques, and procedures to be implemented;
• the costs and benefits of professional development;
• a determination of who is to make which decisions;
• a process to evaluate and assess the effectiveness of professional
development on different constituencies;
• a determination of infrastructure support for professional development.
Ingvarson (1998) compares the ‘traditional system of professional
development’, usually identified as ‘in-service training’ (where the employers
have control; the governments establish the goals; the actors can be universities,
employers or consultants; and the models used are usually short-term courses
or workshops, which are not necessarily related to practical issues), with the
‘standard-base system’ (where the professional bodies have control when
deciding on goals and helping to implement the models, and where the
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What is teacher professional development?
opportunities are designed based on real needs identified by the teachers in
their daily activities). He concludes that even though the traditional system is
essential, it is no longer sufficient.
A similar classification is offered by Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2001).
They describe three approaches, or systems of professional development,
that “co-exist in the world of educational policy, research and practice and are
invoked by differently positioned people in order to explain and justify quite
different ideas and approaches to improving teaching and learning” (p. 47).
They are:
1. Knowledge-for-practice: Assumes that university-based researchers
generate formal knowledge and theory for teachers to use in order to
improve practice.
2. Knowledge-in-practice: Some of the most essential knowledge for
teaching is perceived as ‘practical’ knowledge, or knowledge that is
embedded in practice.
3. Knowledge-of-practice: Knowledge is not divided into formal and
practical knowledge. Teachers gain knowledge for teaching when they
have the opportunity to reflect on their practice and use a process of
inquiry in their own environments to learn more about effective teaching.
Variables that contribute to the success of teachers’
professional development.
According to Guskey (1995a), there are some ‘guidelines for success’
that must be followed when planning and implementing professional
development opportunities for teachers. They are:
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Teacher professional development: an international review of the literature
• to recognize change as being both an individual and an organizational
process;
• to think big, but start small;
• to work in teams to maintain support;
• to include procedures for feedback on results;
• to provide continuous follow-up, support, and pressure;
• to integrate programmes.
Corcoran (1995) has proposed the following guiding principles for experts
and organizations that are designing and implementing professional development
programmes. These programmes must:
• stimulate and support site-based initiatives (schools’, districts’ and
teachers’ initiatives);
• be grounded in knowledge about teaching;
• model constructivist teaching;
• offer intellectual, social and emotional engagement with ideas, materials
and colleagues;
• demonstrate respect for teachers as professionals and as adult learners;
• provide sufficient time and follow-up;
• be accessible and inclusive.
Finally, Fullan (1987) believes there are four crucial factors for successful
teacher development. They are:
• redefinition of staff development as a process of learning;
• the role of leadership at the school level;
• the organizational culture at the school level; and
• the role of external agencies, especially at the local and regional level.
Many of these, and other factors that help make professional development
successful, are explored and described in Chapter V of this book.
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