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Lecture Notes: Topic #8, Parts 3, 4 & 5 READ Brooks & Miljan KIT PP 191-205

This document provides an overview of the history of indigenous peoples in Canada from pre-contact to 1967 in 5 parts: 1. It discusses the Battle of Little Bighorn and the marginalization of indigenous peoples in the US in the late 19th century. 2. It outlines trade and relations between indigenous peoples and European colonizers in Canada from the 16th to 19th centuries, including the impact of disease and competition for empire. 3. It describes the numbered treaties signed between 1871-1921 and the Indian Act of 1876 that defined indigenous rights and established a system of administered dependency on reserves. 4. It notes the goal of the Indian Act and residential school system was assimilation and doing away

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69 views2 pages

Lecture Notes: Topic #8, Parts 3, 4 & 5 READ Brooks & Miljan KIT PP 191-205

This document provides an overview of the history of indigenous peoples in Canada from pre-contact to 1967 in 5 parts: 1. It discusses the Battle of Little Bighorn and the marginalization of indigenous peoples in the US in the late 19th century. 2. It outlines trade and relations between indigenous peoples and European colonizers in Canada from the 16th to 19th centuries, including the impact of disease and competition for empire. 3. It describes the numbered treaties signed between 1871-1921 and the Indian Act of 1876 that defined indigenous rights and established a system of administered dependency on reserves. 4. It notes the goal of the Indian Act and residential school system was assimilation and doing away

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Lecture Notes: Topic #8, Parts 3, 4 & 5 READ Brooks & Miljan KIT pp 191-205

3. Summer Vacation (trip to Montana/South Dakota)


Last half of 19th C in USA = “end of the Indian Wars” – Post Civil War the Sioux Nation signs the Ft.
Laramie Treaty and takes a reservation – the Treaty is violated by US Gov’t and Prospectors entering the
reserve in search of gold and other mineral staples. The Sioux respond to this encroachment on the
sacred Black Hills and the result is the Battle of the Little Big Horn – Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Custer and
the US 7th Calvary – a major, but temporary victory for the Sioux. Resistance, however, is over by 1890
(Wounded Knee). The legacy of this period is the marginalization and dependency of indigenous peoples
in USA. It parallels the staple based colonization and development (see Innis reading) in Canada and over
much of the world.

4. Pre-Confederation Relations (Innis again)


a) 16th and 17th Centuries: COMMERCE – Fish, Fur, Exploration & Evangelicalism
technological exchange – snowshoe, canoe, toboggan, medicines, food, pots, pans, firearms, alcohol
trade especially in fish and furs – development of large mercantilist trading companies (Hudson’s Bay,
North West Company) & mutual benefit, but also much harm to indigenous peoples through disease
(small pox)
b) 18th and 19th Centuries: CONTEST FOR EMPIRE – France, Britain, Spain trying to carve out empires in
the “new world”. Indigenous peoples key military allies in major historical events – Conquest of new
France, Fur Trade, American Revolution, War of 1812…
During the period from Contact to Confederation questions of sovereignty were settled by the “Doctrine
of Terra Nullius” or The Right of Discovery of Empty Lands – Declared by European Monarchs and Popes
(read Brooks & Miljan)
During the latter part of this period The Royal Proclamation of 1763 and The Treaty of Niagara 1774
would provide a legal basis for indigenous challenges on issues of sovereignty. The proclamation issued
by George III after the Conquest is a highly controversial and extremely important document which is
now entrenched in the Canadian Constitution. It forms the basis for many major claims to land
ownership and self-government (see Brooks & Miljan) Indeed, it has been called “The Magna Carta of
Aboriginal Rights” in Canada.

5. Confederation to Centennial Year (1867-1967): The Era of Administered Dependency


By the mid 19th C questions of empire are settled and North America has been pretty much divided up.
Indigenous peoples are no longer required as military allies nor trading partners. This will usher in the
process of assimilation and marginalization.
Canada secures the West – 1867-1870 – Transfer of Rupert’s land to Can from Britain, Riel Rebellion
settled and attention turned to Treaties to pave the way for the National Policy – Aboriginal people are
now viewed as an obstacle to both economic and political development for the new country.
Between 1871 and 1877 seven major Treaties entered into west of Ontario. An additional four will be
negotiated between 1889 and 1921. These 11 treaties constitute the so-called numbered treaties and
covered most of western Canada. Enough to permit the implementation of the National Policy (railroad,
tariffs, immigrants, wheat staple et cetera) with little indigenous resiistance. Under the treaties
indigenous people extinguished their claims to sovereignty over their lands in return for some
combination of money, education, annual supplies, health provisions, tax arrangements and other
assorted matters. Despite this major effort at signing treaties to satisfy the terms of the Royal
Proclamation, less than half of Canada was covered by a treaty one hundred years after Confederation.
The Constitution Act of 1867 (BNA Act) stipulates that “Indians and Lands reserved for Indians” are
Federal jurisdiction under the federal system. In 1876 – same year as the “Little Big Horn” in USA, Ottawa
passed the Indian Act. Purpose is to implement the provisions of the numbered treaties.
The Act defined the rights of registered Indians (Status Indians) and their bands. The Indian Registry was
created, giving Indian, or Treaty Status, to those registered. The legislation defines how status is gained
and lost. From 1876 until 1982 The Indian Act was the “Defacto Constitution” for status Indians in
Canada. It created the structure which governed native policy for over a century.

The Act has been describes as a “total institution” governing all aspects of the social, political and
economic lives of those covered by it. It was a “constitution” over which status Indians had no input or
control. It was modelled on the relationship between a minor and guardian, or a child and parent –
Administered dependency defines it nicely.
What is its purpose? Prime Minister John A. Macdonald in 1887 (2 years after the execution of Louis Riel
and 8 Aboriginal leaders were hanged for their role in the Northwest Rebellion) – “The great aim of our
civilization has been to do away with the tribal system as assimilate the Indian people in all respects with
the inhabitants of the Dominion, as speedily as they are fit for change”.
Duncan Campbell Scott, the longest serving Superintendent General of Indian Affairs (who administered
the Act) – “Our objective is to continue until there is not a single Indian in Canada that has not been
absorbed into the body politic and there is no Indian Question and no Indian Department”. (1920)

Like the Residential School System, the purpose of which was to “take the indian out if the Queen’s Red
Children”, and which was administered under the Indian Act, it is clear that the purpose of this policy
was the assimilation and marginalization of indigenous peoples. Under the Act (Administered on
Reserves by the all-powerful Indian Agent):
Status Indians are denied the right to vote until 1960
Potlach, Sun Dance and other religious and cultural practices are forbidden.
Indigenous forms of self-government are suppressed, and patriarchal band government is imposed.
Residential Schools are created (last one closed in 1996) – assimilation and conversion to Christianity is
the goal. Families divided, language denied, traditional culture and dress outlawed, enforced labour,
physical, psychological and sexual abuse – children taught self-hatred. Former Justice Minister Irwin
Cotler “The single most harmful, disgraceful and racist act in our history”.
The Reserve System – turn hunters and gatherers into farmers, on very poor agricultural land. Institute a
system of Pass Books to leave the reserve. Out of sight and out of mind – a model for the future
Apartheid regime in South Africa.

Under the “Administered Dependency” of the Indian Act we see the development of the hopelessness
and despair that will characterize indigenous people in Canada at the end of our first century. A
colonized and marginalized people. Death by violence, sickness, misadventure, suicide, unemployment,
poverty, imprisonment – the numbers far above the averages for the rest of the population. Far below
the national average on life expectancy

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