Leonardo da Vinci Pilot Project CZ/02/B/F/PP-134007

DEVELOPMENT OF SKILLS FACILITATING IMPLEMENTATION OF

EUROCODES

HANDBOOK 3

ACTIONS EFFECTS FOR BUILDINGS

PARTNERSHIP:

The Klokner Institute of the Czech Technical University in Prague (KI CTU),
convener, Prof. Milan Holický, Czech Republic
The Czech Chamber of Certified Engineers and Technicians Engaged in Construction
(CKAIT), Prof. Alois Materna, Czech Republic,
The Institute for Steel Construction, University of Technology Aachen (RWTH),
Prof. Gerhard Sedlacek, Germany
The Spanish Organisation for Scientific Research (IET), Dr. Angel Arteaga, Spain
The University of Pisa (UOP), Prof. Luca Sanpaolesi, Italy
The Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO),
Prof. Ton Vrouwenvelder, Netherlands
The Institute for Metal Constructions (IMK), Dr. Igor Kovse, Slovenia
The Building Research Establishment (BRE), Prof. Haig Gulvanessian,
United Kingdom

Aachen 10.2005

1
 Leonardo da Vinci Pilot Project CZ/02/B/F/PP-134007
DEVELOPMENT OF SKILLS FACILITATING IMPLEMENTATION OF
EUROCODES

HANDBOOK 3

ACTION EFFECTS FOR BUILDINGS

I Self-Weight and Imposed Loads on Buildings (Pages I-1 to I-11)

Summary I-1
1 INTRODUCTION I-1
1.1 General I-1
1.2 Background documents I-1
2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND RULES I-2
2.1 Classification of actions I-2
2.2 Design situations I-2
3 DENSITIES I-2
3.1 Definition of density I-2
3.2 Characteristic values I-3
4 SELF-WEIGHT OF CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS I-3
5 IMPOSED LOADS ON BUILDINGS I-3
5.1 Classification of loaded areas I-3
5.2 Load arrangements and load cases I-3
5.3 Characteristic values I-4
5.4 Movable partitions I-4
6 EXAMPLES I-5
6.1 Simple supported cantilever beam I-5
6.2 Frame structure I-6
7 PROBABILISTIC MODEL OF SELF-WEIGHT I-8
8 PROBABILISTIC MODEL OF IMPOSED LOAD I-9
9 CONCLUDING REMARKS I-11
REFERENCES I-11

2
II Snow Load (Pages II-1 to II-5)
Summary II-1
1 DEFINITION OF SNOW LOADING II-1
1.1 General II-1
1.2 Snow load map II-1
1.3 Determination of the snow load on the ground II-2
1.4 Exposure coefficient and thermal coefficient II-2
1.5 Roof shape coefficients II-3
1.6 Additional information II-3
2 EXAMPLE II-4
REFERENCES II-5

III Wind Actions (Pages III-1 to III-21)

Summary III-1
1 INTRODUCTION III-1
1.1 General III-1
1.2 Background documents III-2
1.2 Status III-2
2 BASIS OF APPLICATION III-2
2.1 Characteristics of prEN 1991-1-4 III-2
2.2 General principles III-3
3 WIND VELOCITY AND WIND PRESSURE III-4
3.1 General III-4
3.2 Wind climate III-4
4 WIND PRESSURE FOR DETERMINATION OF QUASI-STATIC
RESPONSE III-7
4.1 General III-7
4.2 Pressure coefficients III-7
5 DETERMINATION OF THE WIND INDUCED FORCE III-8
5.1 General III-8
5.2 Force coefficients III-9
6 EXAMPLES III-10
6.1 Wind pressure on industrial hall III-10
6.2 Wind pressure on a rectangular building with flat roof III-12
6.3 Simple rectangular building with duopitched roof III-14
6.4 Wind force on a cylindrical tower block III-16
6.5 Wind pressure on a rectangular tower block III-18
6.6 Glazing panel III-20
REFERENCES III-21

IV Thermal Actions on Buildings (Pages IV-1 to IV-13)

Summary IV-1
1 INTRODUCTION IV-1
1.1 Background documents IV-1
1.2 General principles IV-1
2 EVALUATION OF THERMAL ACTIONS IV-2
3 EXAMPLE IV-8

3
V Accidental Actions on Buildings (Pages V-1 to V-10)
Summary V-1
1 INTRODUCTION V-1
1.1 General V-1
1.2 Background Documents V-1
2 BASIS OF APPLICATIONS V-2
3 DESIGN FOR IMPACT AND EXPLOSION LOADS V-3
3.1 Impact form vehicles V-3
3.2 Loads due to explosions V-3
3.3 Design example of a column in a building for an explosion V-4
4 ROBUSTNESS OF BUIDINGS (ANNEX A OF EN 1991-1-7) V-6
4.1 Background V-6
4.2 Summary of design rules in Annex A V-7
4.2.1 Design Rules for Class 2, Lower Group, Framed structures V-7
4.2.2 Design Rules for Class 2, Lower Group,
Load-bearing wall construction V-7
4.2.3 Design Rules for Class 2, Upper Group, Framed Structures V-7
4.2.4 Design Rules for Class 2, Upper Group,
Load-bearing wall construction V-8
4.3 Examples structures V-8
4.3.1 Framed structure, Consequences class 2, Upper Group V-8
4.3.2 Load bearing wall type of structure, Consequences class 2,
Upper Group V-9
REFERENCES V-9
ANNEX V-10

VI Examples of Concrete Buildings (Pages VI-1 to VI-27)

Summary VI-1
1 BACKGROUND DOCUMENTS VI-1
2 HOUSING BUILDING VI-1
2.1 Description of the structure VI-1
2.2 Materials VI-3
2.3 Definition of the design loads VI-3
2.3.1 Self weight and dead load VI-3
2.3.2 Imposed load VI-4
2.3.3 Snow load VI-4
2.3.4 Wind load VI-4
2.4 Combined loads and structural analysis VI-8
3 INDUSTRIAL BUILDING VI-15
3.1 Description of the building VI-15
3.2 Materials VI-16
3.3 Definition of the design loads VI-16
3.3.1 Self-weight and permanent loads VI-16
3.3.2 Snow load VI-18
3.3.3 Wind load VI-20
3.3.4 Crane loads VI-21
3.4 Load combination and structural analysis VI-22
3.4.1 Analyses of loads on the roofing Y beams VI-22
3.4.2 Analyses of loads on the lateral longitudinal beams VI-24
3.4.3 Analyses of loads on the lateral columns VI-26

4
VII Example of a steel building (Pages VII-1 to VII-12)
Summary VII-1
1 INTRODUCTION VII-1
1.1 Background materials VII-1
2 DEFINITION OF THE SYSTEM VII-1
2.1 The structural system VII-1
2.2 Properties of the sections VII-2
3 DEFINITION OF THE ACTIONS VII-3
3.1 Permanent actions VII-3
3.1.1 Self-weight of structural members VII-3
3.1.1 Roof and wall cladding VII-3
3.2 Imposed loads VII-3
3.2.1 Imposed loads on roofs VII-4
3.2.2 Actions imposed by cranes VII-4
3.3 Climatic actions VII-5
3.3.1 Snow loads VII-5
3.3.2 Wind loads VII-6
4 CALCULATION OF INTERNAL FORCES VII-7
4.1 Axial forces in kN VII-8
4.2 Bending moments in kNm VII-9
4.3 Internal forces due to characteristic values of loads VII-9
5 COMBINATION OF ACTIONS VII-10
6 VERIFICATION VII-11
6.1 Resistance of the elements VII-11
6.2 Verification for the Ultimate Limit State VII-11
REFERENCES VII-12

VIII Example of a Composite Building (Pages VIII-1 to VIII-12)

1 INTRODUCTION VIII-1
2 DEFINITION OF THE SYSTEM VIII-1
2.1 Details of the system VIII-1
2.2 Properties of the sections VIII-2
2.2.1 Resistance of the slabs VIII-2
2.2.2 Resistance of the columns VIII-3
2.2.3 Moments of inertia VIII-3
3 DEFINITION OF LOADS VIII-4
3.1 Permanent load VIII-4
3.2 Imposed load VIII-5
3.3 Snow load VIII-5
3.4 Wind load VIII-5
3.4.1 Determination of the relevant gust wind pressure VIII-5
3.4.2 Distribution of wind loads VIII-6
3.5 Impact of fork lift VIII-7
3.6 Effect of shrinkage VIII-7
4 CALCULATION OF INTERNAL FORCES VIII-8
4.1 Bending moments VIII-8
4.2 Axial forces VIII-9

5
 5 VERIFICATIONS VIII-10
5.1 Verification for the Ultimate Limit State VIII-10
5.1.1 General VIII-10
5.1.2 Verification of the composite beam of the office area VIII-10
5.1.3 Verification of the composite beam of the roof VIII-10
5.1.4 Verification of the columns VIII-10
5.2 Verification of the floor-slab for the Serviceability Limit State VIII-11
REFERENCES VIII-12

Annex Properties of selected Materials (Pages Annex-1 to Annex-31)

Summary Annex-1
1 INTRODUCTION Annex-1
1.1 Background documents Annex-1
2 GENERAL MATERIAL MODELS AND PROPERTIES Annex-1
2.1 Introduction Annex-1
2.2 One dimensional material models Annex-2
2.2.1 Elastic material model Annex-2
2.2.2 Plastic material model Annex-3
2.2.3 Visco-elastic material model Annex-5
2.3 Three dimensional material models Annex-5
2.3.1 Three dimensional elastic model Annex-6
3 PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL Annex-7
3.1 Introduction Annex-7
3.2 Steel properties deduced from the stress-strain diagram Annex-7
3.3 Fatigue Annex-8
3.4 Other material properties of structural steel Annex-8
3.5 Characteristic and design values
for material properties of steel Annex-9
4 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE Annex-9
4.1 Introduction Annex-9
4.2 Concrete properties deduced
from the stress-strain diagram Annex-9
4.3 Time-dependence of concrete mechanical parameters Annex-11
4.3.1 Compressive strength Annex-12
4.3.2 Elastic modulus Annex-13
4.4 Creep Annex-14
4.5 Shrinkage Annex-17
4.6 Durability Annex-19
4.7 Other concrete properties Annex-21
REFERENCES Annex-22
Annexes Annex-23

6
FOREWORD
The Leonardo da Vinci Pilot Project CZ/02/B/F/PP-134007, “Development of Skills
Facilitating Implementation of Structural Eurocodes” addresses the urgent need to implement
the new system of European documents related to design of construction works and products.
These documents, called Eurocodes, are systematically based on recently developed Council
Directive 89/106/EEC “The Construction Products Directive” and its Interpretative Documents
ID1 and ID2. Implementation of Eurocodes in each Member State is a demanding task as each
country has its own long-term tradition in design and construction.
The project should enable an effective implementation and application of the new
methods for designing and verification of buildings and civil engineering works in all the
partner countries (CZ, DE, ES, IT, NL, SI, UK) and in other Member States. The need to
explain and effectively use the latest principles specified in European standards is apparent
from various enterprises, undertakings and public national authorities involved in construction
industry and also from universities and colleges. Training materials, manuals and software
programmes for education are urgently required.

The submitted Handbook 2 is one of 5 upcoming handbooks intended to provide

required manuals and software products for training, education and effective implementation
of Eurocodes:
Handbook 1: Basis of Structural Design
Handbook 2: Reliability Backgrounds
Handbook 3: Load Effects for Buildings
Handbook 4: Load Effects for Bridges
Handbook 5: Design of Buildings for Fire Situation

It is expected that the Handbooks will address the following intents in further
harmonisation of European construction industry:
- reliability improvement and unification of the process of design;
- development of the single market for products and for construction services;
- new opportunities for the trained primary target groups in the labour market.

The Handbook 3 is focused on the application of Eurocode EN 1990 and the relevant
Eurocodes for load assumptions. The following topics are treated in particular:
- definition of permanent and imposed loads
- definition of the climatic actions due to wind, snow and temperature
- description of material properties
- load combination
- examples of concrete buildings, steel buildings and composite buildings

The Annex to the Handbook 3 provides a review of "Material Properties " frequently
used in the text. The Handbook 3 is written in a user-friendly way employing only basic
mathematical tools. Attached software products accompanying a number of examples enable
applications of general rules in practice.
A wide range of potential users of the Handbooks and other training materials includes
practising engineers, designers, technicians, experts of public authorities, young people - high
school and university students. The target groups come from all territorial regions of the
partner countries. However, the dissemination of the project results is foreseen to be spread
into all Member States of CEN and other interested countries.

Aachen 10/2005

7
 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

CHAPTER IV - THERMAL ACTIONS ON BUILDINGS

Luca Sanpaolesi, Stefano Colombini

Department of Structural Engineering, University of Pisa, Italy

Summary

In general thermal variations cause deformations in single structural elements as well

as in the overall structure itself. If the structure is hyperstatic, a further consequence of
thermal variations is the emergence of coactive stress states. Therefore, the effects of thermal
variations may involve aspects of a structure’s functionality as well as its safety. This chapter
provides some instruments for evaluating the effects of thermal actions on buildings.

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background documents

The background of this chapter is the regulations EN-1991-1-5 “Eurocode 1: Actions
on structures – Part 1.5: General actions – Thermal Actions”

1.2 General principles

The problem of determining a given building’s structural response to thermal actions
is to be tackled first of all by defining suitable numerical models able to rationally reproduce
as faithfully as possible the actual behaviour of thermal fields in structures. Of course, the
thermal actions themselves must be accurately determined, as even the most precise model
loses all meaning if accurate values of the actions affecting a structure are unavailable. In the
case of thermal actions, such determinations are made via their statistic characterisation.
Any given instantaneous thermal field T(y, z) acting in any given section can be
decomposed into four separate components, as follows:
- a uniform temperature component;
- a component varying linearly around the z-z axis;
- a component varying linearly around the y-y axis;
- a self-equilibrating non-linear temperature distribution.

Figure 1. Diagrammatic representation of constituent components of a temperature profile.

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

Of the four thermal field components, the self-equilibrating one causes the least effects
on a structure.
Strictly speaking, the components of the thermal actions at any given instant ‘t’ are
given by the difference between the values at that instant and the corresponding values
occurring at the initial instant, meaning the instant in which the structure is first placed under
loads (e.g., the removal of formworks), shores and supports used during the stages of
construction). According to the provisions of Annex A of Eurocode 1991-1-5, lacking more
precise indications it can be assumed that T0 = 10 °C.

2 EVALUATION OF THERMAL ACTIONS

The deformation values and the degree of consequent stresses induced by the thermal
actions, above and beyond those due to the value of the actions themselves, are dependent on
the geometry of the element considered and the physical properties of the materials employed
in its construction. Clearly, if the structure contains materials with different values of the
linear thermal expansion coefficient, this must be adequately accounted for in carrying out
calculations.
The magnitude of the thermal actions and their distribution throughout the single
elements of the structure are a function of numerous parameters, some quite difficult to
interpret numerically. There are wide-scale parameters correlated with the climate of the
geographical location of the construction and the consequent seasonal temperature variations.
Then there are highly aleatory parameters, such as the presence of perturbations, which
influence air temperatures and solar radiation, often with fluctuations on a daily scale or, in
any event, over relatively short periods of time. Lastly, there are parameters strictly linked to
the conditions of the particular building in question: the presence of other nearby structures
that act as solar radiation screens, the building’s orientation, its total mass (and consequent
thermal inertia), the properties of its finishings (i.e., their degree of solar energy absorption
and thermal isolation) and the characteristics of the interior’s heating, air conditioning and
ventilation.
Thermal actions must be considered to be variable and indirect actions. Regulations
furnish characteristic values whose probability of being exceeded is 0,02, which is equivalent
to a return period of 50 years. The fundamental quantities on which thermal actions are based
are the extreme air temperatures value, that is, the maximum and minimum, in the shade at the
building site. Such values are furnished by the National Meteorological Service of each
member state. The shade air temperature is measured by a device known as a “Stevenson
Screen”, which is simply a thermometer set in a white painted wooden box with louvered
sides. The reason for shrouding the thermometer is to shield it from radiation by the sun,
ground and surrounding objects during the day, prevent heat loss by radiation during the
night, and finally protect it from precipitation, while at the same time, the louvering allows air
to pass freely about it. Eurocode 1991-1-5 does not include maps for extreme temperature
determinations: such task is left up to the National Meteorological Services. The document
ENV Thermal Actions furnishes some indicative maps of the extreme temperatures for some
CEN countries; those for Italy have been enclosed herein by way of example.

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

Figure 2. Map of minima shade air temperatures in Italy.

Figure 3. Map of maxima shade air temperatures in Italy.

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

In order to deal with shade air temperature values (maxima, Tmax,p, or minima, Tmin,p)
with a probability other than 0,02, the followings relationships (based on a type I probability
distribution of the extreme values) can be used:
Tmax,p = Tmax ⋅ {k1 − k 2 ⋅ ln[− ln (1 − p )]} (1)

Tmin, p = Tmin ⋅ {k3 + k4 ⋅ ln[− ln (1 − p )]} (2)

It moreover follows that:

u ⋅c
k1 = (3)
u ⋅ c + 3,902

1
k2 = (4)
u ⋅ c + 3,902

u ⋅c
k3 = (5)
u ⋅ c − 3,902

1
k4 = (6)
u ⋅ c − 3,902
Where the parameters ‘u’ and ‘c’ are functions of the mean ‘m’ and the standard deviation
‘σ’of the type I extreme value distribution:
0,57722
for the maximum value u =m− (7)
c

1,2825
c= (8)
σ

0,57722
for the minimum value u =m+ (9)
c

1,2825
c= (10)
σ
Lacking more precise data, the following values are recommended:
k1 = 0,781 (11)

k2 = 0,056 (12)

k3 = 0,393 (13)

k4 = - 0,156 (14)
The effects of the thermal actions must be determined for each and every design
situation deemed to be relevant either to the projected work’s functionality or its safety. In the
event that the structures are not exposed to significant daily or seasonal temperature
variations, or variations caused by activities within the building, the effects of short-term
thermal actions can be neglected in the structural analysis. In essence, all thermal actions can

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

thus be attributed to either climatic effects or operations in the building’s interior. With regard
to the first, climatic effects must be determined by considering variations in the shade air
temperature and changes in solar radiation, and thereby defining a conventional temperature,
as set forth in the following. With regard to the second effects, the influence of activities
carried out in the building’s interior (technological or industrial processes) must be evaluated
according to its specific design characteristics and specifications.
Following the foregoing breakdown of the components of thermal effects, the thermal
actions on structural elements (whether their cause is climatic or processes executed in the
building) must be specified considering the following fundamental quantities:
- a uniform temperature component, ∆Τυ , given by the difference between the
mean temperature T of an element and its conventional initial temperature T0;
- a component of linearly variable temperature, given by the difference,
∆ΤΜ , between the temperatures of the external and internal surfaces of a straight
section;
- a temperature difference, ∆ΤΠ , between different parts of the structure, given by
the difference between the mean temperatures of the parts in question.

Moreover, if the local effects of thermal actions are consistent and significant, they
must also be considered in addition to the aforesaid contributions ∆Τυ, ∆ΤΜ, ∆ΤΠ.
The uniform component of temperature ∆Τυ of any given structural element is
calculated as the difference between the mean temperature T of the element during the season
under study and the temperature T0 at the initial instant: ∆Τυ = T-T0. The first step is to
determine the value of T. This is calculated as the value of the mean winter or summer
temperature of the structural element in question by adopting a specific profile that defines the
temperature distribution throughout the element’s thickness. If the internal (Tin) and external
(Tout) conditions are sufficiently similar, a simplified procedure can be adopted, and the mean
temperature value used for T:
T +T
T = out in (15)
2
The following step consists in determining the quantities Tout and Tin. In this regard,
Eurocode 1 provides three tables (two different values of Tout are distinguished for two parts
of the structure, one above ground level and one below). It should moreover be noted that in
the following tables the values of Tout for the summer season are a function of both the
building’s orientation and the thermal absorption characteristics of its external surfaces.
Obviously, the maximum values are reached on horizontal surfaces and those facing south or
southwest, while the minima (which are equal to approximately one half the maximum
values) are found on the surfaces facing north.

Table 1. Indicative temperature values for interiors

Season Temperature Tin
Summer T1
Winter T2

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

Table 2. Indicative values of Tout for buildings above ground level.

Season Significant factor Temperature Tout
0,5
Tmax + T3
(very light surface)
Surface absorption
Summer properties, colour- 0,7 Tmax + T4
dependent (light or coloured surface)
0,9
Tmax + T5
(dark surface)
Winter Tmin

Table 3. Indicative values of Tout for buildings below ground level.

Season Depth below ground level Temperature Tout
Summer Less than 1 m T6
More than 1 m T7
Winter Less than 1m T8
More than 1 m T9

The Tin and Tout values in the preceding tables are specified in °C. Moreover, with
regard to such values:

- T1 values are specified in the National Annexes, though lacking more precise
indications, a value of 20 °C can be assumed.
- T2 values are also specified in the National Annexes, though lacking more precise
indications a value of 25 °C can be assumed.
- The maximum and minimum values of the shade air temperatures, Tmax, and Tmin,
and the effects of solar radiations, T3, T4 and T5, will be specified in the National
Annexes.

The values of the shade air temperature should be modified as a function of the
building site’s altitude above sea level. In the event that more exact information is lacking, the
air shade temperature values can be corrected for altitude as follows: for every 100 m above
sea level, subtract 0,5 °C from the minimum temperature value and 1,0 °C from the
maximum. For instance, for regions lying between latitudes 45°N and 55°N, the following
values are recommended:

T3 = 0 °C
T4 = 2 °C For surfaces facing northeast
T5 = 4 °C

or:
T3 = 18 °C
T4 = 30 °C For horizontal surfaces and those facing southwest
T5 = 42 °C

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

- The values of T6, T7 and T8, and T9 may be specified in the National Annexes.
Once again for regions at latitudes between 45° N and 55° N, the following values
are recommended:
T6 = 8 °C

T7 = 5 °C

T8 = - 5 °C

T9 = - 3 °C
The values of the materials’ linear expansion coefficients are fundamental to
performing structural analyses to determine the effects of thermal actions. For the materials
usually employed in civilian buildings, the coefficient values (taken from the table in Annex
C) are as follows.

Material αT (x 10-6 x °C-1)

Aluminium, aluminium alloys 24
Stainless Steel 16
Structural steel 12
Concrete (except as specified below) 10
Concrete with light aggregates 7
Masonry 6-10
Wood, parallel to its fibers 5
Wood, orthogonal to its fibers 30-70

Finally, in composite structures and reinforced concrete, the linear thermal expansion
coefficient of the steel can be assumed to be equal to that of the concrete.

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

3 EXAMPLE

We analyze a regular steel framework located in Pisa (Italy), that forms three 5,0 m
bays (with an overall plane surface of 15,0 m) and two floors, 3,0 m in height (for a total of
6,0 m), as represented in Figure 4.

Columns: HEB 320

Beams: IPE 300

3.0 m
3.0 m
5.0 m 5.0 m 5.0 m
Figure 4. Example of a steel frame

The following structural elements go to make up the framework:

- beams (spanning 5,0 m): IPE 300;
- columns: HEB 320.

We consider three different uniform temperature components:

- Case 1: heating of every structural element (beams and columns) of the structure
(summer season);
- Case 2: cooling of every structural element (beams and columns) of the structure
(winter season);
- Case 3: heating of the external beams and columns (figure).

Figure 5. Elements subjected to heating of thermal load case 3.

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

∆Τυ = T-T0 = T – 10 °C
T: mean temperature of the element during the season under study.
T +T
T = out in
2
Tin values:
Summer: T1 = 20 °C
Winter: T2 = 25 °C

Tout values:
Summer (light or coloured surface): Tmax + T4 = 40 °C + 30 °C = 70 °C
Winter: Tmin = - 9 °C

Tout (summer ) + Tin (summer ) 70°C + 20°C

Tsummer = = = 45°C
2 2

Tout (winter ) + Tin (winter ) − 9°C + 25°C

Twinter = = = 7°C
2 2

∆Τυ (summer) = Tsummer-T0 = 45 °C – 10 °C = 35 °C (for Load Case 1 and Load Case 3);

∆Τυ (winter) = Twinter-T0 = 7 °C – 10 °C = - 3 °C (for Load Case 2).

The following figures report the stress diagrams for the three load cases.

Figure 6. Deformed shape for thermal load case 1.

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

+ 13447 N + 16885 N

- 58568 N - 78008 N - 3697 N

Figure 7. Compressive stress diagram for thermal load case 1

13447 N 3408 N

45121 N 16031 N
Figure 8. Shear diagram for thermal load case 1.

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

38916 kN mm

28651 kN mm

51146 kN mm

84217 kN mm
Figure 9. Bending moment diagram for thermal load case 1.

- 1153 N - 1445 N

+ 5020 N + 6686 N

Figure 10. Axial force diagram for thermal load case 2.

1153 N

3868 N 1374 N
Figure 11. Shear diagram for thermal load case 2

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

3335.7 kN mm

1666.6 kN mm
4383.9 kN mm

7218.6 kN mm 2455.8 kN mm

Figure 12. Bending moment diagram for thermal load case 2.

Figure 13. Deformed shape for thermal load case 3

- 20831 N - 33610 N

+ 31982 N + 47852 N

- 12886 N + 12886 N
Figure 14. Axial force diagram, thermal load case 3.

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 Chapter IV - Thermal Actions on Buildings

20831 N
8257 N 12779 N

11151 N
Figure 15. Shear force, thermal load case 3.

23094 kN mm
19184 kN mm

39398 kN mm 18191 kN mm

19152 kN mm
26700 kN mm

6755 kN mm
Figure 16. Bending moment, thermal load case 3.

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