Optical Systems 37
Parity and Plane Mirrors
In addition to bending or folding the light path, reflection from
a plane mirror introduces a parity change in the image.
Invert – Image flip about a horizontal line.
Revert – Image flip about a vertical line.
An inversion plus a reversion is equivalent
to a 180° image rotation; no parity change.
An image seen by an even number of reflections maintains its
parity. An odd number of reflections changes the parity. Parity
is determined by looking back against the propagation
direction towards the object or image in that optical space; let
the light from the object or image come to you.
Each ray from an object obeys the law of reflection at a plane
mirror surface, and a virtual image of the object is produced.
The rules of plane mirrors:
• The line connecting an object point and its image is
perpendicular to the mirror and is bisected by the mirror.
• Any point on the mirror surface is equidistant from a given
object point and its image point.
• The image parity is changed on reflection.
38 Geometrical Optics
Systems of Plane Mirrors
The rules of plane mirrors are used sequentially at each
mirror in a system of plane mirrors. Two parallel plane
mirrors act as a periscope and displace the line of sight.
There is no parity change, and all
image rays are parallel to the
corresponding object rays. The
image is displaced by twice the
perpendicular separation of the
mirrors.
The dihedral line is the line of intersection of two non-
parallel plane mirrors. In a plane perpendicular to the
dihedral line (a principal section), the projected ray path is
deviated by twice the angle between the mirrors (the dihedral
angle α). This deviation is independent of the input angle.
γ = 2α
α < 90°: The input and output
rays cross.
α > 90°: The input and output
rays diverge.
The projection of the ray paths into a plane containing the
dihedral line shows a simple reflection at the dihedral line.
When the dihedral angle is 90°, the
input and output rays are anti-parallel.
This roof mirror can replace any flat
mirror to insert an additional reflection
or parity change. An equivalent plane
mirror is formed at the dihedral line.
All rays through the roof mirror have
the same optical path.
The dihedral line is often in the plane of
the drawing, and the presence of a roof
mirror is indicated by a “V” at the
equivalent mirror or dihedral line.
Optical Systems 41
Image Rotation and Erection Prisms
Image Rotation Prisms – as the prism is rotated by θ about
the optical axis, the image rotates by twice that amount (2 θ).
Dove prism (1 R) – because of the tilted entrance and exit
faces of the prism, it must be used in collimated light.
Reversion or K prism (3 R) – the upper face must be coated.
Pechan prism (5 R) – a small air gap provides a TIR surface
inside the prism. This compact prism supports a wide FOV.
Image Erection Prisms – These prisms are inserted in an
optical system to provide a fixed 180° image rotation.
Porro system (4 R) – two Porro prisms.
This prism accounts for the displacement
between the objective lenses and the
eyepieces in binoculars.
Porro-Abbe system (4 R) – a variation
of the Porro system where the sequence
of reflections is changed.
Pechan-roof prism (6 R) – a roof is added to
a Pechan prism. This prism is used in compact
binoculars and provides a straight-through
line of sight.
42 Geometrical Optics
Plane Parallel Plates
A ray passing through a plane parallel plate is displaced
but not deviated; the input and output rays are parallel.
1 – sin2 θ-
D = t sin θ 1 – -------------------------
n2 – sin2 θ
D ≈ tθ n
-------------
–1
n
(in air)
An image formed through a plane parallel plate is longitudinally
displaced, but its magnification is unchanged.
d ≈ ------------
n – 1- t
n
d ≈ --t- for n = 1.5
3
t
τ = t – d = ---
n
The reduced thickness τ gives the air-equivalent thickness
of the glass plate. A reduced diagram shows the amount of air
path needed to fit the plate in the system, and no refraction is
shown at the faces of the plate. A reduced tunnel diagram
shortens the length of a tunnel
diagram by 1/n to show the air-
equivalent length of the prism.
Reduced diagrams can be placed
directly onto system layout drawings
to determine the required prism
aperture sizes for a given FOV. Note
that the OPL increases greatly when
a prism or glass plate is inserted.
44 Geometrical Optics
Zoom Lenses
A zoom lens is a variable focal length objective with a fixed
image plane. The simplest example consists of two lens
elements or groups (powers φ1 and φ2) where both the system
focal length f and BFD vary with element spacing t.
1 φ
φ = --- = φ1 + φ2 – φ1φ2t BFD = f + d′ = f – -----1 t
f φ
The pair of elements is moved relative to the fixed image
plane to maintain focus as the focal length is varied. The
element positions are shown for a reverse telephoto zoom.
This configuration is attractive due to its large BFD.
As the separation approaches the sum of the element focal
lengths ( f1 + f2 ), the system becomes afocal ( f → ∞ ). The zoom
range of the analogous telephoto zoom is limited by its BFD
as the rear element can run into the image plane when the
element separation approaches f1 .
A mechanical cam provides the complicated lens motions
required for these mechanically compensated zoom lenses.
Zoom lenses often use multiple groups of moving elements. A
common three group
configuration uses a
fixed front element
and moving second
and third groups.
