Chapter 1: Chemical Foundation

Scientific Method
 Making _________________________
o ______________________: does not involve a number
o ______________________: involves both a number & unit
 Formulating ____________________(possible explanations for why things behave the way they
do)
 Performing _____________________ (designed to test the hypothesis)
 Leads to new observations, and the cycle goes on
 After many cycles, a broad, general explanation is developed for why things behave the way they
do
 Develop/modify _________________
 Regular patterns of how things behave the same in different systems emerges
 Leads to the development of a law
 __________: are summaries of observations
 Example: many studies have shown that the total mass of materials before a chemical reaction is
the same as after the reaction has occurred. (Law of Conservation of Mass)

Theories vs. Laws

 A _________________ (or model) is an interpretation to explain why nature behaves a certain
way
o Can change as we get more info
 A ______________ is a statement that summarizes generally observed behavior; a theory is an
attempt to explain why it happens.

Observations
Theory
Hypothesis (Model)

Experiment Modify
Prediction

Law Experiment

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Units of Measurement
 Every measurement has two parts
o _____________________
o _____________________
 SI system (le Systeme International) based on the metric system
 Prefix + base unit
 Prefix tells you the power of 10 to multiply by - decimal system -easy conversions

SI Base Units (Table 1.1, p. 8)

Prefixes in the SI System (Table 1.2, p.9)

Prefix Symbol Meaning Notation
Mega M 1,000,000 106
Kilo K 1,000 102
--- --- 1 100
Deci D 0.1 10-1
Centi C 0.01 10-2
Milli M 0.001 10-3
Micro µ 0.000 001 10-6
Nano N 0.000 000 001 10-9
Pico P 0.000 000 000 001 10-12

Deriving the Liter

 Liter is defined as the volume of a cube
10 cm on each side or (10 cm)3 or (1 dm)3
 Volume slightly larger than a quart
 1 Liter = 1 dm3 = (10 cm)3 = 1000 cm3
 Recall, 1 cm3 = __________________
 1 Liter = _____________ = __________________

Mass and Weight

 ___________is measure of resistance to change in motion
 ___________is the force that gravity exerts on an object.
 Sometimes used interchangeably
 Mass can’t change, weight can

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 Reliability of Measurements
 _____________________: how close the measurement is to the actual value
 _____________________: how well the measurement can be repeated

Precise? Precise? Precise?

Accurate? Accurate? Accurate?

In Terms of Measurement
 Three students measure the length of a room to be 10.4 m, 10.6 m, and 10.5 m.
 Were they precise?________________________________________________
 Where they accurate? _____________________________________________

Uncertainty in Measurement
 Measurements always have a ___________________________________________
 _____________________________ are used to indicate the uncertainty in a measurement

Significant Figures (Sig Figs)

 When we measure something, we always measure to the ________________________________
 The ______________________ is an __________________________
 The more precise the measuring instrument, the better we can estimate

1 2 3 4 5

 All _________________digits count as sig figs

 What about zeros?
o Count zeros when they are measured (or estimated)
o Do not count zeros when they are ________________________
 Exact numbers (determined by counting or a definition) have an infinite number of sig figs (ex. 5
apples; 1 foot= 12 inches)

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When to count zeros?
 Zeros between other sig figs (ex. 1008 m)
 Zeros at the end of a number after a decimal point (ex. 9.20 m)

When not to count zeros?

 Zeros at the end of a number without a decimal point (ex. 34000 m)
 Leading zeros: If the number is less than one, zeros before the first nonzero digit do not count
(ex. 0.0051 m)

How many sig figs are in the following measurements?

 30.9 g
 0.00042 g
 12,000 g
 9.0260 g
 16 pencils

Sig Figs in Calculations

 Multiplication & Division: number of sig figs in answer is the same as the least precise
measurement
o Ex. 4.14 X 2.3 = 9.522 _________________
 Addition & Subtraction: answer has the same number of decimal places as the least precise
measurement
o Ex. 13.25 + 16 + 1.8 = 31.05  ___________

Rounding
 Use only the first number to the right of the last significant figure.
 Example:
o Round 4. 348 to 2 sig figs.

 This would be 4.3.

 When performing a series of calculations, carry extra digits throughout and round to the correct
number of sig figs only at the end.

Practice the following calculations:

 (7.22)(1.003)=

 19.51 – 3.029 =

 0.002421.3 =

 3200 + 144.2 =

 63.226 – 3.93 =

 0.0332 X 4.21 =

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Dimensional Analysis
 A way to convert from one set of units to another
 Also called ____________________________
 Use conversion factors to change the units
 Conversion factors = 1
 1 foot = 12 inches (equivalence statement)
 Write two conversion factors for the above equivalence statement:

 2 conversion factors
 Multipy by the one that will you the correct units in your answer.
 A piece of paper is 5.62 inches long. What is its length in centimeters? (1 in= 2.54 cm)

 The distance between two cities is 325 miles. What is its distance in kilometers?
(1 mi=1760 yd; 1 m = 1.094 yd)

 A car is traveling at 55 mi/h. What is its speed in m/s?

(1 mi = 1760 yd; 1 m = 1.094 yd; 1 hr = 3600 s)

Measuring Temperature

Celsius Scale
 Water boils at ____________
 Water freezes at __________
 Body temp is _____________
 Room temp is ____________

Kelvin Scale
 Lowest point is absolute zero (0 K)
 K = °C + 273
 °C = K – 273
 Kelvin should always be positive!

Fahrenheit Scale
 °F = 9/5(°C) + 32
 °C = (°F-32) (5/9)

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Density
 Mass of a substance per unit volume

 Units: ___________________
 Remember:
1 ml = 1 cm3
1 L = 1 dm3
 Ratio of mass to volume
 Intrinsic property- does not depend on the amount of substance
 Useful for identifying a compound

Classification of Matter:
 Chemistry: study of matter and changes in matter
 Matter: Anything that occupies ___________ and has _____________

States of Matter
 _____________: have fixed shapes (rigid) & volumes
 _____________: have definite volumes but no specific shape
o Takes shape of its container (fluid)
 _____________: have no fixed volume or shape
o Fluid & compressible
Condense
Freeze

Melt Evaporate

Solid Liquid Gas

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 Solid Liquid Gas

States of Matter

Definite Volume Definite Shape Temp. Increase Commpressible?

Solid Yes Yes Small Expansion No
Liquid Yes No Small Expansion No
Gas No No Large Expansion Yes

Pure Substance:
 Form of matter that has a constant composition and distinct properties.

Mixture:
 Combination of 2 or more pure substances in which the substances retain their distinct identities.

Types of Pure Substances:

Element:
 Only one type of atom
 Substance which cannot be separated or decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or
physical means. Na, K, Cl

Compound:
 Substance with constant composition.
 Composed of atoms of 2 or more elements chemically fixed in definite proportions.
NaCl or C6H12O6

Mixtures:
 Made up of two or more substances
 Have ____________________________
 _____________________ mixture is NOT the same throughout (visibly distinguishable parts)
o Can be separated into homogeneous mixtures and or pure substances
o Ex. Salad, gravel, sandwich
 _____________________ mixture has the same composition throughout (indistinguishable parts)
o Also called a _______________________
o Can be separated by physical means
o Ex. Air, brass, sugar-water
 Some ways to separate mixtures:
o Distillation, filtration, chromatography

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Classifying Matter
 __________________: change in form of substance, not its chemical composition
o Ex. Boiling, freezing, bending
 __________________: change in which a given substance becomes a new substance(s) with
different properties & different composition
o Ex. Burning, fermenting, rusting