CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Gasification is a process that converts carbonaceous materials, such as

coal, petroleum, biofuel, or biomass, into carbon monoxide and hydrogen by

reacting the raw material at high temperatures with a controlled amount of oxygen

and/or steam. The resulting gas mixture is called synthesis gas or syngas and is

itself a fuel. Gasification is a method for extracting energy from many different

types of organic materials. New technologies for gas production have been

developed in the 21stcentury in most parts of the world yet our country has still

more to cope with.

The advantage of gasification is that using the syngas is potentially more

efficient than direct combustion of the original fuel because it can be combusted at

higher temperatures or even in fuel cells, so that the thermodynamic upper limit to

the efficiency defined by Carnot’s rule is higher or not applicable. Syngas may be

burned directly in internal combustion engines, used to produce methanol and

hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer-Tropsch process into synthetic fuel.

Gasification can also begin with materials that are not otherwise useful

fuels, such as biomass or organic waste. With a rapidly growing population and

lack of disposal sites, solid waste has become a major problem for most medium

to large-scale cities. The overall goal of solid waste management is to collect, treat

1
and dispose of solid wastes generated by all urban population groups in an

environmentally and socially satisfactory manner using the most economical

means available.

Currently, plastic bottles is one of the greatest contributor to these solid

wastes and they have been with us for more than a century, and by now they’re

everywhere, and instead of disposing these wastes improperly, an alternative way,

which is the syhthetic gas conversion will be a great consideration as a necessity

for the industry.

The use of alternative fuels instead of conventional fossil fuels is becoming

increasingly significant due to decreasing petroleum reserves and increasing

greenhouse gases, all of which lead to global warming, ozone depletion and

political and health concerns. And for economic purposes, plant oils have been

used as alternative fuels for many years.

Background of the Study

Nowadays, technological advancement and changes has brought

new opportunities to every human kind. This modern time attributes has improved

man’s way of living. With a rapidly growing population and lack of disposal sites,

solid waste has become a major problem for most medium to large-scale cities.

The overall goal of solid waste management is to collect, treat and dispose of solid

wastes generated by all urban population groups in an environmentally and

socially satisfactory manner using the most economical means available.

2
Objectives of the Study

The main thrust of this study is to develop a plasma gasification

machine for the production of synthetic gas from solid wastes.

Specifically, this study aims to:

1. Design a gasification machine for the production of synthetic gas

from solid wastes taking into consideration the following parameters:

1.1 System components

1.2 Material specifications

2. Fabricate a gasification machine for the production of synthetic

gas from solid wastes.

3. Conduct a preliminary testing on the fabricated apparatus to

establish the following conditions:

3.1 Operating temperature

3.2 Operating time

4. Test the performance of the gasification machine for the

production of synthetic gas from solid wastws in terms of:

4.1 Production rate; and

4.2 Percent synthetic gas yield;

5. Test the quality of fuel gas obtained in terms of:

5.1 Kinematic viscosity;

5.2 Density;

5.3 Flash point ;

3
 6. Develop an operation manual for the gasification machine for the

production of synthetic gas.

Significance of the Study

This study will benefit the Department of Science and Technology for it

would provide giant leap in the advancement of existing fuel conversion machines

to produce cheap fuels and of the same time to lessen the wood chips wastes in

the country.

To the Department of Environmental and Natural Resources (DENR), the

development of machine that converts wood chips into bio-oil may be the solution

to some problem the country is now experiencing regarding environmental factors.

To the researchers, this study may provide significant knowledge as it is

one of the means of their exposure and experience to apply the theories and

principles in science and engineering they have learned.

Lastly, to the students and other future researchers who will conduct similar

studies along this concern, this may serve as guide to enrich their own body of

research literature.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

This study will focus on the design and development of a gasification

machine for the production of synthetic gas from solid waste like plastic.

Specifically, this study covered the design of the gasification machine. This

4
included the system components and material specifications. Furthermore, this

identified the necessary dimensions.

More so, this study covered the fabrication of the gasifier based on the

design requirements. For the fabrication, the right materials and dimensions shall

be considered. Preliminary testing will have three trials at each temperature

conditions and will be conducted in terms of operating temperature and operating

time. Final testing will be conducted in terms of production rate and percent yield.

An operation manual shall be developed to guide the users in operating the

machine.

Also, the design of the machine will involve temperature controller,

thermocouples and solid state relay to control and maintain the desired

temperature. Finally, the wood chips used in the process were shredded for about

2mm to minimize the space occupied by the raw materials in the pyrolysis

chamber. It was also dried and cleaned.

Conceptual Framework

This study aims to design and develop a prototype of gasification machine

for the production of synthetic gas from solid wastes. The conceptual framework

of this study is described using a CDIO (Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate).

The CDIO gives the general structure and guide for the direction of the study. In

order to reach the objectives of the study, a research paradigm is developed and

presented in Figure 1.

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 According to the figure, the properties and other processes of the production

of synthetic gas, including the existing gasifying machine are considered in the

conceive stage. In this stage, visualization and conceptualization of engineering

problem and its probable solutions is done according to the end-user’s needs.

The design stage focused on creating plans that describes the product,

process or even the system itself. During designing, the material specification,

dimensions and system components are considered for the machine’s

components. The proposed design is simulated through the use of SolidWorks.

In implementation process, the fabrication stage was considered and its

development used the correct fabrication procedures and the necessary and

appropriate materials. This stage was divided into two testing stages: preliminary

testing and final testing. In determining the operating temperature, pyrolysis time

and capacity of the machine, preliminary testing was established. Three trials with

different operating temperature was made in the preliminary testing in obtaining

the highest production rate of the machine. In the final testing, the overall

performance of the prototype gasification machine will be determined by the

production rate and percent synthetic gas yield.

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 CONCEIVE DESIGN IMPLEMENT OPERATE

Knowledge Software Fabrication

Requirements Requirements Preliminary Testing

 Operating Gasification Machine
 Properties of  System
Temperature
for the Production of
Synthetic Gas Components  Operating Time
 Kinematic Synthetic Gas from
 Gasification  Dimensions and
Viscosity Solid Waste
Processes of Materials
 Density
Synthetic Gas Specification  Flash Point
Synthetic Gas
 Existing  SolidWorks
Data Gathering
Processes of software
Final Testing Operation Manual
Synthetic Gas Hardware
 Production rate
Production Requirements
 Percent Synthetic
 Existing Gasifying  Machine Shop
Gas Yield
Machine Tools

Figure 1. Research Paradigm of the Study

7
Definition of Terms

The following important terms used in this study were defined conceptually

and operationally for better understanding:

Syngas. A fuel gas mixture produced by the machine consisting primarily

of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and very often some carbon dioxide.

Plasma. A plasma is a hot ionized gas consisting of approximately equal

numbers of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons served as

source of heat for combustion purpose.

Gasification. Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil fuel

based carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon

dioxide

Quenching. Quenching refers to any process which serve as condensing

material and decreases the fluorescence intensity of a given substance.

Combustion. Any process in which a substance combines with oxygen to

produce heat and light.

Heat Rate. It is considered for the solid waste consumption in the gasifier.

Kinematic Viscosity. It is a property that will determine the synthetic gas

characteristics.

Operating Temperature. It is the temperature that was used in this study.

As established in the preliminary testing, greater than 700 0C was the obtained

operating temperature.

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 Percent fuel oil yield. It is the percent of weight of synthetic gas converted

over the weight of the plastic bottle multiplied by the % theoretical value of plastic

bottle that will be converted.

Production rate. It is the volume of synthetic gas converted over the total

time of its conversion. It was computed in the preliminary testing and became the

basis of choosing from which temperature fuel is best extracted.

Plastic bottle. A bottle constructed from plastic. Plastic bottles are

typically used to store liquids such as water, soft drinks, motor oil, cooking

oil, medicine, shampoo, milk, and ink.

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 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents the discussion on the related literatures that

were used as basis for the development of the study. The chapter includes the

conceptual literature, research literature and the synthesis.

Conceptual Literature

I. Solid Waste

Figure 2-1. Solid Wastes

Municipal solid waste can be used to generate energy. Several technologies

have been developed that make the processing of MSW for energy generation

cleaner and more economical than ever before, including landfill gas capture,

combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and plasma arc gasification. While older waste

incineration plants emitted high levels of pollutants, recent regulatory changes and

new technologies have significantly reduced this concern. United States

10
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations in 1995 and 2000 under

the Clean Air Act have succeeded in reducing emissions of dioxins from waste-to-

energy facilities by more than 99 percent below 1990 levels, while mercury

emissions have been reduced by over 90 percent.

Uncontaminated solid waste resulting from the construction, remodeling,

repair and demolition of utilities, structures and roads; and uncontaminated solid

waste resulting from land clearing. Such waste includes, but is not limited to bricks,

concrete and other masonry materials, soil, rock, wood (including painted, treated

and coated wood and wood products), land clearing debris, wall coverings, plaster,

drywall, plumbing fixtures, non-asbestos insulation, roofing shingles and other roof

coverings, asphaltic pavement, glass, plastics that are not sealed in a manner that

conceals other wastes, empty buckets ten gallons or less in size and having no

more than one inch of residue remaining on the bottom, electrical wiring and

components containing no hazardous liquids, and pipe and metals that are

incidental to any of the above. Solid waste that is not C&D debris (even if resulting

from the construction, remodeling, repair and demolition of utilities, structures and

roads and land clearing) includes, but is not limited to asbestos waste, garbage,

corrugated container board, electrical fixtures containing hazardous liquids such

as fluorescent light ballasts or transformers, fluorescent lights, carpeting, furniture,

appliances, tires, drums, containers greater than ten gallons in size, any containers

having more than one inch of residue remaining on the bottom and fuel tanks.

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 Table 2-1

Typical solid waste generation sources, activities, and location

associated with various source classification

Source Activities & location Types of solid wastes

Single-family and multi-

family dwellings, low, Food waste, rubbish,
Residential
medium and high rise ashes, special wastes
apartments

Food waste, rubbish,

Stores, restaurants,
ashes, demolition and
markets, office buildings,
Commercial construction wastes,
hotels, print shops, auto
occasionally hazardous
repair shops, medical
wastes

Municipal As above As above

Construction, fabrication,
Food waste, rubbish,
light and heavy
ashes, demolition and
manufacturing, refineries,
Industrial construction wastes,
chemical plants,
special wastes, hazardous
lumbering, mining, power
wastes
plants, demolition, etc.

Streets, alleys, parks,

vacant lots, playgrounds,
Open areas Special wastes, rubbish
beaches, highways,
recreational areas, etc.

Water, waste water and Treatment plant wastes

Treatment
industrial treatment principally composed of
plant sites
processes, etc. residual sludge

Field and row crops, Spoiled food wastes,

orchards, vineyards, agricultural wastes,
Agriculture
dairies, feedlots, farms, rubbish, hazardous
etc. wastes

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II. Plastic Bottle

Figure 2-2. Plastic Bottles

A plastic bottle is a bottle constructed from plastic. Plastic bottles are

typically used to store liquids such as water, soft drinks, motor oil, cooking

oil, medicine, shampoo, milk, and ink. The size ranges from very small sample

bottles to large carboys.

Plastic bottles were first used commercially in 1875 but remained relatively

expensive until the early 1960s when high-density polyethylene was

introduced. They quickly became popular with both manufacturers and customers

due to their lightweight nature and relatively low production and transportation

costs compared with glass bottles. However, the biggest advantage plastic bottles

have over glass is their superior resistance to breakage, in both production and

transportation. Except for wine and beer, the food industry has almost completely

replaced glass bottles with plastic bottles.

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A. Types of Plastic Bottles

Plastic bottles are formed using a variety of techniques. The choice

of material varies depending upon application.

a. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) is the most widely used resin

for plastic bottles. This material is economical, impact resistant,

and provides a good moisture barrier. HDPE is compatible with a

wide range of products including acids and caustics but is not

compatible with solvents. It is supplied in FDA-approved food

grade. HDPE is naturally translucent and flexible. The addition of

color will make HDPE opaque, but not glossy. HDPE lends itself

to silk screen decoration. While HDPE provides good protection

at below freezing temperatures, it cannot be used with products

filled above 160 °F (71 °C) or products requiring a hermetic

(vacuum) seal.

b. Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) is similar to HDPE in

composition. It is less rigid and generally less chemically resistant

than HDPE, but is more translucent. LDPE is used primarily for

squeeze applications. LDPE is significantly more expensive than

HDPE.

c. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET, PETE or polyester) is

commonly used for carbonated beverage, water bottles and

many food products. PET provides very good alcohol and

14
 essential oil barrier properties, generally good chemical

resistance (although acetones and ketones will attack PET) and

a high degree of impact resistance and tensile strength. The

orienting process serves to improve gas and moisture barrier

properties and impact strength. This material does not provide

resistance to very high temperature applications—max. temp.

200 °F (93 °C).

d. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is naturally clear, has extremely good

resistance to oils, and has very low oxygen transmission. It

provides an excellent barrier to most gases and its drop impact

resistance is also very good. This material is chemically resistant,

but it is vulnerable to some solvents. PVC has poor resistance to

high temperatures and will distort at 160 °F (71 °C), making it

incompatible with hot-filled products. It has attained notoriety in

recent years due to potential health risks.

e. Polycarbonate (PC) is a clear plastic used to make water and milk

bottles. 5 gallon water bottles are the most common examples of

PC bottles.

f. Polypropylene (PP) is used primarily for jars and closures and

provides a rigid package with excellent moisture barrier. One

major advantage of polypropylene is its stability at high

temperatures, up to 220 °F (104 °C). Polypropylene is

autoclavable and offers the potential for steam sterilization. The

15
 compatibility of PP with high filling temperatures is responsible for

its use with hot fill products. PP has excellent chemical

resistance, but provides poor impact resistance in cold

temperatures.

g. Polystyrene (PS) offers excellent clarity and stiffness at an

economical cost. It is commonly used with dry products including

vitamins, petroleum jellies, and spices. Styrene does not provide

good barrier properties, and exhibits poor impact resistance.

h. Fluorine Treated (HDPE) bottles are exposed to fluorine gas in a

secondary operation, are similar in appearance to HDPE and

have exceptional barrier properties to hydrocarbons and aromatic

solvents. Fluorine treated bottles are excellent for use with

insecticides, pesticides, herbicides, photographic chemicals,

agricultural chemicals, household and industrial cleaners,

electronic chemicals, medical cleaners and solvents, citrus

products, d-limonene, flavors, fragrances, essential oils,

surfactants, polishes, additives, graffiti cleaning products, pre-

emergents, stone and tile care products, waxes, paint thinner,

gasoline, biodiesel, xylene, acetone, kerosene and more.

i. Post-Consumer Resin (PCR) is a blend of reclaimed natural

HDPE (primarily from milk and water containers) and virgin resin.

The recycled material is cleaned, ground and compounded into

uniform pellets along with prime virgin material especially

16
 designed to build up environmental stress crack resistance. PCR

has no odor but exhibits a slight yellow tint in its natural state.

This tint can be hidden by the addition of color. PCR is easily

processed and inexpensive. However, it cannot come into direct

contact with food or pharmaceutical products. PCR can be

produced in a variety of recycled content percentages up to

100%.

j. K-Resin (SBC) is ideally suited to a wide variety of packaging

applications by virtue of its sparkling clarity, high gloss, and

impact resistance. K-Resin, a styrene derivative, is easily

processed on polyethylene equipment. It is suitable for packaging

many products but is specifically incompatible with fats and

unsaturated oils or solvents and a high degree of impact

resistance and tensile strength. The orienting process serves to

improve gas and moisture barrier properties and impact strength.

This material is frequently used for display and point-of-purchase

packaging.

k. Bioplastic - polymer structures based on processed biological

materials rather than petrochemicals. Bioplastics are commonly

made from renewable sources like starch, vegetable oil, and less

commonly, chicken feathers. The idea behind bioplastic is to

create a plastic that has the ability to biodegrade.

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III. Gasification

Figure 2-3. Different Types of Gasifier

Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil

fuel based carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon

dioxide. This is achieved by reacting the material at high temperatures (>700 °C),

without combustion, with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam. The

resulting gas mixture is called syngas (from synthesis gas or synthetic gas)

or producer gas and is itself a fuel. The power derived from gasification and

combustion of the resultant gas is considered to be a source of renewable energy if

the gasified compounds were obtained from biomass.

The advantage of gasification is that using the syngas is potentially more

efficient than direct combustion of the original fuel because it can be combusted at

higher temperatures or even in fuel cells, so that the thermodynamic upper limit to

the efficiency defined by Carnot's rule is higher or (in case of fuel cells) not
18
applicable. Syngas may be burned directly in gas engines, used to

produce methanol and hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer–Tropsch

process into synthetic fuel. Gasification can also begin with material which would

otherwise have been disposed of such as biodegradable waste. In addition, the

high-temperature process refines out corrosive ash elements such

as chloride and potassium, allowing clean gas production from otherwise

problematic fuels. Gasification of fossil fuels is currently widely used on industrial

scales to generate electricity.

A. Types of Gasification Process

a. Entrained bed gasification is a bed type gasification process, feed and

oxygen enter in co-current flow. The feed is grounded to a size of 100

µm or less to promote mass transfer and allow transport of solids using

gas flow. The key characteristics of entrained flow gasification is very

high and uniform temperatures (usually more than1000°C) and the very

short residence time of the fuel within the gasifier. Because of the high

temperatures, very high conversions are possible. The high temperature

operation requires high oxygen demand for these types of processes. In

entrained flow gasification, ash is withdrawn in the molten form. Solids

fed into the gasifier must be very finely ground and homogeneous, which

in turn means that entrained flow gasifiers are not suitable for feed

stocks such as biomass or wastes, which cannot be readily pulverized.

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 b. Fluidized bed gasification offers good mixing of coal and air/oxygen and

steam mixture, which promotes both heat and mass transfer. This

ensures an even distribution of material in the bed and hence, a certain

amount of partially reacted fuel is inevitably removed with the ash. This

places limitation on overall carbon conversion in fluidized bed

processes. Fluidized bed gasifiers generally operate below the ash

softening temperature, because ash slagging can disturb the fluidization

of the bed. Size of the particles is critical; material that is too fine will

tend to entrained in the syngas and leaves the bed overhead. This is

partially captured in cyclones and returned to bed. This type of gasifier

is suitable for reactive feed stocks such as low rank coals and biomass.

c. Moving bed gasification which enters at top and moves downward

through gravity is gasified by the upcoming countercurrent air/oxygen

and steam mixture. In this gasifier, the hot synthesis gas from

gasification zone is used to preheat and pyrolyze the downward flowing

coal. With this process the oxygen consumption is very low, but pyrolysis

products are present in the product syngas. This gasifier operates on

lump coal and outlet temperature of syngas is generally low.

IV. Fuel Gas

Fuel gas is a lighter type of gas, or a liquid byproduct of crude oil, which is

used for energy, especially in regard to heating. When petroleum is refined, there

are two main categories under which it is classified. One is distillate oils, which
20
includes diesel, and the other is residual oils, which includes things like kerosene.

Different types of fuel oil are classified under both categories. Distillate fuel oil is

the type generally used for home heating. The costs of refining must also be figured

in to the price of fuel oil, as must the costs of transporting and distributing it.

(Holetzky, S., 2014.)

A. Types of Fuel Gas

Fuel oils for heating are broadly classified as distillate fuel oils (lighter

oils) or residual fuel oils (heavier oils). ASTM Standard D 396 has

specifications for fuel oil properties that subdivide the oils into various

grades. Grades No. 1 and 2 are distillate fuel oils. Grades 4, 5 (Light), 5

(Heavy), and 6 are residual fuel oils. Specifications for the grades are based

on required characteristics of fuel oils for use in different types of burners.

a. Grade No. 1 is a light distillate intended for vaporizing-type burners.

High volatility is essential to continued evaporation of the fuel oil with

minimum residue. Grade No. 2 is a heavier distillate than No. 1. This

grade is used in most domestic burners and many medium-capacity

commercial-industrial burners.

b. A dewaxed No. 2 oil with a pour point of 58°F is supplied only to

areas where regular No. 2 oil would jell.

c. Grade No. 4 is an intermediate fuel that is considered either a heavy

distillate or a light residual. Intended for burners that atomize oils of

21
 higher viscosity than domestic burners can handle, its permissible

viscosity range allows it to be pumped and atomized at relatively low

storage temperatures.

d. Grade No. 5 (Light) is a residual fuel of intermediate viscosity for

burners that handle fuel more viscous than No. 4 without pre-heating.

Preheating may be necessary in some equipment for burning and, in

colder climates, for handling. Grade No. 5 (Heavy) is a residual fuel

more viscous than No. 5 (Light), but intended for similar purposes.

e. Grade No. 6, sometimes referred to as Bunker C, is a high-viscosity

oil used mostly in industrial heating.

Fuel gas grade selection for a particular application is usually based

on availability and economic factors, including fuel cost, clean air

requirements, preheating and handling costs, and equipment cost.

Installations with low firing rates and low annual fuel consumption cannot

justify the cost of preheating and other methods that use residual fuel oils.

(ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals, 2001.)

B. Characteristics of Fuel Gas

a. Viscosity is oil’s resistance to flow. It is significant because it

indicates the ease at which oil flows or can be pumped and the ease

of atomization.

22
b. Flash point is the lowest temperature to which oil must be heated for

its vapors to ignite in a flame.

c. Pour point is the lowest temperature at which a fuel can be stored

and handled. Fuels with higher pour points can be used when heated

storage and piping facilities are provided.

d. Water and sediment content should be low to prevent fouling the

facilities. Sediment accumulates on filter screens and burner parts.

Water in distillate fuels can cause tanks to corrode and emulsions to

form in residual oil.

e. Carbon residue is obtained by a test in which the oil sample is

destructively distilled in the absence of air.

f. Ash is the noncombustible material in an oil. An excessive amount

indicates the presence of materials that cause high wear on burner

pumps.

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a fuel oil to the density

of water at a specific temperature and a high degree of impact

resistance and tensile strength. The orienting process serves to

improve gas and moisture barrier properties and impact strength.

Specific gravities cover a range in each grade, with some overlap

between distillate and residual grades. (ASHRAE Handbook

Fundamentals, 2001.)

23
 C. Uses of Fuel Oil

Fuel oils are less volatile than gasoline, and therefore, have a

variety of domestic and industrial purposes. Kerosene fuel was, at one

time, used in lamps and lanterns as the main source of lighting and

cooking. It is still used today as a cooking fuel in some less developed

countries and during camping and mountaineering. The most important

use of fuel oils is for home heating where it is used in furnaces and

boilers to provide heat to buildings. Home heating oil, also referred to

as boiler juice, has very good burning characteristics and is

recommended for domestic heating appliances. Fuel oils are also used

in electric power and in industrial steam generation. Because of its low

flame temperature, kerosene is used in the entertainment industry for

fire performances such as fire breathing. Kerosene is also used in

insecticide sprays, as a solvent for grease or adhesive, as a lubricant

and as a component in other products.

V. Synthetic Gas

Syngas is an abbreviation for synthesis gas, which is a mixture comprising

of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen. The syngas is produced by

gasification of a carbon containing fuel to a gaseous product that has some heating

value. Some of the examples of syngas production include gasification of coal

emissions, waste emissions to energy gasification, and steam reforming of coke.

24
 The name syngas is derived from the use as an intermediate in generating

synthetic natural gas and to create ammonia or methanol. It is a gas that can be

used to synthesize other chemicals, hence the name synthesis gas, which was

shortened to syngas. Syngas is also an intermediate in creating synthetic

petroleum to use as a lubricant or fuel.

Syngas has 50% of the energy density of natural gas. It cannot be burnt

directly, but is used as a fuel source. The other use is as an intermediate to

produce other chemicals. The production of syngas for use as a raw material in

fuel production is accomplished by the gasification of coal or municipal waste. In

these reactions, carbon combines with water or oxygen to give rise to carbon

dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen. Syngas is used as an intermediate in

the industrial synthesis of ammonia and fertilizer. During this process, methane

(from natural gas) combines with water to generate carbon monoxide and

hydrogen.

The syngas may contain some trace elements of impurities, which are

removed through further processing and either recovered or redirected to the

gasifier. For example, sulfur is recovered in the elemental form or as sulfuric acid

and both of these can be marketed. Syngas is a primary source of sulfuric acid. If

syngas contains a considerable quantity of nitrogen, the nitrogen must be

separated to avoid production of nitric oxides, which are pollutants and contribute

to acid rain production. Both carbon monoxide and nitrogen have similar boiling

25
points so recovering pure carbon monoxide requires cryogenic processing, which

is very difficult.

If the syngas is to be put to use to generate electricity, then it is generally

used as a fuel in an IGCC (integrated gasification combine cycle) power generation

configuration. The energy is then utilized by the factor that original produce the

syngas, thereby lowering operating costs. There are commercially available

technologies to process syngas to generate industrial gases, fertilizers, chemicals,

fuels and other products.

Research Literature

This section discussed the previous studies and developments already

made by researchers to improve the process of burning and gasifying of the solid

waste and to provide more efficient and economical synthetic gas producing

machines.

Only some of the findings and conclusions of the previous studies will be

selected, adopted and considered. These helped the researchers in designing a

solid waste plasma gasification machine.

I. Foreign Setting

Gasification is one of a number of possible paths for converting wastes to

higher value products. Moreover, this process shows potentials on the

minimization of fossil fuel consumption. Presented here are some established

literatures about solid waste plasma gasification that would add to the development

of the said technology.

26
 In this study, the main purpose is to update the available information on

gasification “tar.” “Tar” is the most cumbersome and problematic parameter in any

gasification commercialization effort. For this reason the IEA Gasification Activity

has commissioned this work, which aims to present to the community the scientific

and practical aspects of (a) “tar” formation and (b) “tar” conversion or removal

during gasification as a function of the various technological and technical

parameters and variables. Historically “tar” was an operationally defined

parameter, based largely on organics from gasification that condensed under

operating conditions of boilers, transfer lines, and internal combustion engine (ICE)

inlet devices. Such a definition requires a more detailed chemical explanation in

light of the greatly expanded uses proposed for both high- and low-energy gas

from a variety of biomass and waste materials. At present the literature contains

many data on the “destruction,” “conversion,” “removal,” etc., of “tars,”

“condensibles,” “heavy hydrocarbons,” etc., without a consistent definition of these

terms and a description of the sampling and analytical methods used for the

organics of interest. Though the data presented are useful in the context of the

system being studied, they are limited in their transfer to other systems because

they are “apparatus dependent.” It is not within the mandate of this work to propose

a widely accepted definition of “tar,” but rather to report the varied use of the term.

Hopefully this report will complement a recent effort of the IEA Gasification Task

[BTG/UTWENTE 1998] to reach a consensus among its members regarding such

an acceptable definition, as the first step in the adoption of a “tar” sampling protocol

for the product from a variety of gasifiers, both high- and low-energy (producer)

27
gas. Thus, within these limitations, this work suggests that “tar” is defined as

follows: “The organics, produced under thermal or partial-oxidation regimes

(gasification) of any organic material, are called “tars” and are generally assumed

to be largely aromatic.” Although this definition does not allow for distinction

between classes and families of compounds, to be presented comprehensively in

Chapter II of this report, it is a useful starting definition for gasification “tar.”

II. Local Setting

In the news about First bamboo biomass power plant piloted in Romblon

by Manila Bulletin News. A biomass-run power plant that uses bamboo wood

chips as feedstock for gasification is now being piloted for the first time in

Romblon as a United States-based company is pouring in $5 million for the

highly cost-efficient renewable energy project.

A memorandum of agreement (M0A) was earlier entered by US-based

Clenergen Philippines, the Romblon State University (RSU), committed to supply

the high-yielding bamboo, and the National Power Corp. which will purchase

electricity for off-grid areas.

A modular type of power plant that can be ideally put up in any bamboo-

growing island in the Philippines, the biomass-run power generation technology

will also prompt the development of some three million hectares of coconut

plantation all over the country. Bamboo can ideally be inter-cropped with coconut.

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 “This Beema bamboo (an Indian variety) can yield 100 tons per hectare after

the third year from which we will produce wood chips as feed for a gasifier that will

run engines for the power plant,” said Clenergen Philippines President Antonio

Aguilar-Gimenez in an interview.

Clenergen is eyeing to become a major fuel supplier in South East Asia

through the Philippines’ bamboo wood chip supply from coconut-bamboo inter-

cropped farms.

“Energy crops offer coconut farmers a means of earning a value-added

income from unused land. As the global demand for wood pellets escalates due to

coal power plants being required co-fire with pellets in order to lower emissions,

the Philippines is ideally positioned both geographically, climatically and

structurally, to penetrate this marketplace,” according to a Clenergen statement.

RSU President Jeter S. Sespene said RSU has conducted a feasibility study

on the Beema bamboo for the biomass power plant technology. This bamboo

variety has been developed through extensive breeding and microbiology

applications. Its density is almost five times that of the ordinary Philippine bamboo,

and cost is thus substantially cheaper, cutting feedstock cost by at least 50

percent.

The variety is also easy to grow in the Philippines and can be planted in

marginal sites as bamboo is also indigenous to the Philippines.

Bamboo wood chips are suitable for use as feedstock for a biomass power plant

since bamboos have high calorific value. These bamboo wood chips have also
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undergone extensive testing for gassification, combustion steam, pelletization, and

pyrolysis process.

“It has passed ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) standard

for pyrolysis oil used as fuel for mechanical equipment, for elevators, and in the

future, as fuel for any engine,” according to Clenergen Corp. Chief Executive

Officer Mark Quinn in a separate interview.

Clenergen is also eyeing the construction of bigger capacity, 40 MW,

biomass combustion-to-steam power plant in the Philippines.

Synthesis

The literature cited in this study equipped the researchers with the needed

information in developing solid waste plasma gasification machine for synthetic

gas production. In the related literature, different machines that have a similar

concept on the solid waste plasma gasification machine were enumerated as a

basis of the design of the machine.

From the information and facts gathered, it was observed that wood chips

are the one possible in the production of fuel oil. On the other hand, the types,

characteristics, and uses of fuel oil are also discussed.The research literature

discussed the previous foreign and local studies related to the study to be

conducted by the researchers. It consists of the results of the said study and it will

be used as the basis for this study.

In the foreign setting, the study “Tar” is the most cumbersome and

problematic parameter in any gasification commercialization effort. For this reason

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the IEA Gasification Activity has commissioned this work, which aims to present to

the community the scientific and practical aspects of (a) “tar” formation and (b) “tar”

conversion or removal during gasification as a function of the various technological

and technical parameters and variables was also discussed.

In the local setting, the Design and Development of Vacuum Pyrolyzer for

the Production and Analysis of Pyrolysis Oil from Plastic Wastes of Alforque, M.B.,

et.al, (2013) was discussed. The raw materials of the said study were polyethylene,

polypropylene and polystyrene, the end product was fuel oil, and the materials

used and the processes involved were different. In this study, the raw materials

that was used were strictly high density polyethylene. Unlike the previous study

which used 300oC and 500oC as their operating temperatures, the researchers

operated at different temperature condition which varies from 200 oC up to 280oC.

In the past study, aside from the pyrolysis chamber itself, they used a detachable

plastic vessel. They also have their separate condensing unit. As compared to the

present study, it is composed only of pyrolysis chamber which uses heating coil as

the heating element, rockwool insulation as the insulating element, condenser

which is just placed in the water tank for the condensation of gases. Both the past

and the present studies have wax trap and separation vessels. The results

obtained were both fuel oil but have different distinctions because of the different

raw materials used. Tar is the most cumbersome and problematic parameter in

any gasification commercialization effort. For this reason the IEA Gasification

Activity has commissioned this work, which aims to present to the community the

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scientific and practical aspects of removal during gasification as a function of the

various technological and technical parameters and variables.

The prior information and data used and presented on previous studies

about the gasifying process of plastic solid waste helped the researchers

conceptualize the design of the solid waste plasma gasification machine.

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 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

This chapter presents the discussion of the methods and procedures

employed by the researchers to design and develop solid waste plasma

gasification machine for synthetic gas production. This study consisted of design

and development stage, preliminary testing and modification stage and the final

gathering of data.

Research Design

This study made use of engineering design, planning and analysis. The

entirety of the design and development of solid waste plasma gasification machine

for synthetic gas production was divided into four stages: the design stage, the

fabrication stage and preliminary testing.

Development Stage

In this stage, some aspects for the study in the design research,

developments and series of stages to achieve the objectives of the study were

considered. This stage included the preparation of the schematic diagram and the

determination of the proper dimensions for the proposed design and its

components. It included the materials to be used in the synthetic gas production.

The proper operation, function of the system and the materials to be used were

considered.

Design Stage

In this stage, the researchers reviewed the concepts and other related

theses to came up with the idea for the initial framework of the prototype together

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with the preliminary drawing depicting the major parts of the machine. These major

parts of the machine were designed based from the studied concepts, theses and

other related materials. All other components needed in the machine followed the

proportions of the initial proposed design with its specifications and dimensions.

The concept of technicality and the operation of the machine was also be studied

in this stage.

Fabrication Stage

The fabrication of the machine started in this stage. The suitable materials

for the components of the machine considering the available resources, cost and

type of material to be processed was evaluated. All these materials were selected

based on the computed dimensions and capacity.

Construction followed immediately in the machine shop. After the

fabrication of the prototype, the testing stage followed.

Preliminary Testing Stage and Modification

Preliminary testing will be done for establishing the final design of the

prototype plasma gasifier. This includes evaluation for the operating temperature,

gasification time, volume of synthetic gas produced, and the capacity of the

machine. For the operating temperature, five varying temperatures, which ranges

from 700oC up to 1100oC, shall be tested to determine which temperature has the

best production rate. The time and the volume produced in each temperature

condition was recorded and averaged during the three trials. The highest

computed production rate from the average volume and time of these five

temperature conditions is chosen and will undergo the final testing. The capacity

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that yield more synthetic gas and has the highest production rate undergo the final

testing with the chosen operating temperature. Possible modification is done in

order to rectify the errors.

Final Performance Testing Stage

After preliminary testing and successful modifications, performance testing

of the machine was done to qualify the modified machine in terms of production

rate and product quality. Three trials were made to get the machine’s average

performance.

Methods of Testing

A. Method of Determining the Production Rate

The production rate will determined by the ratio of volume of

synthetic gas converted to the total time of its conversion.

volume of synthetic gas produced (mL)

Production Rate =
time of production (s)

B. Method of Determining the Percent Synthetic Gas Yield

The synthetic gas yield shall be computed and measured using the

equation:

weight of syngas produced (g)

Percent fuel oil yield = x 100%
weight of polyethylene wastes (g) 𝑥 70%

In terms of fuel yield percentage, high density polyethylene plastics

yields about 60 percent of mass of the polyethylene plastic. (Ricardo, 2013)

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Plasma Gasifier Air Rectifier Quench System Storage

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 Bibliography
World Wide Web
The Plastic Bottles Company (2016) ‘Properties of HDPE, LDPE and PET
Bottles’

https://www.theplasticbottlescompany.com/properties-hdpe-ldpe-pet-bottles/

[accessed 20 November 2016]

US Plastic (2015) ‘What are the qualities of common plastic bottle materials?’

http://www.usplastic.com/knowledgebase/article.aspx?contentkey=1001

DEC (2015) ‘What is Solid Waste?’

http://www.dec.ny.gov/chemical/8732.html

Biofuel (2010) ‘What is Syngas?’

http://biofuel.org.uk/what-is-syngas.html

Enngcyclopedia (2016) ‘Gasification Process Types’

http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/2011/12/gasification-process-types/

NREL (1998) ‘Biomass Gasifier “Tars”: Their Nature, Formation, and Conversion’

http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy99osti/25357.pdf

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