KAIST
Floating Point
CS230 System Programming
4th Lecture
Instructors:
Jaehyuk Huh
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition
KAIST
Today: Floating Point
Background: Fractional binary numbers
IEEE floating point standard: Definition
Example and properties
Rounding, addition, multiplication
Floating point in C
Summary
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 2
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Fractional binary numbers
What is 1011.1012?
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 3
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Fractional Binary Numbers
2i
2i-1
4
••• 2
1
bi bi-1 ••• b2 b1 b0 b-1 b-2 b-3 ••• b-j
1/2
1/4 •••
1/8
Representation 2-j
Bits to right of “binary point” represent fractional powers of 2
Represents rational number:
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 4
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Fractional Binary Numbers: Examples
Value Representation
5 3/4 101.112
2 7/8 010.1112
1 7/16 001.01112
Observations
Divide by 2 by shifting right (unsigned)
Multiply by 2 by shifting left
Numbers of form 0.111111…2 are just below 1.0
1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + … + 1/2i + … ➙ 1.0
Use notation 1.0 – ε
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 5
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Representable Numbers
Limitation #1
Can only exactly represent numbers of the form x/2k
Other rational numbers have repeating bit representations
Value Representation
1/3 0.0101010101[01]…2
1/5 0.001100110011[0011]…2
1/10 0.0001100110011[0011]…2
Limitation #2
Just one setting of binary point within the w bits
Limited range of numbers (very small values? very large?)
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 6
KAIST
Today: Floating Point
Background: Fractional binary numbers
IEEE floating point standard: Definition
Example and properties
Rounding, addition, multiplication
Floating point in C
Summary
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 7
KAIST
IEEE Floating Point
IEEE Standard 754
Established in 1985 as uniform standard for floating point arithmetic
Before that, many idiosyncratic formats
Supported by all major CPUs
Driven by numerical concerns
Nice standards for rounding, overflow, underflow
Hard to make fast in hardware
Numerical analysts predominated over hardware designers in defining
standard
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 8
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Floating Point Representation
Numerical Form:
(–1)s M 2E
Sign bit s determines whether number is negative or positive
Significand M normally a fractional value in range [1.0,2.0).
Exponent E weights value by power of two
Encoding
MSB s is sign bit s
exp field encodes E (but is not equal to E)
frac field encodes M (but is not equal to M)
s exp frac
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 9
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Precision options
Single precision: 32 bits
s exp frac
1 8-bits 23-bits
Double precision: 64 bits
s exp frac
1 11-bits 52-bits
Extended precision: 80 bits (Intel only)
s exp frac
1 15-bits 63 or 64-bits
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 10
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“Normalized” Values v = (–1)s M 2E
When: exp ≠ 000…0 and exp ≠ 111…1
Exponent coded as a biased value: E = Exp – Bias
Exp: unsigned value of exp field
Bias = 2k-1 - 1, where k is number of exponent bits
Single precision: 127 (Exp: 1…254, E: -126…127)
Double precision: 1023 (Exp: 1…2046, E: -1022…1023)
Significand coded with implied leading 1: M = 1.xxx…x2
xxx…x: bits of frac field
Minimum when frac=000…0 (M = 1.0)
Maximum when frac=111…1 (M = 2.0 – ε)
Get extra leading bit for “free”
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 11
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Normalized Encoding Example v = (–1)s M 2E
E = Exp – Bias
Value: float F = 15213.0;
1521310 = 111011011011012
= 1.11011011011012 x 213
Significand
M = 1.11011011011012
frac = 110110110110100000000002
Exponent
E = 13
Bias = 127
Exp = 140 = 100011002
Result:
0 10001100 11011011011010000000000
s exp frac
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 12
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Denormalized Values v = (–1)s M 2E
E = 1 – Bias
Condition: exp = 000…0
Exponent value: E = 1 – Bias (instead of E = 0 – Bias)
Significand coded with implied leading 0: M = 0.xxx…x2
xxx…x: bits of frac
Cases
exp = 000…0, frac = 000…0
Represents zero value
Note distinct values: +0 and –0 (why?)
exp = 000…0, frac ≠ 000…0
Numbers closest to 0.0
Equispaced
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 13
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Special Values
Condition: exp = 111…1
Case: exp = 111…1, frac = 000…0
Represents value ∞ (infinity)
Operation that overflows
Both positive and negative
E.g., 1.0/0.0 = −1.0/−0.0 = +∞, 1.0/−0.0 = −∞
Case: exp = 111…1, frac ≠ 000…0
Not-a-Number (NaN)
Represents case when no numeric value can be determined
E.g., sqrt(–1), ∞ − ∞, ∞ × 0
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 14
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Visualization: Floating Point Encodings
−∞ +∞
−Normalized −Denorm +Denorm +Normalized
NaN NaN
−0 +0
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 15
KAIST
Today: Floating Point
Background: Fractional binary numbers
IEEE floating point standard: Definition
Example and properties
Rounding, addition, multiplication
Floating point in C
Summary
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 16
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Tiny Floating Point Example
s exp frac
1 4-bits 3-bits
8-bit Floating Point Representation
the sign bit is in the most significant bit
the next four bits are the exponent, with a bias of 7
the last three bits are the frac
Same general form as IEEE Format
normalized, denormalized
representation of 0, NaN, infinity
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 17
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Dynamic Range (Positive Only) v = (–1)s M 2E
s exp frac E Value n: E = Exp – Bias
0 0000 000 -6 0 d: E = 1 – Bias
0 0000 001 -6 1/8*1/64 = 1/512 closest to zero
Denormalized 0 0000 010 -6 2/8*1/64 = 2/512
numbers …
0 0000 110 -6 6/8*1/64 = 6/512
0 0000 111 -6 7/8*1/64 = 7/512 largest denorm
0 0001 000 -6 8/8*1/64 = 8/512
smallest norm
0 0001 001 -6 9/8*1/64 = 9/512
…
0 0110 110 -1 14/8*1/2 = 14/16
0 0110 111 -1 15/8*1/2 = 15/16 closest to 1 below
Normalized 0 0111 000 0 8/8*1 = 1
numbers 0 0111 001 0 9/8*1 = 9/8
closest to 1 above
0 0111 010 0 10/8*1 = 10/8
…
0 1110 110 7 14/8*128 = 224
0 1110 111 7 15/8*128 = 240 largest norm
0 1111 000 n/a inf
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 18
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Distribution of Values
6-bit IEEE-like format
e = 3 exponent bits
f = 2 fraction bits s exp frac
Bias is 23-1-1 = 3 1 3-bits 2-bits
Notice how the distribution gets denser toward zero.
8 values
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Denormalized Normalized Infinity
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 19
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Distribution of Values (close-up view)
6-bit IEEE-like format
e = 3 exponent bits
f = 2 fraction bits s exp frac
Bias is 3 1 3-bits 2-bits
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Denormalized Normalized Infinity
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 20
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Special Properties of the IEEE Encoding
FP Zero Same as Integer Zero
All bits = 0
Can (Almost) Use Unsigned Integer Comparison
Must first compare sign bits
Must consider −0 = 0
NaNs problematic
Will be greater than any other values
What should comparison yield?
Otherwise OK
Denorm vs. normalized
Normalized vs. infinity
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 21
KAIST
Today: Floating Point
Background: Fractional binary numbers
IEEE floating point standard: Definition
Example and properties
Rounding, addition, multiplication
Floating point in C
Summary
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 22
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Floating Point Operations: Basic Idea
x +f y = Round(x + y)
x ×f y = Round(x × y)
Basic idea
First compute exact result
Make it fit into desired precision
Possibly overflow if exponent too large
Possibly round to fit into frac
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 23
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Rounding
Rounding Modes (illustrate with $ rounding)
$1.40 $1.60 $1.50 $2.50 –$1.50
Towards zero $1 $1 $1 $2 –$1
Round down (−∞) $1 $1 $1 $2 –$2
Round up (+∞) $2 $2 $2 $3 –$1
Nearest Even (default) $1 $2 $2 $2 –$2
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 24
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Closer Look at Round-To-Even
Default Rounding Mode
Hard to get any other kind without dropping into assembly
All others are statistically biased
Sum of set of positive numbers will consistently be over- or under-
estimated
Applying to Other Decimal Places / Bit Positions
When exactly halfway between two possible values
Round so that least significant digit is even
E.g., round to nearest hundredth
7.8949999 7.89 (Less than half way)
7.8950001 7.90 (Greater than half way)
7.8950000 7.90 (Half way—round up)
7.8850000 7.88 (Half way—round down)
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 25
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Rounding Binary Numbers
Binary Fractional Numbers
“Even” when least significant bit is 0
“Half way” when bits to right of rounding position = 100…2
Examples
Round to nearest 1/4 (2 bits right of binary point)
Value Binary Rounded Action Rounded Value
2 3/32 10.000112 10.002 (<1/2—down) 2
2 3/16 10.001102 10.012 (>1/2—up) 2 1/4
2 7/8 10.111002 11.002 ( 1/2—up) 3
2 5/8 10.101002 10.102 ( 1/2—down) 2 1/2
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 26
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FP Multiplication
(–1)s1 M1 2E1 x (–1)s2 M2 2E2
Exact Result: (–1)s M 2E
Sign s: s1 ^ s2
Significand M: M1 x M2
Exponent E: E1 + E2
Fixing
If M ≥ 2, shift M right, increment E
If E out of range, overflow
Round M to fit frac precision
Implementation
Biggest chore is multiplying significands
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 27
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Floating Point Addition
(–1)s1 M1 2E1 + (-1)s2 M2 2E2 Get binary points lined up
Assume E1 > E2
E1–E2
(–1)s1 M1
Exact Result: (–1)s M 2E
Sign s, significand M: + (–1)s2 M2
Result of signed align & add
Exponent E: E1 (–1)s M
Fixing
If M ≥ 2, shift M right, increment E
if M < 1, shift M left k positions, decrement E by k
Overflow if E out of range
Round M to fit frac precision
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 28
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Creating Floating Point Number
Steps s exp frac
Normalize to have leading 1
1 4-bits 3-bits
Round to fit within fraction
Postnormalize to deal with effects of rounding
Case Study
Convert 8-bit unsigned numbers to tiny floating point format
Example Numbers
128 10000000
15 00001101
33 00010001
35 00010011
138 10001010
63 00111111
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 29
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Normalize s exp frac
1 4-bits 3-bits
Requirement
Set binary point so that numbers of form 1.xxxxx
Adjust all to have leading one
Decrement exponent as shift left
Value Binary Fraction Exponent
128 10000000 1.0000000 7
15 00001101 1.1010000 3
17 00010001 1.0001000 4
19 00010011 1.0011000 4
138 10001010 1.0001010 7
63 00111111 1.1111100 5
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 30
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Rounding 1.BBGRXXX
Guard bit: LSB of result
Sticky bit: OR of remaining bits
Round bit: 1st bit removed
Round up conditions
Round = 1, Sticky = 1 ➙ > 0.5
Guard = 1, Round = 1, Sticky = 0 ➙ Round to even
Value Fraction GRS Incr? Rounded
128 1.0000000 000 N 1.000
15 1.1010000 100 N 1.101
17 1.0001000 010 N 1.000
19 1.0011000 110 Y 1.010
138 1.0001010 011 Y 1.001
63 1.1111100 111 Y 10.000
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 31
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Postnormalize
Issue
Rounding may have caused overflow
Handle by shifting right once & incrementing exponent
Value Rounded Exp Adjusted Result
128 1.000 7 128
15 1.101 3 15
17 1.000 4 16
19 1.010 4 20
138 1.001 7 134
63 10.000 5 1.000/6 64
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 32
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Interesting Numbers {single,double}
Description exp frac Numeric Value
Zero 00…00 00…00 0.0
Smallest Pos. Denorm. 00…00 00…01 2– {23,52} x 2– {126,1022}
Single ≈ 1.4 x 10–45
Double ≈ 4.9 x 10–324
Largest Denormalized 00…00 11…11 (1.0 – ε) x 2– {126,1022}
Single ≈ 1.18 x 10–38
Double ≈ 2.2 x 10–308
Smallest Pos. Normalized 00…01 00…00 1.0 x 2– {126,1022}
Just larger than largest denormalized
One 01…11 00…00 1.0
Largest Normalized 11…10 11…11 (2.0 – ε) x 2{127,1023}
Single ≈ 3.4 x 1038
Double ≈ 1.8 x 10308
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 33
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Mathematical Properties of FP Add
Compare to those of Abelian Group
Closed under addition? Yes
But may generate infinity or NaN
Commutative? Yes
Associative? No
Overflow and inexactness of rounding
(3.14+1e10)-1e10 = 0, 3.14+(1e10-1e10) = 3.14
0 is additive identity?
Every element has additive inverse? Yes
Yes, except for infinities & NaNs Almost
Monotonicity
a ≥ b ⇒ a+c ≥ b+c? Almost
Except for infinities & NaNs
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 34
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Mathematical Properties of FP Mult
Compare to Commutative Ring
Closed under multiplication? Yes
But may generate infinity or NaN
Multiplication Commutative? Yes
Multiplication is Associative? No
Possibility of overflow, inexactness of rounding
Ex: (1e20*1e20)*1e-20= inf, 1e20*(1e20*1e-20)= 1e20
1 is multiplicative identity? Yes
Multiplication distributes over addition? No
Possibility of overflow, inexactness of rounding
1e20*(1e20-1e20)= 0.0, 1e20*1e20 – 1e20*1e20 = NaN
Monotonicity
a ≥ b & c ≥ 0 ⇒ a * c ≥ b *c? Almost
Except for infinities & NaNs
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 35
KAIST
Today: Floating Point
Background: Fractional binary numbers
IEEE floating point standard: Definition
Example and properties
Rounding, addition, multiplication
Floating point in C
Summary
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 36
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Floating Point in C
C Guarantees Two Levels
float single precision
double double precision
Conversions/Casting
Casting between int, float, and double changes bit representation
double/float → int
Truncates fractional part
Like rounding toward zero
Not defined when out of range or NaN: Generally sets to TMin
int → double
Exact conversion, as long as int has ≤ 53 bit word size
int → float
Will round according to rounding mode
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 37
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Floating Point Puzzles
For each of the following C expressions, either:
Argue that it is true for all argument values
Explain why not true
• x == (int)(float) x
• x == (int)(double) x
• f == (float)(double) f
int x = …;
float f = …; • d == (double)(float) d
double d = …; • f == -(-f);
• 2/3 == 2/3.0
Assume neither • d < 0.0 ⇒ ((d*2) < 0.0)
d nor f is NaN • d > f ⇒ -f > -d
• d * d >= 0.0
• (d+f)-d == f
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 38
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Summary
IEEE Floating Point has clear mathematical properties
Represents numbers of form M x 2E
One can reason about operations independent of
implementation
As if computed with perfect precision and then rounded
Not the same as real arithmetic
Violates associativity/distributivity
Makes life difficult for compilers & serious numerical applications
programmers
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 39
