MATH1251

Mathematics for Actuarial Studies and Finance

Chapter 6
Complex Numbers

Dr. Jonathan Kress

School of Mathematics and Statistics

University of New South Wales

Semester 2 2010

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 1 / 15
Number systems
The aim of this lecture is introduce complex numbers. First we consider other
number systems.

Number system Closed under

Natural numbers N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} + ×
Integers Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .} + −×
Rational numbers Q = {p/q : p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0} + −×/
Real numbers R = {limits of convergence sequences in Q} + −×/

Which of the following equations can be solved in the number systems above?

x +5=7 x +7=5 5x = 10
5x + 20 = 10 5x = 2 x2 = 4
x2 = 2 x 2 + 5x + 6 = 0 x 2 + 5x + 3 = 0
x2 + 1 = 0 x 2 + 2x + 3 = 0 x 3 + 7x 2 + 17x + 15 = 0

For the last 3 equations we need to extend R.

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 2 / 15
Complex numbers

x 2 + 1 = 0 has no real solutions, so let’s ‘make one up’. Call it the imaginary unit
and denote it i. That is,

i2 + 1 = 0 ⇐⇒ i 2 = −1.

We will see later that this is all we need to solve all polynomial equations, but first
we’ll concentrate on arithmetic using this new number.

We want a number system that contains both R and i with many of the properties
of real numbers (so we can still solve all of the equations on the previous slide).

For us, complex numbers are the set

C = {a + bi : a, b ∈ R, i 2 = −1}

along with rules for + and ×.

The expression a + bi is called the Cartesian form of a complex number.

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 3 / 15
Complex arithmetic
Consider two complex numbers in Cartesian form,

z = a + bi, w = c + di,

where a, b, c, d ∈ R. To add and mulitply z and w , treat them like real

polynomials in the variable i but always replace i 2 with −1. So,

z + w = a + bi + c + di = (a + c) + (b + d)i,
zw = (a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi 2 = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.
It’s easy to see that with these rules, C is closed under addition and
multiplication. That is, the sum and the product of two complex numbers are also
complex numbers.

Eg (1 + 2i) + (3 + 5i) = 4 + 7i
(1 + 2i)(3 + 5i) = 1 × 3 + 1 × 5i + 2i × 3 + 2i × 5i
= 3 + 5i + 6i + 10i 2
= 3 + 5i + 6i + 10 × (−1) = −7 + 11i

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 4 / 15
Laws of arithmetic
It’s also easy to check that just like real numbers, x, y , z ∈ C obey the usual
associative, commutative and distributive laws.

Associative Laws:

(x + y ) + z = x + (y + z), (xy )z = x(yz)

Commutative Laws:

x + y = y + x, xy = yx

Distributive Law:

x(y + z) = xy + xz

(Beyond this course: The quaternions are not commutative, and the octonians are
not commutative nor associative. See Wikipedia of you’re interested.)
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 5 / 15
Subtraction in C

C has a zero (additive identity):

(0 + 0i) + z = (0 + 0i) + a + bi = (0 + a) + (0 + b)i = a + bi = z

We usually just write 0 for 0 + 0i.

For each z there is an additive inverse −z = (−a) + (−b)i with the property that

z + (−z) = 0.

This allows us to define subtraction by

z − w = z + (−w )

which leads to exactly what you’d expect.

(2 + 3i) − (5 + 2i) = (2 + 3i) + ((−5) + (−2)i) = (2 − 5) + (3 − 2)i = −3 + i.

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 6 / 15
Division in C
C has a one (multiplicative identity):
(1 + 0i)z = (1 + 0i)(a + bi) = 1(a + bi) + 0i(a + bi) = a + bi = z
We usually just write 1 for 1 + 0i. For each z 6= 0 there is a multiplicative inverse
1 a b
= z −1 = 2 − 2 i
z a + b2 a + b2
with the property that
z z −1 = 1.
This allows us to define division by
z
= zw −1 ,
w
that is,
 
a + bi c d ac + bd bc − ad
= (a + bi) 2 2
− 2 i = + 2 i.
c + di c +d c + d2 2
c +d 2 c + d2
The properties of C we’ve discussed make C a field. See definition 1 on page 3 of
the printed notes.
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 7 / 15
Real and imaginary parts

For
z = a + bi ∈ C, a, b ∈ R,
The real part of z is
Re(z) = a
and the imaginary part of z is
Im(z) = b.
A complex number of the form bi is called an imaginary number. If Re(z) = 0 we
say z is purely imaginary and if Im(z) = 0 we say z is real.

Eg Re(3 − 4i) = 3, Im(3 − 4i) = −4.

Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real and imaginary parts are
equal.

Note that the imaginary part of a complex number is a real number.

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 8 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Complex conjugation
For a complex number
z = a + bi,
where a, b ∈ R, the complex conjugate of z is
z̄ = a − bi.
Eg 3 + 4i = 3 − 4i.

Exercise: Verify the following properties by writing z = a + bi and w = c + di.

z z̄ = a2 + b 2 z + w = z̄ + w̄
1 z − w = z̄ − w̄
Re(z) = (z + z̄)
2
zw = z̄ w̄
1
Im(z) = (z − z̄) z  z̄
2i =
z̄¯ = z w w̄
Note that a complex number is real if z = z̄. For example, show that
u = z̄w + z w̄ is real.
ū = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄w + z w̄ = z̄¯w̄ + z̄ w̄
¯ = z w̄ + z̄w = z̄w + z w̄ = u
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 9 / 15
Division using complex conjugation

Complex conjugation provides an easy way to divide complex numbers without

remembering the complicated formula for 1/z.

The trick is to multiply the numerator and denomiator of a quotient by the

complex conjugate of the denominator.

1 + 2i 1 + 2i 3 − 4i A useful fact to remember. . .

= ×
3 + 4i 3 + 4i 3 − 4i
(1 + 2i)(3 − 4i) 1 1 −i
= = ×
(3 + 4i)(3 − 4i) i i −i
3 − 4i + 6i − 8i 2 −i
= =
9 − 16i 2 −i 2
11 + 2i −i
= =
25 −(−1)
11 2 = −i.
= + i
25 25

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 10 / 15
Division using complex conjugation

Complex conjugation provides an easy way to divide complex numbers without

remembering the complicated formula for 1/z.

The trick is to multiply the numerator and denomiator of a quotient by the

complex conjugate of the denominator.

1 + 2i 1 + 2i 3 − 4i A useful fact to remember. . .

= ×
3 + 4i 3 + 4i 3 − 4i
(1 + 2i)(3 − 4i) 1 1 −i
= = ×
(3 + 4i)(3 − 4i) i i −i
3 − 4i + 6i − 8i 2 −i
= =
9 − 16i 2 −i 2
11 + 2i −i
= =
25 −(−1)
11 2 = −i.
= + i
25 25

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 10 / 15
Division using complex conjugation

Complex conjugation provides an easy way to divide complex numbers without

remembering the complicated formula for 1/z.

The trick is to multiply the numerator and denomiator of a quotient by the

complex conjugate of the denominator.

1 + 2i 1 + 2i 3 − 4i A useful fact to remember. . .

= ×
3 + 4i 3 + 4i 3 − 4i
(1 + 2i)(3 − 4i) 1 1 −i
= = ×
(3 + 4i)(3 − 4i) i i −i
3 − 4i + 6i − 8i 2 −i
= =
9 − 16i 2 −i 2
11 + 2i −i
= =
25 −(−1)
11 2 = −i.
= + i
25 25

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 10 / 15
C is not ordered

So far we have seen that many properties of R also apply to C.

An important exception is that R is ordered whereas C can not be.

For any pair of positive real numbers x and y one of the following is true.

x < y, y <x or x = y .

Furthermore, the order of two positive real numbers is preserved when adding or
multiplying by another positive real number.

It is not possible to extended or redefine < so that something like this is also true
for C.

Inequalities don’t make sense in C.

Of course you can still compare real quantities made from a complex numbers, eg
it makes sense to say things like Re(z)>Re(w ).

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 11 / 15
The Argand plane

We can represent complex numbers as points in R2 by plotting the real part on

the horizontal axis and the imaginary part on the vertical axes. It is common to
write z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R.

y -axis Im
Imaginary axis
−2 + 3i
b

b b
b
i
−4 4
b b

0 Re
b
−2i
0 a x-axis −3 − 4i 3 − 4i
b b
Real axis

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 12 / 15
The Argand plane

We can represent complex numbers as points in R2 by plotting the real part on

the horizontal axis and the imaginary part on the vertical axes. It is common to
write z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R.

y -axis Im
Imaginary axis
−2 + 3i
b

b b
b
i
−4 4
b b

0 Re
b
−2i
0 a x-axis −3 − 4i 3 − 4i
b b
Real axis

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 12 / 15
The Argand plane

We can represent complex numbers as points in R2 by plotting the real part on

the horizontal axis and the imaginary part on the vertical axes. It is common to
write z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R.

y -axis Im
Imaginary axis
−2 + 3i
b

b b
b
i
−4 4
b b

0 Re
b
−2i
0 a x-axis −3 − 4i 3 − 4i
b b
Real axis

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 12 / 15
Modulus and argument
We can also locate points in the plane using polar coordinates.

The distance r from 0 to z is called the

Im

modulus of z.
p √
|z| = x 2 + y 2 = z z̄.
y z = x + iy The angle from the positive real axis to
r z measured anti-clockwise is called the
argument of z and written arg(z). This
has infinitely many possible values for
θ each z. By convention, the principal
0 x Re argument of z is in (−π, π].

Arg(z) ∈ (−π, π].

Note that
Arg(z) = −Arg(z̄) unless Arg(z) = π
|z̄| = |z|
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 13 / 15
Modulus and argument
We can also locate points in the plane using polar coordinates.

The distance r from 0 to z is called the

Im

modulus of z.
p √
|z| = x 2 + y 2 = z z̄.
y z = x + iy The angle from the positive real axis to
r z measured anti-clockwise is called the
argument of z and written arg(z). This
has infinitely many possible values for
θ each z. By convention, the principal
0 x Re argument of z is in (−π, π].

Arg(z) ∈ (−π, π].

Note that
Arg(z) = −Arg(z̄) unless Arg(z) = π
|z̄| = |z|
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 13 / 15
Modulus and argument
We can also locate points in the plane using polar coordinates.

The distance r from 0 to z is called the

Im

modulus of z.
p √
|z| = x 2 + y 2 = z z̄.
y z = x + iy The angle from the positive real axis to
r z measured anti-clockwise is called the
argument of z and written arg(z). This
has infinitely many possible values for
θ each z. By convention, the principal
0 x Re argument of z is in (−π, π].

Arg(z) ∈ (−π, π].

Note that
Arg(z) = −Arg(z̄) unless Arg(z) = π
|z̄| = |z|
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 13 / 15
Modulus and argument
We can also locate points in the plane using polar coordinates.

The distance r from 0 to z is called the

Im

modulus of z.
p √
|z| = x 2 + y 2 = z z̄.
y z = x + iy The angle from the positive real axis to
r z measured anti-clockwise is called the
argument of z and written arg(z). This
has infinitely many possible values for
θ each z. By convention, the principal
0 x Re argument of z is in (−π, π].

Arg(z) ∈ (−π, π].

Note that
Arg(z) = −Arg(z̄) unless Arg(z) = π
|z̄| = |z|
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 13 / 15
Modulus and argument
We can also locate points in the plane using polar coordinates.

The distance r from 0 to z is called the

Im

modulus of z.
p √
|z| = x 2 + y 2 = z z̄.
y z = x + iy The angle from the positive real axis to
r z measured anti-clockwise is called the
argument of z and written arg(z). This
has infinitely many possible values for
θ each z. By convention, the principal
0 x Re argument of z is in (−π, π].

Arg(z) ∈ (−π, π].

Note that
Arg(z) = −Arg(z̄) unless Arg(z) = π
|z̄| = |z|
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 13 / 15
Polar form
If r = |z| and θ =Arg(z), then

z = r cos θ + ir sin θ
Im

= r (cos θ + i sin θ)

This is called the polar form of z.

√
y z = x + iy Eg Write z = 1 + i 3 in polar form.

r
q √ √
|z| = 12 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2.

θ z is in the first quadrant,

√ so
3 π
0 x Re Arg(z) = tan−1 = .
1 3

So the polar form of z is

 π  π 
z = 2 cos + i sin .
3 3
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 14 / 15
Polar form
If r = |z| and θ =Arg(z), then

z = r cos θ + ir sin θ
Im

= r (cos θ + i sin θ)

This is called the polar form of z.

√
y z = x + iy Eg Write z = 1 + i 3 in polar form.

r
q √ √
|z| = 12 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2.

θ z is in the first quadrant,

√ so
3 π
0 x Re Arg(z) = tan−1 = .
1 3

So the polar form of z is

 π  π 
z = 2 cos + i sin .
3 3
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 14 / 15
Polar form
If r = |z| and θ =Arg(z), then

z = r cos θ + ir sin θ
Im

= r (cos θ + i sin θ)

This is called the polar form of z.

√
y z = x + iy Eg Write z = 1 + i 3 in polar form.

r
q √ √
|z| = 12 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2.

θ z is in the first quadrant,

√ so
3 π
0 x Re Arg(z) = tan−1 = .
1 3

So the polar form of z is

 π  π 
z = 2 cos + i sin .
3 3
JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 14 / 15
MATLAB

To enter a complex number in MATLAB, use i or j for i.

If z is a complex number, then real(z), imag(z), abs(z) and angle(z) are the
real part, the imaginary part, the modulus and the principal argument of z.

JM Kress (UNSW Maths & Stats) MATH1251 Complex Numbers Semester 2 2010 15 / 15