GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL

Instructions Prepared By
Dr. G. Venkata Rama Subbarao
PhD (Civil), M. Tech (Geotech), B. E. (Civil),
MIE, MIGS, MIRC, MISRMTT, MIndACM, MISTE
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
CYCLE-I
Expt. No. 1: Determination of Specific Gravity of Solids-As per IS 2720 (Part 3/Sec-1)-1980.
(a) By the Density Bottle Method
(b) By the Pycnometer Method

Expt No. 2: Atterberg’s Limits

Determination of Liquid Limit and Plastic limit of the soil-As per IS 2720 (Part 5)-1985.
Determination of Shrinkage factors--As per IS 2720 (Part 6)-1972.

Expt. No. 3: Determination of field (in-place/in-stu) Dry Density of soils

(a) By the Core Cutter Method --- As per IS 2720 (Part 29)-1975.
(b) By the Sand Replacement Method --- As per IS 2720 (Part 28)-1974.

Expt. No. 4: Grain Size Analysis by Seiving-As per IS 2720 (Part 4)-1985.

Expt. No. 5: Grain Size Analysis- Hydrometer Analysis -As per IS 2720 (Part 4)-1985.

Expt. No. 6: Laboratory Determination of Coefficient of Permeability of the soil-As per IS

2720 (Part 17)-1986
(a) By the Constant Head Permeameter Method
(b) By the Variable Head Permeameter Method
Expt. No. 7: Compaction Test
(a) Standard Proctor Compaction (Light Compaction) Test-As per IS 2720 (Part 8)-1983
(b) Modified Proctor Compaction (Heavy Compaction) Test- IS 2720 (Part 8)-1983.

CYCLE-II
Expt. No. 8: Determination of Consolidation Properties--- As per IS 2720 (Part 15)-1986.

Expt. No. 9: Determination of Shear Strength Parameters of the Soil Specimen by Direct
Shear Test (Box Shear Test)--- As per IS 2720 (Part XIII)-1986.

Expt. No. 10: Determination of Undrained Shear Strength of Soil Specimen by Unconfined
Compression (UCC) test--- As per IS 2720 (Part X)-1985.

Expt. No. 11: Determination of Undrained shear strength of Soil Specimen by Laboratory
Vane Shear Test - As per IS 2720 (Part 30)-1980.

Expt. No. 12: Determination of Differential Free Swell Index of soils- As per IS 2911- Part 3.

Expt. No. 13: Laboratory California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test---AS per IS 2720 (Part 16)-
1992.

Expt. No. 14: Determination of Shear Strength Parameters of the Soil Specimen by Tri-axial
Compression Test-- Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Test---As per is 2720 (Part XI)-1993.
Expt. No: 1 Date:

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS

As per IS 2720 (Part III/Sec-1)-1980

PART – A: DENSITY BOTTLE METHOD

1. AIM: To determine the Specific gravity of solids by the Density bottle method.

2. THEORY: The specific gravity of solids (soil-grains) is the ratio of density of solids to
density of water. Specific gravity is normally reported at 270C as per IS practice.
Generally, the range of specific gravity of soils will be 2.65-2.8. Lower values are for
coarse-grained soils (Clean sands and silts: 2.65-2.68). The presence of organic matter
leads to very low values (<2.0). Soils high in iron or mica exhibit high values (2.75-2.85)

Density bottle method is the standard method used in the laboratory, which is only for
fine-grained soils.

3. APPLICATIONS: The specific gravity of solids helps up to some extent in

identification and classification of soils. It is used in finding out the degree of saturation,
void ratio and unit weight of moist soils. The unit weights are needed in pressure,
settlement and stability problems in soil engineering. It is used in computing the particle
size by means of hydrometer analysis. It is also used in estimating hydraulic gradient in
soil when a sand boiling condition being studied. It is further used in zero air-void
calculations in the compaction theory of soils.

4. APPARATUS:
4.1 A Density bottle of 50ml capacity with stopper,
4.2 4.75 mm (or 2mm) IS sieve,
4.3 A Thermostatically controlled drying Oven capable of maintaining a temperature of
105o to 110oC,
4.4 A water-bath maintained at constant temperature (270C) to within + 0.2oC,
4.5 Desiccator of size about 200mm to 250mm in diameter,
4.6 Vacuum pump,
4.7 A Weighing balance (accuracy 0.001g),
4.8 Thermometer
4.9 Spatula/ Glass rod.

NOTE:
· 4.75 mm IS sieve is used if the value of specific gravity of sandy silt or clayey
soils.
· 2 mm IS sieve is if the used value of specific gravity is to be used in connection
with the hydrometer analysis.)
5. PROCEDURE:

(i) Wash the density bottle and dry it in an oven at 105 o to 110oC. Cool it in the
desiccator.
(Note: If a density bottle is used in order to avoid distortion it should not be
dried by placing it in an oven. It dried by rinsing with acetone or an alcohol-
ether mixture and blowing warm air through it.)

(ii) Weigh the bottle, with stopper, to nearest 0.001 g (M1).

(iii) Take about 5 to 10 g (25g) of soil sample which is oven-dried at 1050C to

1100C and cooled in desiccator.
(Note: If there is any reason to believe that this will change the specific
gravity due to loss of water of hydration the soil should be dried at not more
than 800C. This fact should be reported).

Now, transfer the dried soil sample to the density bottle. Weigh the bottle with
the stopper and dry sample (M2).

(iv) Add de-aired (air-free) distilled water to the density just enough to cover the
soil (Note: In case soils with high percentage of clay, such as black cotton
soils, marine clay and different types of bentonites, the addition of distilled
water poses problem in wetting the soils. In such cases it is always advisable
to use kerosene (paraffin oil) or white spirit (carbon tetra chloride) as wetting
material).

(v) Remove the entrapped air by attaching the density bottle to a high vacuum
pump for at least 10 minutes. During this time gently agitate soil and water
mixture by carefully shaking and turning the bottle. (Alternatively, the
entrapped air can be removed by getting heating the density bottle by placed
on a sand bath or by stirring the water soil mixture by spatula)

(vi) After de-airing process is completed, add water carefully up to the level of the
volume mark provided on the density bottle.

(vii) Immerse the bottle up to the neck in constant temperature bath for
approximately 1 hour or until it has attained the constant temperature.
If there is an apparent decrease in the volume of the soil in the bottle,
remove the stopper and add more water to the bottle and replace the stopper.
Again place the bottle in the water bath. Allow sufficient time to ensure that
the bottle and its content attain the constant temperature.

(viii) Take out the bottle from the water bath. Wipe it clean and dry it from outside.

(ix) Record the temperature of the suspension (Tt0C) and weigh it with stopper
(M3).
 (x) Empty the bottle and clean it thoroughly. Fill it with distilled water up to the
level of the volume mark provided on the density bottle. Insert the stopper.

(xi) Immerse the bottle in the constant temperature bath for 1 hour or until it has
attained the constant temperature of the bath.
If there is in an apparent decrease in the volume of the liquid, remove the
stopper and add more water. Again keep it water bath.

(xii) Take out the bottle from the water bath. Wipe it dry and take the mass (M4).

M1 M2 M3 M4

6. PRECAUTIONS:

(i) The soil grains whose sp. gr. is to be determined should be completely dry.

(ii) Dried soil taken for testing should have the soil grains of is original size, so if on
drying soil lumps are formed, they should be broken to its original size.

(iii) Hold the rubber tubing tightly with the density bottle so that there is no leakage
when the vacuum pump works.

(iv) Inaccuracies in weighing and failure to completely eliminate the entrapped air are
the main sources of error.

7. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

The specific gravity at test temperature shall be calculated as follows:

Mass of dry soil = Ms= (M2- M1)
Mass of water in the observation (iii) = (M3- M2)
Mass of water in the observation (iv) = (M4- M1)
Mass of water having the same volume as that of solids = (M4-M1) - (M3 -M2)
Mass of solids
Sp. gr. of solids @ test temperature (GT) =
Mass of water equivalent to volume of the solids
 (M 2 - M1 ) Ms
= =
(M 4 - M1 ) - (M 3 - M 2 ) M s - (M 3 - M 4 )

Observations and Calculations Determination No.

S. No. 1 2 3
Observations:
1. Density Bottle No.
2. Mass of empty density bottle (M1), in g
3. Mass of bottle with dry soil (M2), in g
4. Mass of bottle, dry soil and water (M3), in g
5. Mass of bottle with water (M4), in g

Calculations:
6. Specific gravity of solids at test temperature (GT)
(M 2 - M1 )
=
(M 4 - M1 ) - (M 3 - M 2 )

The specific gravity shall be calculated at 27oC. If the room (test) temperature is different than
27oC, the following correction shall be done:
o Sp. gr. of water at T 0 C
Average Sp. gr. of solids corresponding to 27 C = G 27 = ´ GT
Sp. gr. of water at 27 0 C
(or)
G = k ´ GT
1

Where, G = Corrected Sp. gr. of solids at 27oC

1

Relative Density of water at test temperature

K=
Relative Density of water at 27 0 C

ALTERNATIVE LIQUIDS FOR SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

With certain soils, for example those containing soluble salts, kerosene (paraffin oil) or white
spirit may be proffered. If one of these is used, record the fact and carry out a separate
experiment to determine the specific gravity of liquid at test temperature (GL) T.
(M 2 - M1 )
(G s )T = (GL )T ´
(M 4 - M1 ) - (M 3 - M 2 )
 Table: Specific Gravity of Water

T oC Sp. gr. T oC Sp. gr.

1oC 0.9999 21oC 0.9980
2 oC 0.9999 22 oC 0.9978
3oC 1.0000 23oC 0.9976
4oC 1.0000 24oC 0.9973
5oC 1.0000 25oC 0.9971
6 oC 1.0000 26 oC 0.9968
7 oC 0.9999 27 oC 0.9965
8 oC 0.9999 28 oC 0.9963
9 oC 0.9998 29 oC 0.9960
10 oC 0.9997 30 oC 0.9957
11 oC 0.9996 31 oC 0.9954
12 oC 0.9995 32 oC 0.9951
13 oC 0.9994 33 oC 0.9947
14 oC 0.9993 34 oC 0.9944
15 oC 0.9991 35 oC 0.9941
16 oC 0.9990 36 oC 0.9937
17 oC 0.9988 37 oC 0.9934
18 oC 0.9986 38 oC 0.9930
19 oC 0.9984 39 oC 0.9926
20 oC 0.9982 40 oC 0.9922

1. RESULT: The average Specific gravity of solids corresponding to 27oC =-------

Note (i) The average value obtained shall be taken as sp. gr. of the soil particles and shall be
reported as nearest 0.01. If the two results differ by 0.03 the test shall be repeated.

(ii) Many soils have substantial proportions of heavier of lighter particles. Such soils will
give erratic values fro the sp. gr. even with greatest care in testing and a number of
repeated tests may be needed to obtain a good average value.
 PART-B: PYCNOMETER METHOD

1. AIM: To determine the Specific gravity of solids by Pycnometer method.

2. THEORY: Pycnometer method is suitable for both coarse-grained and fine-grained soils.
As the capacity of the pycnometer is larger, about 200-300g of oven-dry soil is required
for the test.

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 A Pycnometer,
3.2 4.75 mm (or 2mm) IS sieve,
3.3 A Thermostatically controlled drying Oven capable of maintaining a temperature of
105o to 110oC,
3.4 A water-bath maintained at constant temperature (270C) to within + 0.2%oC,
3.5 Desiccator of size about 200mm to 250mm in diameter,
3.6 Vacuum pump,
3.7 A Weighing balance (accuracy 0.001g),
3.8 Thermometer
3.9 Spatula/ Glass rod.

4. PROCEDURE:

The procedure is repeated by taking about 200-300g of oven-dry soil.

M1 M2 M3 M4

5. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

The specific gravity at test temperature shall be calculated as follows:

Mass of dry soil = Ms= (M2- M1)

Mass of water in the observation (iii) = (M3- M2)
Mass of water in the observation (iv) = (M4- M1)
Mass of water having the same volume as that of solids = (M4-M1) - (M3 -M2)
 Mass of solids
Sp. gr. of solids @ test temperature (GT) =
Mass of water equivalent to volume of the solids
(M 2 - M1 ) Ms
= =
(M 4 - M1 ) - (M 3 - M 2 ) M s - (M 3 - M 4 )

S. No. Observations and Calculations Trail No.

1 2 3
Observations:
1. Pycnometer No.
2. Mass of empty pycnometer (M1), in g
3. Mass of pycnometer with dry soil (M2), in g
4. Mass of pycnometer, dry soil and water (M3), in g
5. Mass of pycnometer with water (M4), in g

Calculations:
6. Specific gravity of solids at test temperature (GT)
(M 2 - M1 )
=
(M 4 - M1 ) - (M 3 - M 2 )

The specific gravity shall be calculated at 27oC. If the room (test) temperature is different than
27oC, the following correction shall be done:
Sp. gr. of water at T 0 C
Average Sp. gr. of solids corresponding to 27oC = G 27 = ´ GT
Sp. gr. of water at 27 0 C
(or)
G = k ´ GT
1

Where, G = Corrected Sp. gr. of solids at 27oC

1

Relative Density of water at test temperature

K=
Relative Density of water at 27 0 C

ALTERNATIVE LIQUIDS FOR SPECIFIC GRAVITY: With certain soils, for example those
containing soluble salts, kerosene (paraffin oil) or white spirit may be proffered. If one of these is
used, record the fact and carry out a separate experiment to determine the specific gravity of at test
temperature (GL) T.
(M 2 - M1 )
(G s )T = (GL )T ´
(M 4 - M1 ) - (M 3 - M 2 )

6. RESULT: The average Specific gravity of solids corresponding to 27oC =

Note: The average value obtained shall be taken as sp. gr. of the soil particles and shall be reported as
nearest 0.01. If the two results differ by 0.03 the test shall be repeated.
Expt. No: 2 Date:

ATTERBERG’s LIMITS
PART-A:
DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT AND PLASTIC LIMIT OF THE SOIL

As per IS 2720 (Part V)-1985

PART-A: DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT OF THE SOI - MECHANICAL METHOD

1. AIM:
To determine the liquid limit of the given soil sample.

2. THEORY:
Liquid limit is the water content at which the soil changes from liquid state to plastic state. For
determination purpose liquid limit may be defined as the water content at which a standard groove
(25mm wide) made in a pat of soil placed in the cup of a standard liquid limit device, closes over a
distance of about 13 mm when the cup drops 25 times from a height of 10mm on hard rubber base.

3. APPLICATIONS:

Fine-grained soils are classified based on their Liquid limit and plastic limit values only. Liquid
limit and plastic limits of soils are both dependent on the amount and type of clay in a soil. Besides
their use for identification, the plasticity tests give information concerning the cohesion properties of
soil and amount of capillarity water which it can hold. They are also used directly in specifications
for controlling soil for use in fill.
The methods for calculating the indices like Flow Index (I f), Plasticity Index (Ip), Toughness
Index (IT), Consistency Index (Ic) and Liquidity Index (I L) are related to the liquid limit and plastic
limits.

4. APPARATUS:

4.1 Casagrande’s liquid limit device,

4.2 425 microns IS sieve,
4.3 Porcelain evaporating dish,
4.4 Distilled water,
4.5 Grooving tool,
4.6 Spatula,
4.7 Balance (sensitive to 0.01 g),
4.8 Water content cans, and
4.9 Oven.

4. PROCEDURE:
1. Take about 250 g of air-dried soil sample passing 425m IS sieve in a porcelain evaporating
dish.
2. Add a small quantity of distilled water and carefully mix it thoroughly distilled water to form a
uniform paste.
3. Adjust the cup of the liquid limit apparatus to give a drop of exactly 10mm on the point of contact
on base.

4. Place a portion of the paste in the cup. Smooth the surface with spatula to a maximum depth of
10mm. By using a grooving tool, cut a clean, straight groove that completely separates the soil pat
into two parts.

5. Rotate the handle at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and count the number of blows until the
two parts of the sample come in contact at the bottom of the groove over a distance of 13mm
(≈1/2”). Record the number of blows.

6. Take about 25g of soil from the closed part of the groove for determination of water content.

7. Transfer the remaining soil in the cup to the main soil sample in the evaporating dish. Then mix
thoroughly after adding a small amount of water.

8. Repeat the steps 4 to 7. Obtain at least five sets of readings in the range of not less than 10 or
more than 40 blows.

DIVIDED SOIL CAKE BEFORE TEST

SOIL CAKE AFTER TEST

5. OBSERVATIONS:

Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5

Number of blows (N)

Container number
Weight of container, g
Weight of container + Wet soil, g
Weight of container + Oven dry soil, g
Weight of water, g
Weight of oven dry soil, in g
Water content (%)
6. GRAPH:

Plot a straight-line graph (flow curve) between number of blows (Log scale) and water
content (natural/arithmetical scale). The water content corresponding to 25 blows as read from the
curve shall be rounded off to the nearest whole number and reported as the liquid limit of the soil.
The slope of the flow line expressed as the difference in water contents as 10 blows and at 100 blows
shall be reported as the Flow Index (If).

Flow line
If
Water content (w)

w1-w2 Number of blows (N)-log scale

Flow Index (If) = =

Log10 (N2/N1)

7. PRECAUTIONS:
i. Consistency limits are greatly affected by the layer of adsorbed water present in the form of a
thin film surrounding the soil particles. Oven drying destroys this thin film. Therefore,
consistency limits tests should be performed only on air-dried soil samples.
ii. Use distilled water in order to minimize the possibility of ion exchange between the soil and
any impurities in the water.
iii. After mixing distilled water to the soil sample, sufficient time should be given to permeate
the water throughout the soil mass.
iv. The test may also be conducted from the wetter to the drier condition; the drying is achieved
by kneading (rub) the wet soil and not by adding dry soil.
v. In liquid limit test, the groove should be closed by a flow of soil and not by slippage between
the soil and cup.
vi. Wet soil taken in the container for moisture content determination should not be left open in
air even for some time, the containers with soil samples should either placed in desiccator or
immediately weighted.
vii. For each test, cup and groove tool, should be clean.

8. RESULT:
Liquid limit of the given soil sample =
Flow Index (If) =
If the Liquid limit of the soil (wl) < 35%, soil is Low Compressible (L)
wl = 35%-50%, soil is Intermediate Compressible (I)
wl > 50%, soil is Highly Compressible (H)
 PART-B: DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT OF THE SOIL

1. AIM:

To determine the plastic limit of given soil sample.

2. THEORY:

Plastic limit is the water content at which the soil changes from plastic state to semi-solid
state. For the determination purpose, the plastic limit is defined as the water content at which a soil
will just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread of 3mm in diameter.

The numerical difference in water contents between the liquid limit and plastic limit is
termed as plasticity index. Knowing the liquid limit and plasticity index, soil may be classified with
the help of plasticity chart according to Indian standard soil classification (IS 1498-1970).

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 Flat Glass plate,

3.2 Distilled water,
3.3 Rod of 3mm in diameter and 100mm length,
3.4 Balance (sensitive to 0.01 g),
3.5 Oven, and
3.6 Water content cans.

4. PROCEDURE:

1. Take about 20 g. of air-dried sample passing through 425 micron IS sieve.

2. Mix thoroughly with distilled water on the glass plate until it is plastic enough to be shaped into a
small ball.

3. Take about 10 g of the plastic soil mass and roll it between the hand and the glass plate to form
the soil mass into a thread. If the diameter of thread becomes less than 3 mm without cracks, it
shows that water added is more than its plastic limit; hence the soil is kneaded further and rolled into
thread again.

4. Repeat this rolling and remoulding process until the thread starts just crumbling at a diameter of
3mm.

5. If crumbling starts before 3mm diameter thread, it shows that water added is less than the plastic
limit of the soil, hence some more water should be added and mixed to a uniform mass and rolled
again, until the thread starts crumbling at a diameter of 3mm.

6. Collect the pieces of crumbled soil thread at 3mm diameter in an air tight container and determine
moisture content.
7. Repeat the test two to three times and take the average value.

Determination No. 1 2 3
Container number
Weight of container, g
Weight of container + Wet soil, g
Weight of container + Oven dry soil, g
Weight of water, g
Weight of oven dry soil, in g
Water content (%)

5. RESULT:

Average plastic limit of the given soil =

\Plasticity Index of the given soil = I p = (Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit) = (wl - wp) =

Ip of A-line (Ip)A = 0.73 (wl - 20) =

If Ip > (Ip)A, i.e. above A-line, soil is Clay (C)

If Ip < (Ip)A, i.e. below A-line, soil is Silt (M) and Organic soil (O)

\Type of soil as per the Plasticity chart of ISSCS =

 Expt. No: 2 Date:

ATTERBERG’s LIMITS
PART-C:
DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE FACTORS

As per IS 2720 (Part VI)-1972

1. AIM:

To determine shrinkage limit and other shrinkage factors of given soil sample.

2. THEORY:

Shrinkage Limit (Undisturbed Soil) (w su) is maximum water content expressed as percentage
of oven-dry weight at which any further reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in
volume of the soil mass, the soil mass being prepared initially from undisturbed soil.

Shrinkage Limit (Remoulded Soil) (wu) is maximum water content expressed as percentage
of oven-dry weight at which any further reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in
volume of the soil mass, the soil mass being prepared initially from remoulded soil.

VOLUME MASS
VOLUME MASS

(V1- V2) Air ρw(V1- V2)

Water VOLUME MASS

Water Mw Air

V =V1 M1
V2 M2 V3=V2= V0=Vd
Solids Solids
Ms Solids Ms Vs Ms = M3

Fig. 1 (a): Fig. 1 (b): Fig. 1 (c):

Stage I Stage II Stage III
(Fully saturated stage) (@ Shrinkage Limit) (Oven Dried stage)

Fig. 1 Shrinkage Limit Determination

In Fig. 1 (a) represent the initial soil sample in saturated stage with initial mass W1 and
Volume V1; Fig. 1 (c) represent the oven dry sample with mass W3 (=Ws) and volume V3(=V2).
According to definition, the water content at Stage II [Fig. 1 (b)] will be the shrinkage limit.

Mass of water in Stage (I) = (M1- Ms)

Loss in water from Stage (I) to (II) = (V1- V2)ρw
\ Mass of water in (II) = (M1- Ms) - (V1- V2) ρw

Massofwaterinstage( I ) (M1 - M s )
Water content in stage (I) = wI = =
Massofsoilds Ms
Massofwaterinstage( II )
Shrinkage Limit, wS (%)=Water content in stage (II)= wII =
Massofsoilds
(M1 - M s ) - (V1 - V2 ) r w
\ ws = ----------------(1)
Ms
é (V - V ) r ù é (V - V0 ) r w ù
\ Shrinkage Limit, wS (%) = ê wI - 1 2 w ú x100 = êwI - ú x100 ---------------(2)
ë Ms û ë W0 û
Where, wI = water content in stage (I)
Wo = Weight of Dry Soil Pat

Alternatively…….

Massofwater @ SL
Shrinkage Limit (SL), wS (%)=Water content in Stage (II)= wII =
Massofsoilds
(r V - r V )
ws (%) = w 2 w s x100%
Md
We know that V2 = V3 = Vd
éV V ù
ws (%) = ê d r w - s r w ú x100%
ëMd Md û
éM ù
Here, it may write that r d = ê d ú . But it’s not true.
ë Vdû
ér r ù
ws (%) = ê w - w ú x100%
ë rd rs û
é 1 1 ù
ws (%) = ê - ú x100%
êë (Gm )drystate Gs úû

e
Shrinkage Limit, w s (%) = ws (%) = x100%
Gs
Shrinkage limit is the smallest water content at which soil is saturated.
 éG r ù
Where e = voidratio = ê s w - 1ú
ë rd û

Other shrinkage factors i.e. Shrinkage Ratio (R), Volumetric Shrinkage (Volumetric
Change) (Vs) may also be calculated from the test data of shrinkage limit.

Shrinkage Ratio (SR/R) is the ratio of a given volume change, expressed as a percentage of
the dry volume, to the corresponding change in water content above the shrinkage limit, expressed
as a percentage of the weight of the oven-dried soil.

Vl
Vp

Volume of Soil mass (V) Vd

Semi- Plastic Liquid
Solid
Solid State State
State
State
ws wp wl
Water Content (%)

Fig. 2. Atterberg’s Consistency Limits

æ Vl - Vd ö æ Vl - V p ö
çç ÷÷ x100 çç ÷÷ x100
V è V ø
ShrinkageRatio ( R) = SR = è ø =
d d

( wl - ws ) ( wl - w p )

æM M ö æ V g - Vd g w ö æ Vl - Vd ö
( wl - ws ) == çç wl - ws ÷÷ = çç l w ÷÷ = çç ÷÷g w
è Md Md ø è Md ø è Md ø

æ Vl - Vd ö
çç ÷
è Vd ÷ø éM 1 ù r d éW0 1 ù
ShrinkageRatio ( R) = SR = =ê d x ú= =ê x ú = (Gm )dry
æ Vl - Vd ö ë Vd r w û r w ë V0 r w û
çç ÷÷ r w
è Md ø

Shrinkage Ratio (SR/R) is equal to the mass or apparent specific gravity of soil in dry state.
 where
Wo = Weight of oven-dry soil pat, in g, and
Vo = Volume of oven-dry soil pat in ml.
é 1 1 ù
Shrinkage lim it = ws (%) = ê - ú x100%
ë SR Gs û

Volumetric Shrinkage (Volumetric Change) (V.S.) is the decrease in volume, expressed as

a percentage of the soil mass when dried, of a soil mass when the water content is reduced from a
given percentage to the shrinkage limit.

æ æ Vl - Vd ö ö
çç ÷ x 100 ÷
ç çè Vd ÷ø ÷ é (V1 - Vd ) ù
Volumetric Shrinkage (V.S.) = (w1-ws) x SR= ( wl - ws ) xç ÷=ê ú x100
ç ( wl - w s ) ÷ ë V d û
ç ÷
è ø
Where
w1 = wl = Liquid limit (%)= given Water/Moisture content (in %),
ws =Shrinkage limit (in %), and

Alternatively….
é (V - V ) ù é (V - V0 ) ù
Volumetric Shrinkage (V.S.) (%) = ê 1 d ú x100 = ê ú x100
ë Vd û ë V0 û

4. APPLICATIONS:

The value of shrinkage limit is used for understanding the swelling and shrinkage
properties of cohesive soils. It is used for calculating the shrinkage factors which helps in the
design problems of the structures made up of the soils and resting on soils. It gives an idea about
suitability of the soil as a construction material in foundations, roads, embankments and dams. It
helps in knowing the state on the given soil. Approximate values of specific gravity of soils
grains may also determined from the data of shrinkage limit test.

e
\ ws =
Gs

4. APPARATUS:

4.1 Evaporating Dish- two, porcelain, about 12cm in diameter with a pour out and flat bottom, the
diameter of flat bottom, being not less than 55mm,
4.2 Spatula- flexible, with the blade about 8 cm long and 2 cm wide.
4.3 Shrinkage Dish- circular, porcelain or non-corroding metal dish inert to mercury having a flat
bottom and 45mm in diameter and 15mm height internally. The internal corner between the bottom
and the vertical sides shall be rounded into a smooth concave curve.
4.4 Straight Edge- steel, about 15cm in length.
4.5 Glass Cup- 50 to 55mm in diameter and 25mm in height, the top rim of which is ground
smooth and level.
4.6 Glass Plates- two, each 75mmx75mm, and 3mm thick. One plate shall be of plain glass and
other shall have three metal prongs inert to mercury (see Fig. 1).
4.7 Oven- thermostatically controlled to maintain the temperature between 105 and 110 0C, with
interior of non-corroding material.
4.8 Sieve- 425-micron IS sieve,
4.9 Balances- sensitive to 0.1 g and 0.01 g,
4.10 Mercury- clean, sufficient to fill the glass cup to overflowing,
4.11 Desiccator- with any dessicating agent other than sulfuric acid, and
4.12 Distilled water
5. SOIL SAMPLE FOR TEST:

5.1 For Shrinkage Limit (Remoulded Soil) Test:

Take a sample weighing about 100g from the thoroughly mixed portion of the material
passing through 425 micron IS Sieve.

5.2 For Shrinkage Limit (Undisturbed Soil) Test:

(i) Preserve the undisturbed soil received from the field in its undisturbed state.
(ii) Trim from the undisturbed soil sample, sample soil pats approximately 45mm in
diameter and 15mm in height. Round off their edges to prevent entrapment of air.

6. PROCEDURE:

6.1 PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING SHRINKAGE LIMIT (REMOULDED SOIL):

6.1.1 Preparation of Soil Paste:

Place about 30g of soil sample (obtained from remoulded soil) in the evaporating dish
and thoroughly mix with distilled water in an amount sufficient to fill the soil voids
completely and to make the soil pasty enough to be readily worked into shrinkage
dish without entrapping air bubbles.
6.1.2 Weight of shrinkage Dish and Volume of shrinkage Dish (Volume of wet soil pat)
(V):
(i) Determine the weight of the clean empty shrinkage dish and record.
(ii) Determine the capacity (volume) of the shrinkage dish (in cubic centimeters), which
is also the volume of the wet soil pat. By filling the shrinkage dish to overflowing
with mercury, removing the excess by pressing the plain glass plate firmly over the
top of the shrinkage dish in such a way that the plate is flush with the top of the
shrinkage dish and no air is entrapped, weighing the mercury held in the shrinkage
dish to an accuracy of 0.1g and dividing this weight by the unit weight of mercury to
obtain the volume of shrinkage dish. Record this volume as the volume of wet soil
pat, V.
6.1.3 Filling the Shrinkage Dish:
(i) Coat inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of silicone grease or vaseline or
some other heavy grease to prevent the adhesion of soil to the dish.
(ii) Place in the center of the shrinkage dish an amount of the soil paste equal to about
one-third the volume of the shrinkage dish, and allow the soil paste to flow to the
edges by tapping (beating) the shrinkage dish on a firm surface cushioned by
several layers of blotting paper, rubber sheet or similar material.
(iii) Add an amount of the soil paste approximately equal to the first portion, and tap
the shrinkage dish as before until the paste is thoroughly compacted and all
included air has been brought to the surface.
(iv) Add more soil paste and continue the tapping until the shrinkage dish is
completely filled and excess soil paste stands out about its edge. Then strike off
the excess soil paste with a straight edge, and wipe off all soil adhering to the
outside of the shrinkage dish.

6.1.4 Weigh immediately after shrinkage dish filled with wet soil. Record the weight as weight of
shrinkage dish and wet soil pat.
6.1.5 Allow the soil pat to dry in air until the colour of the soil pat turns from dark to light.
6.1.6 Then dry the soil pat with shrinkage dish by keeping in the oven about 12 to 16 hours in the
oven, cool in a dessiccator and weigh immediately after removal from the desiccator. Record
the weight as weight of shrinkage dish and dry soil pat.

6.1.7 Volume of the Dry Soil Pat (Vo):

Determine the volume of the dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish and
immersing it in the glass cup of full mercury as given below:
(i) Fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury and remove the excess mercury
by pressing the glass plate with the three prongs (see Fig. 1), firmly over the
top of the glass cup, collecting the excess mercury in a suitable container.
Carefully wipe off any other mercury which may be adhering to the outside of
the cup.
(ii) Place the glass cup, filled thus with mercury, in the evaporating dish taking
care not to spill any mercury from the glass cup
(iii) Place the oven-dried soil pat on the surface of the mercury in the glass cup.
Then carefully force the dry soil pat under the mercury by means of the glass
plate with three prongs and press plate firmly over the top of the cup, the
displaced mercury being collected in the evaporating dish without slipping out
of it. Care shall be taken to ensure that no air is trapped under the soil pat.
(iv) Weigh the mercury so displaced by the dry soil pat to an accuracy of 0.1g and
determine its volume by dividing this weight by the unit weight of mercury.
Record this volume as the volume of the oven-dry soil pat, Vo.
6.2 PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING SHRINKAGE LIMIT (UNDISTRUBED SOIL):

6.2.1 Keep the undisturbed soil specimen in a suitable small dish and air-dry it.
6.2.2 Then dry the specimen in the dish to constant weight in an oven at 105 to 1100C. Remove
the specimen from the oven and smoothen the edges by sand papering. Brush off the soil
dust from the specimen by a soft paint brush.
6.2.3 Place the specimen again in the cleaned dish and dry it in an oven at constant weight. Cool
the oven-dry specimen in desiccator and weigh it with the dish. Determine the oven-dry
weight of the specimen, Wsu.
6.2.4 Determine the volume of the oven-dry specimen Vsu as described in 6.1.7.
6.2.5 Determine the specific gravity of soil in accordance with IS: 2720 (Part-3)-1964.

SHRINKAGE
WET SOIL DISH DRY SOIL

BEFORE AFTER
SHRINKAGE SHRINKAGE

GLASS PLATE
75x75x30 GLASS PLATE
WITH PRONGS MERCURY EVAPORATING
DISH

1200
1200
GLASS
CUP

TOP OF GLASS CUP

DRY MERCURY DISPLACED
SOIL PAT BY SOIL PAT

METHOD OF OBTAINING
DISPLACED MERCURY
30 PCD

BRASS PIN
SCRWED FIRMLY
3f 15

1f

DETAILS OF GLASS PLATE WITH PRONGS

NOTE: All dimensions are in millimeters

Fig.2. APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING VOLUMETRIC CHANGE

 7. CALCULATIONS:

7.1 Water/Moisture content (%) of soil pat (w): The moisture content of wet soil pat as a
percentage of the dry weight of the soil as follows:
(W- Wo)
Water/Moisture content (%) of soil pat = w = x100
Wo
where
W = Weight of wet soil pat obtained by subtracting the weight of shrinkage dish
from the Weight of shrinkage dish and wet soil pat, and
Wo = Weight of dry soil pat obtained by subtracting the weight of shrinkage dish
from the Weight of shrinkage dish and dry soil pat.

7.2 Shrinkage Ratio (SR/R):

Shrinkage Ratio (SR/R) is equal to the mass or apparent specific gravity of soil in dry state.
æ Vl - Vd ö æ Vl - V p ö
çç ÷÷ x100 çç ÷ x100
éW0 1 ù éWd 1 ù r d è Vd ø è Vd ÷ø
ShrinkageRatio = SR = ê x ú=ê x ú= = (Gm )dry = =
ë V0 r w û ë V d r w û r w ( wl - w s ) ( wl - w p )

7.3 Shrinkage Limit (Remoulded Soil) (ws):

Shrinkage Limit (Remoulded soil) = w s = w-[(V- V0)/ Wo] x 100

Where
w = Water/Moisture content of wet soil pat (in %),
V = Volume of wet soil pat in ml,
Vo = Volume of oven-dry soil pat in ml, and
Wo = Weight of oven-dry soil pat, in g.

NOTE: When the specific gravity of the soil is known the shrinkage limit may also be
calculated by the following formula:

Shrinkage Limit (Remoulded soil) = w s = [(1/ R) - (1/G)] x100

Where
R = Shrinkage Ratio, and
G = Specific gravity of the soil (can be determined in accordance to IS: 2720 (Part-3)).

7.4 Shrinkage Index (Is) (in %):

Shrinkage Index (Is) = (Liquid Limit- Shrinkage Limit)

Liquid Limit can be determined in accordance to IS: 2720 (Part-5).
7.5 Volumetric Shrinkage/ Volumetric Change (Vs):

Volumetric Shrinkage (Volumetric Change) (V.S.) is the decrease in volume, expressed

as a percentage of the soil mass when dried, of a soil mass when the water content is reduced
from a given percentage to the shrinkage limit.

Volumetric Shrinkage (V.S.) = (w1-ws) x SR

Where
w1 = wl = Liquid limit (%)= given Water/Moisture content (in %),
ws =Shrinkage limit (in %), and

Alternatively….
é (V - V ) ù é (V - V0 ) ù
Volumetric Shrinkage (V.S.) = ê 1 d ú x100 = ê ú x100
ë V d û ë V 0 û

7.6 Linear Shrinkage

é 100 ù
Ls = 100ê1 - 3 ú
ë Vs + 100 û
Where Vs = Volumetric Shrinkage

7.7 Shrinkage Limit (Undisturbed Soil) (wsu):

Shrinkage Limit (Undisturbed Soil) = wsu = [(Vcs/ Wcs) - (1/G)] x100

Where
Vcs = Volume of oven-dry specimen in ml,
Wcs = Weight of oven-dry specimen in g, and
G= Specific gravity of the soil (can be determined in accordance to IS: 2720 (Part-3).
 Table: Shrinkage Limit (Remoulded Soil)
1. Determination No. 1 2 3
2. Shrinkage dish No.
Determination of Volume of soil pat (V) (in ml)
3. Evaporating dish No. (dish into which mercury filling shrinkage dish is transferred for
weighing) (in g)
4. Weight of mercury filling shrinkage dish + Weight of evaporating dish (in g)
5. Weight of evaporating dish (in g)
6. Weight of mercury filling shrinkage dish (in g)
7. Volume of soil pat (V) (in ml)
Determination of Water/Moisture content (%) of soil pat (w)
8. Weight of shrinkage dish (in g)
9. Weight of shrinkage dish + wet soil pat (in g)
10. Weight of shrinkage dish + dry soil pat (in g)
11. Weight of wet soil pat (W) (in g) = (Weight of shrinkage dish + wet soil pat)- Weight of
shrinkage dish
12. Weight of oven-dry soil pat (Wo) (in g) = (Weight of shrinkage dish + dry soil pat)-
Weight of shrinkage dish
13. Water/Moisture content (%) of soil pat =w = [(W- Wo)/ Wo x100]
Determination of Shrinkage Limit (ws)
14. Evaporating dish No.
15. Weight of mercury displaced by the dry soil pat + Weight of evaporating dish (in g)
16. Weight of evaporating dish (in g)
17. Weight of mercury displaced by the dry soil pat (in g)
18. Volume of dry soil pat (V0) (in ml)
19. Shrinkage Limit (Remoulded soil) = ws = w-[(V- V0)/ Wo]x100
20. Shrinkage Ratio = R = Wo /(V0xρw)
21. Given moisture content = w1 (%) = Liquid limit = wl
22. Volumetric Shrinkage (%) = Vs = (w1- ws)xR = éê (V - V0 ) ùú x100
ë V0 û

Table: Shrinkage Limit (Undisturbed Soil)

1. Determination No. 1 2 3
2. Shrinkage dish No.
3. Weight of shrinkage dish + oven-dry soil specimen, in g
4. Weight of shrinkage dish, in g
5. Weight of oven-dry soil pat (Wo), in g
6. Evaporating dish No.
7. Weight of mercury displaced by the oven-dry specimen + Weight of evaporating dish, in g
8. Weight of evaporating dish, in g
9. Weight of mercury displaced by the oven-dry soil specimen, in g
10. Volume of the oven-dry soil specimen (Vcs), in ml
11. Weight of the oven-dry soil specimen (Wcs), in g
12. Specific Gravity of the soil of the specimen= G
13. Shrinkage limit (Undisturbed Soil) = wsu = [(Vcs/ Wcs)- (1/G)]x100

7. RESULT: Shrinkage limit of the given soil sample =

Expt. No: 3 Date:

DETERMINATION OF DRY DENSITY OF SOILS IN-PLACE

PART A: CORE CUTTER METHOD

As per IS 2720 (Part XXIX)-1975

1. AIM: To determine dry density of soils in-place/ in-situ/ in field by the core cutter method.

2. THEORY: The in-place density of soil needed for determination of bearing capacity of soils,
stability analysis, for the determination of degree of compaction of compacted soil, for the
determination of pressures on underlying strata for calculation of settlement, for determination
of lateral pressures etc.
The core-cutter method is suitable for fine-grained soils (soil 90% of which passes the
4.75mm-IS sieve) free from aggregations. It is less accurate than the sand-replacement method
and is not recommended, unless speed is essential or unless the soil is well compacted.

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 Cylindrical Core-cutter of 13cm long and 10cm internal diameter with a wall
thickness of 3mm,
3.2 Steel Dolly of 2.5 cm high and 10cm internal diameter with a wall thickness of
7.5mm,
3.3 Steel Rammer,
3.4 Crowbar/ Pick Axe or Spade,
3.5 Trowel,
3.6 Spatula or Straight edge,
3.7 Sample extruder,
3.8 Weighing balance (accurate to 1g), and
3.9 Apparatus for Determination of Water content

4. PROCEDURE:

(i) Clean the core-cutter and determine its internal volume (Vc) in cm3 shall be calculated
from its dimensions which shall be measured to the nearest 0.25mm.
(ii) The cutter shall be weighted to the nearest gram (Wc). The cutter shall be kept
properly greased or oiled.
(iii) A small area of approximately 30 cm2 of the soil layer to be tested shall be exposed
and levelled. The steel dolly shall be placed the top of the core-cutter and latter shall
be rammed down vertically into the soil layer until only about 15mm of the dolly
protrudes (projects) above the ground.
(iv) Dig the soil around the core-cutter with the help of crowbar and remove it. Remove
the core-cutter by separating it from the soil with the help of a trowel and lifting it
carefully.
 (v) Trim the top and bottom surfaces of the sample collected with a spatula or a straight
edge. Determine the weight of the core-cutter with the soil (Ws).
(vi) Extrude the soil from the core-cutter with the help of a sample extruder; collect the
soil in moisture cans taking out the soil from the middle of the soil cylinder. Keep
the moisture cans in the oven for the determination of moisture content.

5. CALCULATIONS:
The bulk density of the soil shall be calculated as follows:
Weight of the wet soil M s - M c
Bulk density of the soil = r b = = , g cc
Volume of the wet soil Vc
Where
Ws = Weight of soil and core-cutter in g,
Wc = Weight of core-cutter in g, and
p
Vc = Volume of core-cutter in cm3 = Volume of soil = D 2 H
4

The dry density of the soil shall be calculated from the following formula:
rb
Dry density of the soil = r d = , g cc
1+ w
Where,
γb = Bulk density
w = water content of the soil (in decimals).
1. Determination No. 1 2 3
2. Weight of core-cutter (Wc), in g
3. Weight of core-cutter + wet soil (Ws), in g
4. Weight of wet soil (Ws - Wc), in g
5. Volume of core-cutter (Vc), in cm3
W - Wc
6. Bulk density of the soil = g b = s , g cc
Vc
7. Water content container No.
8. Weight of container with lid W1, in g
9. Weight of container with lid and wet soil W2, in g
10. Weight of container with lid and dry soil W3, in g
(W2 - W3 )
11. Water content (w) of the soil = ´ 100%
(W3 - W1 )
rb
12. Dry density of the soil = r d = , g cc
1+ w

6. RESULT: The Average dry density of in-place soil =

NOTE: It is necessary to make a number of repeat determinations (at least three), and to average
results, since the dry density of the soil vary appreciably from point to point.
 PART-B: SAND-REPLACEMENT METHOD

As per IS 2720 (Part XXVIII)-1974

1. AIM: To determine dry density of soils in-place/ in-situ/ in field by the sand-replacement
method.

2. THEORY:
The in-place density of soil needed for determination of bearing capacity of soils, stability
analysis, for the determination of degree of compaction of compacted soil, for the
determination of pressures on underlying strata for calculation of settlement, for determination
of lateral pressures etc.
The core-cutter method is suitable for fine-grained soils (soil 90% of which passes the
4.75mm-IS sieve) free from aggregations. It is less accurate than the sand-replacement method
and is not recommended, unless speed is essential or unless the soil is well compacted. The
sand-replacement method is suitable for fine, medium and coarse-grained soils. For fine and
medium grained soils a small pouring cylinder is required. For fine and medium grained soils a
large pouring cylinder is required.

3. APPARATUS:
3.1 Sand: Clean sand, uniformly graded natural sand passing the 1.00mm IS Sieve and retained
on the 600µ IS Sieve shall be used. It shall be free from organic matter, and shall have been
oven dried and stored for a 7 days period to allow its water content to reach equilibrium with
atmospheric humidity. The sand should not be stored in air-tight containers and should be
thoroughly mixed before use.
3.2 Sand-Pouring Cylinder,
3.2 Weighing balance (accurate to 1g),
3.3 Cylindrical calibrating container,
3.4 Plane Glass or Perspex Plate,
3.5 Metal Tray with hole,
3.6 Tools for excavating holes, and
3.7 Apparatus for Determination of Water content.
10mm
Handle

Shutter

Cone portion

G. L.

Hole in the Ground

Fig. Sand-Pouring Cylinder for the Determination of Density

4. PROCEDURE:

(A) Determination of the Density of Sand used in the Sand-Pouring Cylinder:

1. Fill the sand pouring cylinder with sand up to about 10mm (1cm) below the top edge of the
cylinder, weigh it with its shutter closed (W1S).

2. Keep the cylinder on a plane glass plate; allow the sand to run out by opening the shutter when
no further movement of sand is observed in the cylinder. Weigh the sand-pouring cylinder (W2S).

3. Determine the volume of the cylindrical calibrating container (V c) by measuring its internal
dimensions.

4. Place the sand-pouring cylinder concentrically on the top of the calibrating container, open the
shutter and allow the sand to run out. Close the shutter when no further movement of sand is
observed in the cylinder.

5. Remove the cylinder and determine its weigh (W3S).

6. Compute the density of the dry sand as given below:

Weight of the sand occupying the conical portion in the bottom of the cylinder = (W1S - W2S)
Weight of the sand occupying the conical portion and the calibrating container = (W2S – W3S)
Weight of the sand filling the calibrating container = Wsand = (W2S – W3S) - (W1S - W2S)
Volume of the cylindrical calibrating container = Vc
W
\ Density of the calibrated sand = g sand = sand , g cc
Vc

(B) Determination of the field density of the soil:

1. Fill the sand pouring cylinder with the calibrating sand up to 10mm below the top of the
cylinder and determine its weight (W1).

2. Weigh the tray with the central hole (W2).

3. Place the tray on a prepared surface of the soil; make a pit by excavating the soil using the
hole in the tray as a pattern, to a depth of about 125mm (12.5 cm). Collect the excavated soil
carefully into the tray, leaving no loose material in the hole. Weigh the tray with the excavated
soil (W3).
4. Place the sand-pouring cylinder concentrically on the pit. Open the shutter and allow the sand
to run out into the hole. After ensuring that no further sand is running out, close the shutter.
Remove the cylinder and weigh it (W4).
5. Collect a representative sample of the excavated soil in moisture can and keeps it in the hot-air
oven for moisture content (%) determination.

6. The bulk density of the soil (γb) is determined as follows:

 Weight of the soil excavated from the pit = W = (W3 –W2)
Weight of dry sand occupying pit and conical portion at the bottom of the cylinder = (W 1 –
W4)
We know that..
Weight of the sand occupying the conical portion in the bottom of the cylinder = (W1S - W2S)
\Weight of the dry sand occupying the pit = (W1 –W4) - (W1S - W2S)
Weight of the dry sand occupying the pit
Volume of the pit = V =
Density of the calibrated sand
(W1 - W4 ) - (W1S - W2S )
\V = , in cc
g sand
W
\ Bulk density of the in - situ soil = g b = , g cc
V
7. The dry density of the soil shall be calculated from the following formula:
gb
Dry density of the soil = g d = , g cc
1+ w
Where, γb = Bulk density and w = water content of the soil (in decimals).

The observations are entered in the Tables 1 and 2.

5. PRECAUTIONS:
1. The field test holes being small, the error is likely to be large if any soil is lost during
excavation. Therefore, any loss of soil should be avoided.
2. The excavation should be as rapid as possible to preserve the natural moisture-content of the
soil. As soon as the excavation is completed, the natural soil should be taken for weight and
water content determination.
3. Errors in water content determination can be minimized by drying the entire quantity of soil
excavated from the test hole.
Table 1: Calibration of Sand
1. Determination No. 1 2 3
2. Weight of sand pouring cylinder + sand (W 1S), in g
3. Weight of sand pouring cylinder after running
down the sand on glass plate (W2S), in g
4. Diameter of calibrating container, d, in cm
5. Height of calibrating container, h, in cm
6. Volume of calibrating container (Vc), in cm3
7. Weight of sand pouring cylinder after running
down the sand in calibrating container (W3S), in g
8. Weight of the sand occupying the conical portion
in the bottom of the cylinder = (W1S - W2S), in g
9. Weight of the sand occupying the conical portion
and the calibrating container = (W2S – W3S), in g
10. Weight of the sand filling the calibrating container
= Wsand = (W2S – W3S) - (W1S - W2S), in g
Wsand
11. Density of the calibrated sand = g sand = , g cc
Vc
 Table 2: Determination of Soil Density

1. Determination No. 1 2 3
2. Weight of sand pouring cylinder + sand (W1), in g
3. Weight of tray with central hole (W2), in g
4. Weight of tray + soil excavated from the pit (W3), in g
5. Weight of sand pouring cylinder after running down
the sand into the pit (W4), in g
6. Weight of the soil excavated from the pit=W= (W3-W2), in g
7. Weight of the sand occupying the pit and conical portion at the
bottom of the cylinder = (W1 - W4), in g
8. Weight of the dry sand occupying the pit = (W1 –W4) - (W1S - W2S), in g
(W1 - W4 ) - (W1S - W2S )
9. Volume of the pit = V = , in cc
g sand
W
10. Bulk density of the in - situ soil = g b = , g cc
V
11. Water content container No.
12. Weight of container with lid W1, in g
13. Weight of container with lid and wet soil W2, in g
14. Weight of container with lid and dry soil W3, in g
(W2 - W3 )
15. Water content (w) of the soil = ´ 100%
(W3 - W1 )
gb
16. Dry density of the soil = g d = , g cc
1+ w

6. RESULT: The Average dry density of in-place soil =

Expt. No: 4 Date:
GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS BY SEIVING
MECHANICAL (SIEVE) ANALYSIS

As per IS 2720 (Part IV)-1985

1. AIM: Determining the Grain-Size Distribution for a given Coarse-Grained soil by dry sieving.

2. THEORY:

Grain size analysis expresses quantitatively the proportions by mass of various sizes of
particles present in the soil. The results of a grain size analysis may be represented in the form
of a Grain Size Distribution (GSD) curve/ Particle Size Distribution (PSD) curve/ Gradation
curve. The grain-size distribution is universally used in the engineering classification of the
soils. In addition, the suitability criteria of soils used for road and airfield construction, dam
and other embankment construction and the design of filters for earth dams are based partly on
the results of grain-size analysis.

Particle Size Analysis is accomplished by obtaining the quantity of material passing

through the apertures of a given-sized sieve but retained on a sieve of smaller-sized apertures.
The weight of the quantity of soil retained any particular sieve with reference to the overall
weight of the soil sample taken for the analysis, expressed as a percentage, is termed as the
percentage weight of the soil retained. The percentage of soil that passes through the sieve is
termed as the percentage finer.

Dry Sieve Analysis is meant for coarse-grained soils having no or little fines (fines <
5%).

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 Sieves,
3.2 Weighing balance (sensitive to 0.1% of the weight of sample to be weighed),
3.3 Wire brush,
3.4 Thermostatically controlled oven,
3.5 Mechanical Sieve Shaker,
3.6 Mortar and Rubber pestle

4. PROCEDURE:
(i) Keep the given representative sample of soil in the oven for 24 hours.

(ii) Pulverize the oven-dried sample by using the mortar and rubber pestle and sieve it
on the 4.75 mm sieve. Take about 500 g of the fraction of the soil passing 4.75 mm
sieve and retained on 75 mm sieve for the sieve analysis.
 (iii) Take the following set of sieves and stack them one over the other in the order of
arrangement shown (i.e. the sieve with the largest aperture at the top and smallest
aperture size at the bottom).

Lid
4.75mm
2.00mm

1.00mm

425 m
212 m
150 m

75 m
Pan

Sieve Shaker

Fig. Set of Fine Sieves

1 micron = 1 m = 1 x 10-6 m or 1 x 10-6 mm.

Place the soil in the top sieve, close the lid, transfer the set of sieves with the received pan
at the bottom to a mechanical sieve shaker and fir them. Sieve the soil for a period of 10
minutes.

(iv) Remove the stack of sieves from the shaker and obtain the weight of the material
retained on each sieve.

(v) Compute the percentage retained on the each sieve by dividing the weight retained on
each sieve by the original weight of the soil sample taken for the analysis.

(vi) Compute the percent finer by starting with 100 % and subtracting the percent retained
on each sieve as accumulative procedure.

(vii) Draw a graph between the percentage finer, drawn to natural scale on the Y – axis and
the particle (aperture) size drawn to logarithmic scale on the X – axis. Then the plot is
called PSD Curve/ GSD Curve/ Gradation Curve.

Table: Particle Size Distribution

Sand
Gravel Silt Clay
Coarse Medium Fine
Grain size range 4.75 – 2.00 2.00 – 0.425 0.425 – 0.075 0.075 – 0.002 < 0.002
in mm > 4.75
5. OBSERVATIONS:
Weight % Cumulative Cumulative
IS Sieve Particle size
S. No. retained Weight % Weight % Finer
Size D (mm)
(g) Retained Retained (% Passing)
1 4.75mm 4.75
2 2.00mm 2.00
3 1.00mm 1.00
4 425 m 0.425
5 212 m 0.212
6 150 m 0.150
7 75 m 0.075
8 Pan <0.075

6. COMMENTS:

From the Grain Size Distribution (GSD) Curve grain sizes such as D 10, D30 and D60 may be obtained.
D refers to the grain size while the subscript (10, 30, and 60) denotes the percentage finer.

Thus D10 = 0.10 mm indicates the diameter of the particle corresponding to 10 percent finer. Or, in
other words, 10% of the sample has grains smaller than 0.10 mm.

From the above values, two quantities, namely the Co-efficient of uniformity (Cu), and the
Coefficient of curvature (Cc), may be computed using the following formulae.
D60
Cu =
D10
(D30)2
Cc =
D60 D10
These quantities enable one to know whether the soils are Well-Graded (W) i.e., it has a good
representation of all particle sizes, or poorly graded/gap graded/skip graded (P) i.e., a good
representation of all particle sizes does not exist.

For a Well Graded Soil/ Uniformly Graded Soil,

Cu > 4 for Gravels
Cu > 6 for Sands and
Cc must be between 1 and 3 for both.
If the above criteria are not met, the soil may be termed as Poorly Graded (P).
For a uniform soil: Cu <1
7. CALCULATION:

From the PSD Curve:

D60 =
D30 =
D10 =
D60
\Co-efficient of uniformity = Cu = =
D10

(D30)2
\ Coefficient of curvature = Cc = =
D60 D10

8. RESULT:

According to Cu and Cc values obtained from graph, the soil may be termed as _____graded.
The sample contains mostly_______. So the sample is_______________________soil.
Expt. No: 5 Date:

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

As Per IS 2720 (Part 4)-1985

1. AIM:

To determine the percentages of various soil grains (finer that 75m) by hydrometer analysis.

2. THEORY:

Grain size analysis expresses quantitatively the proportions by mass of various sizes of
particles present in the soil. The results of a grain size analysis may be represented in the form of
a Grain Size Distribution (GSD) curve/Particle Size Distribution (PSD) curve/ Gradation curve.
The results of grain size analysis are widely used in soil classification. The data obtained from
the GSD curves is used to determine the suitability of soils for road construction, used in the
design of filters for earth dams, etc.

Sedimentation Analysis also called Wet Analysis is meant for fine-grained soils.
Sedimentation Analysis is carried by using hydrometer. Hydrometer analysis is based on stoke’s
law which defines the velocity of a freely falling sphere through a liquid.
1 gd2 (G -1) rw
.
V= 1
18 µ
Where, V = Terminal velocity
G = Sp. gr. of solids,
d = diameter of sphere = diameter of particle,
rw = density of water=1g/cc,
g = acceleration due to gravity = 981 cm/s2
µ = viscosity of water in g-s/cm2 = 10.09 milli poise = 10.09 x 10-3 Poise

If a spherical particle falls through a height ‘He’ cm in ‘t’ minutes.

He cm
V= 2
60t sec
Equating 1 and 2

0.3µ He
\Particle size = d (in cm) =
g (G -1) t

30µ He He
\Particle size = d (in mm) = =M 3
g (Gs-1) t t
If the Ws is the mass/ weight of the solids in a volume of 1000ml
finer than size ‘d’
Gs Rc
. . 4
% of particles finer than size‘d’ = N = 100 %
Gs-1 Ws

Where
G = Average specific gravity of soil grains
Ws=Weight of dry soil sample taken from the soil passing 75 sieve.
Rc= Corrected hydrometer reading

3. APPARATUS:
3.1 Hydrometer (Calibrated at 270C, range 0.995 to 1.030 g/cc.),
3.2 Graduated glass cylindrical jars of 1 Litre (1000 ml) capacity,
3.3 Dispersing (Deflocculating) agent (containing 33g of Sodium Hexameta-Phosphate and 7g of
Sodium carbonate in distilled water to make one liter of solution),
3.4 75 µ IS sieve,
3.5 Mechanical stirrer (high speed 75,000rpm),
3.6 Balance,
3.7 Stop watch,
3.8 Filter paper
3.9 Measuring cylinder of capacity 100ml, and
3.10 Centimeter scale

4. PROCEDURE:

4.1 Calibration of Hydrometer:

1. Volume of the Hydrometer bulb (Vh): The volume of the hydrometer bulb (Vh) shall be
determined in one of the following ways:
a) From the volume of water displaced -
Approximately 800 ml of water shall be poured into the 1000 ml measuring glass cylindrical
jar. The reading of the water level shall be observed and recorded. The hydrometer shall be
immersed m the water and the level shall again be observed and recorded. The difference
between the two readings shall he recorded as the volume of the hydrometer bulb in
millilitres plus the volume of that part of the stem that is submerged. For practical purposes,
the error due to the inclusion of this stem volume may be neglected.
b) From the mass of the hydrometer – The hydrometer shall be weighed to the nearest 0.1 g.

2. C/s Area of the measuring glass cylindrical jar (Aj): Measure the distance in cm between
two graduations on the cylinder. The C/s area of the cylindrical jar is then equal to the
volume included between two graduations divided by the distance between them.

3. Keep the hydrometer, lying on a white paper. Draw its boundaries and mark the major
calibration marks on the paper.
4. Measure the height of the bulb from the neck to the bottom of the bulb (h).
5. Measure the height between the neck and each major calibration marks (H 1).

-5 0.995

0 1.000

5 1.005
10 1.010

15 1.015
H1
20 1.020
He 25 1.025

30 1.030

Centre of the bulb

h

Fig. Hydrometer

NOTE: The hydrometer readings are recorded after subtracting unity from the value of density
and multiplying the remaining digit by 1000. Thus a density of 1.015 is represented R H of (rs-rw)
x 1000 =(rs-1) x1000 = (1.015-1.000) x1000 = 15.

6. Record the values of RH and H1 in Table 1 and calculate the effective height (He)
corresponding to each of the major calibration marks RH, by the following expression:
\Effective height (in cm) = He = H1+ ½ (h-Vh/Aj) = H1+ k
Where, Constant = k= ½ (h-Vh/Aj)
Vh = Volume of the Hydrometer bulb =
Aj = C/s Area of the measuring glass cylindrical jar =
h = Height of the bulb from the neck to the bottom of the bulb = length of hydrometer bulb=
Table 1:
Hydrometer Measure the height Effective height
Reading between (in cm)
(RH) the neck and each He = H1+ ½ (h-Vh/Aj)
major calibration marks
(H1)
7. Draw the calibration curve between the He and RH.

20

18

16
Effective
height (He) 14

12

10
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Hydrometer reading (RH)
Fig. Calibration plot/chart

4.2 Sedimentation Test:

1. About 50g of oven-dry soil is weighed accurately and transferred to an evaporating dish.

2. To have a proper dispersion of soil, about 100ml of a dispersion solution is added to the
evaporating dish to cover the soil.

NOTE: IS 2720: Part- IV recommends the use of dispersion solution obtained after adding 33g
of sodium hexameta-phosphate and 7g of sodium carbonate to distilled water to make one liter of
solution.

3. After the dispersion solution has been added to soil, the mixture is warmed gently for
10minutes.

4. The contents of the evaporating dish are then transferred to the cup of a mechanical stirrer.

5. Distilled water is added to make the cup about ¾ th full.

6. The suspension is stirred for 15 minutes. However, the stirring period is more for clayey soils.

7. Meanwhile clean the hydrometer and keep in 1000cc Sedimentation Jar No. (3) filled with
900 cc distilled water and 100cc of dispersing agent solution.

8. The suspension is then washed through 75µ IS sieve, using jet of distilled water.

9. The portion of the suspension passing through the sieve is collected in another 1000ml
Sedimentation Jar No. (2) and enough water is added to make 1000 ml suspension for the
sedimentation analysis. Soil collected on 75µ IS sieve is oven-dried and weighed.
10. The soil suspension in the jar is mixed thoroughly by firmly placing the palm of the hand
on the open end and turning the jar upside and down and back. Taking care that the suspension
does not come out.
11. When the suspension is well mixed, the jar is placed on the table and the hydrometer is
inserted.

12. A stopwatch is started immediately and the readings of hydrometer (RH) are taken after
¼, ½, 1, 2 and 4 minutes of the commencement of sedimentation.

13. Remove the hydrometer from the jar and rinse it with distilled water and float it in a
comparison jar (for finding composite correction) containing the distilled water with the
dispersing agent to the same concentration as in the soil suspension.

14. Re-immerse the hydrometer in the suspension and take hydrometer readings (R H) after 5,
10, 15 and 30 minutes, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours, reckoned form the beginning of the
sedimentation. Take out hydrometer after every reading and float it in the comparison cylinder
(for finding composite correction).

15. About 30 seconds before each hydrometer reading, the hydrometer is slowly inserted in
suspension so that it is stable by the time the reading is due. The hydrometer is taken, with as
little disturbance as possible.

16. Take the readings of the solution in the sedimenta

17. tion jar No. (1) also simultaneously and record them for dispersion agent correction.
Record the temperature of the suspension once during the first 15 minutes and thereafter at
every subsequent observation.

//The effective depth (He) of hydrometer keeps on increases as the particles are settles with time//

4.3 Correction to Hydrometer Readings:

(a) Meniscus correction (+Cm): As the soil suspension is opaque, the hydrometer is read at
the top of meniscus and the level of the liquid is termed meniscus correction (C m). (See
Fig. (a)). Meniscus correction is always positive and is constant for a particular
hydrometer.
If RH is the observed hydrometer reading in the soil suspension, the corrected hydrometer
reading is given as follows:
1
(b) RH = RH + Cm
[Note: The reading RH1 is used for finding the effective height He from the
Calibration chart].
 Cm
Cd

Soil
suspension

Take 100 cc
of the
Distilled dispersion
water agent and
make up to
1000cc

Fig. (a) Fig. (b) Fig. (c)

1000cc Jar No. (1) filled with 1000cc Sedimentation Jar No. (2) 1000cc Jar No. (3) filled with 900
1000 cc distilled water filled with 900 cc distilled water cc distilled water and 100cc of
and 100cc of dispersing agent dispersing agent solution
solution

(c) Temperature correction (+Ct): The hydrometers are calibrated at standard temperature
(270C). In case the test temperature of the suspension is above the standard, the
correction is added (+Ct), if below it is subtracted (-Ct). The temperature correction is
obtained from the manufacturer.

i. Record the number of hydrometer and 1000 cc cylinder you are going to
use for hydrometer analysis.
ii. Take cool water in the cylinder (at about 140C) and note down the
temperature and the corresponding hydrometer reading at intervals of 20C
up to a room temperature.
iii. Continue step (ii) at higher temperatures up to 330C by adding warm water
to the cylinder.
iv. Plot a graph between temperature (X-axis) and hydrometer reading (Y-
axis).
Note: The hydrometer is calibrated at 200C.

(d) Dispersing agent correction (-Cd): The correction due to rise in density of soil
suspension on account of the addition of dispersing agent is always negative.
Take 100 cc of the dispersion agent and make up to 1000cc in a standard
measuring cylindrical Jar (3). Insert the hydrometer and take the readings. Insert the
hydrometer in another measuring cylindrical Jar (1) filled with pure distilled water at
room temperature. The given difference is the dispersion correction (C d).

Thus, the corrected hydrometer reading Rc is given as: Rc = RH + Cm + Ct -Cd

Composite correction (C= Cm + Ct -Cd): Instead of finding the corrections individually, it is
convenient to find one composite correction. The composite correction is the algebric sum of all
the corrections. Thus,
Rc= Corrected hydrometer reading = RH + C
Where RH= Observed hydrometer reading
The composite correction is found directly from the readings taken in a comparison cylinder
containing distilled water and the dispersing agent of the same concentration and has the same
temperature as that of soil suspension. The negative of hydrometer reading in the comparison
cylinder is equal to the composite correction. If the reading is +1 (i.e., 1.001), the correction is
-1, and if the reading is -2 (i.e., 0.998) the correction is +2.

100ml of a
dispersion
solution
added to
distilled water
make up to
1000ml

5 PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The insertion of the hydrometer should be gentle.
(ii) The hydrometer should not touch the walls of the jar.
(iii) Both the jars should be kept away from the any local sources of heat and direct sun
light.
(iv) There should not be any vibration in the vicinity.

6 TABULATION:

Ws=Weight of dry soil sample taken from the soil passing 75 sieve =
Cm= Meniscus correction=
Test Temperature= ToC
G = Average specific gravity of soil grains =
µ = Viscosity of water at Test Temperature=T oC = g-s/cm2
2
g = acceleration due to gravity= 981 cm/s
30µ
Factor = M= =
g(G-1)
 Table: 2
1
Elapsed Hydrometer RH = Effective Particle size Composite Corrected % of
Time Reading RH + Cm Height (d) correction particles
(in min ) (RH) (He) Equation 3 (C) Hydrometer finer than
(t) (in cm) d = M He/t Reading size ‘d’
(in mm) Rc= RH+C (N)
Equation
(4)
1/4
1/2
1
2
4
5
10
15
30
60
120
240
480
1440

6 RESULT: Draw the plot between particle size and % finer

NOTE: As a soil contains the particles of coarse-grained and fine-grained soils, a combined
sieve analysis comprising both Sieve Analysis and Sedimentation Analysis may be required for
such soils.
Expt. No: 6 Date:

DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY OF THE SOIL

As per IS 2720 (Part XVII)-1986

PART-A: CONSTANT HEAD PERMEAMETER METHOD

1. AIM:

To determine the coefficient of permeability of given coarse-grained soil.

2. THEORY:

Permeability is the property of a soil, which permits flow of water (or any other liquid) through
it. In all the case, flow is taken as laminar and it is assumed that Darcy's law is valid.
q = KiA
Where q = discharge per unit time
A = C/S area of the soil
K = Co-efficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient

The coefficient of permeability of the soil may be determined directly in the laboratory by
conducting the following tests:
i. Constant head method – suitable for coarse-grained soils/ Granular soils, because it is possible
to collect significant discharge in small time duration.
ii. Variable head method – suitable for fine-grained soils.

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 Permeameter with all accessories,

3.2 Scale,
3.3 Vernier calipers,
3.4 Filter plate
3.5 Metal tray,
3.6 Measuring jar,
3.7 Stop watch, and
3.8 Thermometer

4. PROCEDURE:

1. Remove the cover of the mould and apply a little grease on the sides of the mould.

2. Measure the internal diameter and effective height of the mould and then attach the collar and the
base plate.
3. Take the required weight of the dry cohesionless soil to fill the soil to the desired dry density (void
ratio). Compact the soil into the mould after fixing the base plate to the mould and placing the
porous discs.

4. Remove the collar, trim off the excess soil and level with the top of the mould.

5. Put the porous plate and a filter paper both at top and bottom of the soil sample.

6. Secure both the base plate and the top plate to mould with suitable clamps and rubber gaskets to
make the entire assembly watertight.

7. Place this assembly in a shallow metal tray with an outlet.

8. Fill the metal tray with water to submerge the base plate completely.

9. Attach the constant head water tank with the sliding bracket to a vertical stand. This tank has three
openings. Connect one of them to a water supply source, the second to an overflow tube and the
third to the inlet valve provided on the cap of the permeameter.

10. Admit water into the permeameter. Remove all the air with the help of the air-release valve
provided on the top plate. Allow the soil sample to saturate. Check this by obtaining concurrent
values of discharge collected over a given time under a given head.

11. Connect the reservoir with water to the inlet at the top of the mould and allow water to flow in
till the sample gets saturated. This ensures that the sample is fully saturated.

12. Ensuring that steady state flow conditions are obtained, record the time required to collect
sufficient quantity of water (20 to 50 ml) using a 100ml-measuring jar. Take temperature of water.
Repeat the collection of water two or three times for the same time interval. Measure the hydraulic
head with respect to the tail water level corresponding to the bottom of outlet in a tray.

13. Repeat the test three or four times by varying the hydraulic head for each trail. Note the
temperature of water.

5. OBSERVATIONS:

Length of the mould=Length of soil sample =L =

Diameter of the mould = Diameter of soil sample =D=
Area of the mould= C/S area of the soil sample = A =
Test temperature= ToC =
 Head Quantity of water Time of q=
V Coefficient of
(h) collected (V) collection t permeability K=
( cm) (cc) t (sec) qL
(cm/sec)
AH

Average=

Average=

Average=

Average=

Average coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample at test temperature T oc = kT =

Average coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample at 27 oc = k27 = kT x mT /m27 =
Where, mT = Viscosity of Water at test temperature Toc
m27 = Viscosity of Water at 27oc

Table: Viscosity of Water

T oC Viscosity T oC Viscosity T oC Viscosity
(Poise) (Poise) (Poise)
4oC 0.01568 18 oC 0.01060 32 oC 0.00767
5oC 0.01519 19 oC 0.01034 33 oC 0.00751
6 oC 0.01473 20 oC 0.01009 34 oC 0.00736
7 oC 0.01429 21oC 0.00984 35 oC 0.00721
8 oC 0.01387 o
22 C 0.00961 36 oC 0.00706
9 oC 0.01348 23oC 0.00938 37 oC 0.00693
10 oC 0.01310 o
24 C 0.00916 38 oC 0.00679
11 oC 0.01274 25oC 0.00895 39 oC 0.00666
12 oC 0.01239 o
26 C 0.00875 40 oC 0.00654
113 oC 0.01206 27 oC 0.00855 41 oC 0.00643
14 oC 0.01175 28 oC 0.00836 42 oC 0.00630
15 oC 0.01145 o
29 C 0.00818 43 oC 0.00618
16 oC 0.01116 30 oC 0.00800 44 oC 0.00608
17 oC 0.01088 o
31 C 0.00788 45 oC 0.00597
1 dyne-sec/cm2 = 1 Poise; 1 g-sec/ cm2 = 980.7 poise
6. RESULT: Average coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample at 27oc=
 PART-B VARIABLE (FALLING) HEAD PERMEAMETER METHOD

1. AIM:

To determine the coefficient of permeability of the given fine-grained soil.

2. APPARATUS:

3.1 Variable Head Permeameter,

3.2 Filter paper,
3.3 Scale,
3.4 Vernier calipers,
3.5 Metal tray,
3.6 Measuring jar,
3.7 Stand-pipe
3.8 Stop watch, and
3.9 Thermometer
4. PROCEDURE:

1. Remove the cover of the mould and apply a little grease on the sides of the mould.

2. Measure the internal diameter and effective height of the mould and then attach the collar and the
base plate.
3. Take the required weight of the dry cohesionless soil to fill the soil to the desired dry density (void
ratio). Compact the soil into the mould after fixing the base plate to the mould and placing the
porous discs.

4. Remove the collar, trim off the excess soil and level with the top of the mould.

5. Put the porous plate and a filter paper both at top and bottom of the soil sample.

6. Secure both the base plate and the top plate to mould with suitable clamps and rubber gaskets
to make the entire assembly watertight.

7. Place this assembly in a shallow metal tray with an outlet.

8. Fill the metal tray with water to submerge the base plate completely.

9. Connect the standpipe to the inlet at the top plate

10. Fill the standpipe with water to convenient height and measure the hydraulic head (h1) w.r.t the
tail water level corresponding to the bottom of the outlet of the tray.

11. Commence the flow of water by opening the inlet valve and simultaneously start the stopwatch.
12. Record the time intervals for the head to fall from h1 to h2 for five times. Note the temperature of
water.

4. OBSERVATIONS:

a = C/s area of stand pipe=

A=C/s area of soil sample=
L= Length of the soil sample=

S.No. Initial Final Time aL h

K = 2.3 log10 1
head head interval At h2
(h1) (h2) 't'
cm cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Average coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample at test temperature T oc = kT =

Average coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample at 27 oc = k27 = kT x mT /m27 =
Where, mT = Viscosity of Water at test temperature Toc
m27 = Viscosity of Water at 27oc
1 dyne-sec/cm2 = 1 Poise; 1 g-sec/ cm2 = 980.7 poise

6. RESULT: Average coefficient of permeability of the given soil sample at 27 oc=

Expt. No:7 Date:
COMPACTION TEST

PART-A: STANDARD PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST (I. S. LIGHT COMPACTION)

As per IS 2720 (Part VIII)-1983

1. AIM:

To determine the moisture content - dry density relationship of a given soil under the Standard
Proctor compactive effort.

2. THEORY:

Soil at a given site may not often ideal for construction of a civil engineering structure or a
facility. It may be necessary to improve the engineering properties of such soils. Compaction is one
of the methods of making such improvement and involves densification by applying mechanical
energy on a soil mixed with suitable water content.

In 1933, proctor showed that there existed a definite relationship between the soil water
content and degree of dry density to which the soil might be compacted. Optimum water content
may be defined as the water content at which a particular soil attains a maximum dry density for a
specific amount of compaction energy.

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 Proctor’s cylindrical compaction mould of capacity 944 ml (1/30 ft 3) with base plate and
collar,
3.2 Compaction rammer weighing 2.50 kg (5.5 lb) and having a drop of 305 mm (12 11),
3.3 4.75mm IS sieve
3.4 Steel straight edge,
3.5 Balance,
3.6 Oven,
3.7 Water content containers,
3.8 Mixing equipment, and
3.9 Sample extruder

4. PROCEDURE:

1. Weigh the empty Proctor mould (W1 g) and also determine its volume (V). Fix the mould to
the base plate and attach the collar to the mould. Apply a thin layer of oil to inside surface of
the mould and the collar.

2. Take about 3 kg of air-dried soil which is pulverized and passed through 4.75mm sieve.
 3. Add to this soil a certain initial percentage of water based on the dry weight. Sprinkle this
water uniformly on the soil and mix it carefully.

4. Divide the wet soil into three equal parts. Fill the mould with one part of the soil and
compact it with 25 evenly distributed blows with the standard rammer. Repeat the above
process with the second and third parts of the soil.
Before each subsequent layer of the soil is placed, the top of the previously
compacted layer is scratched with a spatula. This ensures a thorough bonding of one layer
with the other .The mould is thus filled with all the three soil layers.
Detach the mould from the base plate, remove the collar and trim the soil on the top
of the mould. If there is any difficulty in removing the collar, take a spatula and trim along
the bottom edge of the collar until it comes off easily.

5. Weigh the mould with the compacted soil (W2 g), after removing the soil sticking to the
mould (trimmings).

6. To extrude the soil specimen from the mould use the sample extruder. After the sample has
come out, split it and take a small quantity of soil from the middle layer of the sample for
water content determination. After weighing the cans with soil samples, keep them in the hot-
air oven for 24hours to determine the water content.

7. Repeat the procedure by taking fresh sample of soil each time and adding water to it with
increments varying between 2% and 4% until; based on the wet weight, a peak value is
obtained by at least two lesser compacted weights. The readings are to be recorded in Table.

8. The weight of the moisture cans with oven-dried soils is taken the next day and the average
water content (w) determined for each test. The values are to be recorded in Table.

9. The dry density is calculated from the formula,

r (W/V) (W2-W1)
Dry Density= rd = = =
1+w 1+w V (1+w)

Empty weight of mould =

Internal Diameter of mould=D=
Height of mould=H=
Volume of mould = Volume of the soil sample = P/4xD2 =

5. GRAPH:

Plot the water content on x-axis and dry density in y-axis, draw the smooth curve, called
Compaction Curve.
 MDD

Dry Density

OMC
Moisture content (%)
Fig. Compaction Curve
Table
1. Amount of water added
2. Wt. of mould (W1), in g
3. Wt. of compacted soil + mould (W2), in g
4. Weight of wet soil (W2 - W1), in g
5. Volume of mould (V), in cm3
W2-W1
6. Bulk density = r = , in g/cc
V
7. Water content container No.
8. Weight of container with lid M1, in g
9. Weight of container with lid and wet soil M2, in g
10. Weight of container with lid and dry soil M3, in g
(M2-M3)
11. Water content (w) of the soil = x 100 %
(M3-M1)
r
12. Dry density = rd = , in g/cc
1+w

6. RESULT:
Optimum moisture content (OMC) =
Max dry density (MDD) =

PART-B: MODIFIED PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST (HEAVY COMPACTION)

AS PER IS 2720 (Part VIII)-1983
During the Second World War, a modified test was developed by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers to better represent the compaction required for air-fields to support heavy air-crafts.
The specifications are as follows:
Weight of the rammer = 4.89 kg (10.8 lb)
Height of fall = 457mm (1811)
No. of layers =5
No. of blows per layer = 25
Capacity of mould = 944 ml
The modified compaction energy is 4.55 times that used in the standard compaction test.

NOTE: If % soil retained on 4.75mm IS sieve is >20%, large mould of capacity 2.25 liters is
recommended. In such case no. of blows per each layer shall be 56 for both SPT and MPT.
 Expt. No: 8 Date:

DETERMINATION OF CONSOLIDATION PROPERTIES

As per IS 2720 (Part XV)-1986

1. AIM:

To determine the consolidation properties of disturbed or undisturbed soil by conducting

one dimensional consolidation test.

2. THEORY:

Compression of saturated soil resulting from long term static load and the consequent
escape of pore water is known as "consolidation". On the other hand, the process of increase in
water content due to increase in volume of voids is called "Swelling".

When there is a pressure increment, it will be first taken by pore water which is known as
excess hydrostatic pressure. As water starts escaping out, this excess hydrostatic pressure gets
dissipated gradually and the pressure will be transmitted to the soil grains. When the whole of the
pressure increment is carried as effective pressure on the soil solids, no more water escapes from
voids and a condition of equilibrium is attained. Under different applied pressures, soil attains
equilibrium or final void ratios.

The delay caused in consolidation by slow drainage of water out of a saturated soil mass is
called hydrodynamic lag. The reduction in volume of soil which is due to principally squeezing
out of water from the voids is known as ‘primary consolidation’. Even after the reduction of all
excess hydrostatic pressure, some compression of soil takes place at a very slow rate and is known
as ‘secondary consolidation’.

viii. APPLICATION:

Consolidation properties are required in estimating the settlement of a foundation. They

provide the maximum amount of settlements under a given load and the time required for it occur.
Many times the design of foundation is carried out based on limiting settlements. The amount of
consolidation will be more in clay soils hence, these properties are important for foundation resting
on clay coils.

By conducting one dimensional consolidation test the consolidation properties such as

Coefficient of Consolidation (C v), Coefficient of Compressibility (av), Compression Index (CC),
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility (mv) and Coefficient of Permeability (k) can be calculated.

ix. APPARATUS:

4.1 Consolidation Ring:

The ring shall be rigid and made of a non-corrosive material. The inner surface shall be
smooth and highly polished, and coated with a low friction material in order to minimize wall
 friction. A teflon coating is suitable for this purpose; alternatively, silicon grease is good for
stiff and medium soils while a thick oil may be used for very soft soils. The ring shall be
provided with cutting edge in order to facilitate preparation of specimens. The inner diameter
ring shall be minimum 60mm. In special cases, diameter may be 50mm.

If soil specimens are to be obtained by extruding and trimming, the inner diameter of
the ring shall be at least 10mm less than the inside of the sample tube. For soils which may
break or deform badly during extrusion and trimming, the inside diameter of the ring shall be
equal to the diameter of sample tube.

The height of the consolidation ring shall be not less than 20mm with a diameter to
height ratio of about 3.0 and further the specimen height shall not be less than maximum
particle size.

4.2 Porous Stones:

These stones shall be placed at the top and bottom of the soil specimen, and shall be of
silicon carbide, aluminum dioxide or other porous material not attacked by the soil or soil
moisture and not undergoing any electro-chemical reactions.
The porosity of the stones shall be such that free drainage is assured through out the test,
but that no intrusion of soil into the pores of the stones takes place. If necessary a filter paper
of diameter equal to diameter of porous stone. Filter paper may be placed between the stone
and the soil surface, in order to prevent intrusion. Filter paper shall not be used when stiff clays
are being tested since the paper has high compressibility.
The diameter of the top stone shall be 0.2-0.5mm less than that of the inside diameter of the
ring. The top stone shall be loaded through a corrosion-resistant loading cap of sufficient
rigidity breakage of the stone.
The stone surfaces shall be flat, clean and free of cracks and chips.

4.3 Consolidation Cell:

A container within which is placed the consolidation ring containing the specimen between
the top and bottom porous stones. The cell shall be capable of being filled with water to a level
higher than the top of the upper porous stone, of having an axial, vertical load applied to the tp
of the specimen and allowing measurement of the change in height of the specimen on its
central axis.

4.4 Dial Gauge:

The gauge shall read to an accuracy of at least 0.01% of the specimen height (0.002mm),
and have a travel of at least 50% of the specimen height (10mm).

4.5 Loading Device:

The device shall enable vertical force to be applied axially, in suitable increments, to the
test specimen, through a suitable loading yoke. It shall be capable of maintaining specified
loads for long periods of time while the specimen is deforming, with a variation of less than
±1% of the applied load.
The force is applied to the loading cap of the specimen centrally, through some form of
spherical seating. The applied load is known to an accuracy of at least ±1%.
 The loading device shall permit application of a load increment within a period of
2seconds, without significant impact.
The device should be located on a firm base, in an environment free of vibrations and other
mechanical disturbances, and preferably under constant temperature conditions.
.
4.6 Soil Trimming Tools:
Metal straight edge, thin bladed trimming knife (like spatula), wire-saws.

4.7 Moisture Content Cans: for water content determination.

4.8 Oven: thermostatically controlled oven with interior of non-corroding material to maintain the
temperature between 105 and 1100C.

4.9 Desiccator: With any desiccating agent other than sulphuric acid.

4.10 Balance: sensitive to 0.01g.

4.11 Vernier Callipers: to measure initial height of soil specimen.

4.12 Stop watch,

4.13 Water reservoir.

GUIDE ROD
REACTION BEAM

PROVING RING

DIRECT STRAIN MEASURING

DIAL GUAGE

CONSOLDOMETER CELL

TOP POROUS STONE

SOIL SAMPLE MAGNETIC BASE

BOTTOM POROUS STONE

PLATEN OF LOADING ANVIL

POROUS STONE
FIG. SET-UP FOR ONE- DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION TEST
5. PROCEDURE:

5.1 PREPARATION OF SOIL SPECIMEN FROM REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES

1. Compact the soil at the desired water content and density in a large mould.
2. Clean the specimen ring and weigh it empty.
3. Gradually insert the specimen ring into the mould, by pressure with hands.
4. Trim the sample smooth and flush with the top and bottom of the ring using glass plates.
5. Clean the ring from outside and weigh it.

5.2 PREPARATION OF MOULD ASSEMBLY

6. Saturate the porous stones assemble the consolidometer, with the soil specimen and porous
stones at top and bottom of the specimen, providing a filter paper in between.
7. Position the pressure pad centrally on the top porous plate.
8. Mount the assembly on loading frame and center it such that the load applied is axial.
9. Position the dial gauge to measure vertical compression of the specimen.
10. Connect the mould assembly to water reservoir and saturated the sample.
11. Apply an initial seating load (should not be less than 0.05 kg/cm2) and should be allowed to
stand until there is no change in dial gauge reading for two consecutive hours or maximum of 24
hours.

5.3 TEST PROCEDURE:

12. Note the final dial reading under initial seating load.
13. Apply first load of intensity 0.1kg/cm2 and start the stop watch simultaneously with loading.
14. Record the dial gauge readings at various time intervals. Primary consolidation is generally
reached within 24 hours.
15. At the end of the period specified above, take the dial reading and time reading. Double the
load intensity and take the dial readings at various intervals.
16. Repeat this procedure for successive load increments. The usual load increments are as
follows: 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 kg/cm2.
17. After the last loading is completed. Reduce the load to 1/4 th of the value of the last load and
allow it to stand for 24hours.
18. Reduce the load further in steps of 1/4th the previous intensity till an intensity of 0.1kg/cm2 is
reached. Take the final reading of the dial gauge.
19. Reduce the load to the initial setting load, keep it for 24 hours and note the final dial reading.
20. Quickly dismantle the specimen assembly and remove the excess surface water by blotting.
Weigh the ring with consolidation specimen. Dry the soil specimen in oven and determine dry
weight.
6. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
Table: LOADING
Elapsed Dial Gauge Readings (mm)
time (t) t Normal Stress applied (kg/cm2)
(min) 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2
0 0
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6
49 7
64 8
81 9
100 10
121 11
144 12
169 13
196 14
400 20
1440 38
(24 hours)

Table: UNLOADING
Elapsed Dial Gauge Readings (mm)
time (t) t Normal Stress applied (kg/cm2)
(min) 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2
0 0
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6
49 7
64 8
81 9
100 10
121 11
144 12
169 13
196 14
400 20
1440 38
(24 hours)
6.1 Height of Solids Method:

6.1.1 Area of Soil Specimen:

Diameter of soil specimen=D=
Area of soil specimen = A= ∏/4 x D2 =

6.1.2 Weight of Solids:

Weight of can =
Weight of wet soil + can =
Weight of dry soil + can =
Weight of water =
Water content of soil= w =
Weight of Solids = Ws = Weight of dry soil = [(Weight of dry soil + can) - Weight of can]

6.1.3 Specific Gravity of Solids at 270C temperature (Gs):

Observations and Calculations Determination No.

S. No. 1 2 3
Observations:
1. Density Bottle No.
2. Mass of empty density bottle (M1), in g
3. Mass of bottle with dry soil (M2), in g
4. Mass of bottle, dry soil and water (M3), in g
5. Mass of bottle with water (M4), in g
Calculations:
6. Specific gravity of solids at test temperature (GT)
(M 2 - M1 )
= ´ 100%
(M 4 - M1 ) - (M 3 - M 2 )
Sp. gr. of water at T 0 C
Average Sp. gr. of solids corresponding to 27oC = G 27 = ´ GT
Sp. gr. of water at 27 0 C
Ws
Height of Solids = Hs =
Gs A g w
Where, g w = Unit weight of water

Volume of voids AH v H v H - H s
e Voids Hv Void ratio = e = = = =
Volume of solids AH s H s Hs
Ro = Initial dial reading
H
R = Dial reading at time‘t’
1 Solids Hs Specimen height at time‘t’= H = H0–(Ro-R)
(H - H s ) - (Ro - R )
\e = o
Hs
 Void ratio
Initial Final Specimen Height of
Applied Change in
dial dial height
Normal thickness Voids
(H o - H s ) - (Ro - R )
S.No.
stress
gauge
reading
gauge
reading H=
(H - H s ) e =
(kg/cm2) (Ro - R) Hs
(Ro) (R) H0–(Ro-R)

LOADING
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
UNLOADING
8
9
10
11
12

By conducting one dimensional consolidation test the following consolidation properties can be
calculated:
i) Coefficient of Compressibility (av):
De
av = -
Ds '
Where,
∆e= Decrease in void ratio, av Loading
1
∆s = Increase in pressure Void ratio (e)

Unloading
ii) Coefficient of Volume Compressibility (mv):
a Normal stress (s1)
mv = v
1 + e0
iii) Compression Index (CC):
To determine the compression index, a plot of void ratio 'e' versus log 's' is drawn. The
initial compression curve would be a straight line and the slope of this line would give the
compression index.

From ‘unloading curve’:

De
Compression Index = Cc = -
D log s ' Cc Loading
From ‘unloading curve’: Void ratio (e) Cs
De Unloading
Swelling Index = C s = -
D log s '
log s1
iv) Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv):

Coefficient of Consolidation (C v) can be obtained for any applied normal stress and its
corresponding dial gauge readings recorded for different time intervals.

In the square root fitting method, a plot is made between the dial reading and the square
root of time and the time corresponding to 90% consolidation is determined. In the log fitting
method, draw a plot between dial reading and logarithm of time and the time corresponding to
50% consolidation is determined.

0.848d 2
Cv = [Taylor’s Square Root of Time Fitting Method]
t 90

0.197d 2
Cv = [Casagrande’s Logarithm of Time Fitting Method]
t 50
(i) SQUARE ROOT OF TIME FITTING METHOD:

The advantage of square root of time method is that plotting of the curve can be done as the
time progress. So one can stop a test as soon as it is possible to locate 90% consolidation point and
proceed to place the next increment of stress, thus reducing the test duration to an appreciable
degree.
A straight line can be drawn passing through the points on the initial part of the
experimental curve of dial readings vs. square root of time. The straight line part is produced
backward to intersect the ordinate at R0, which is the corrected zero reading corresponding to
U=0%. Starting from R0, a second straight line is drawn such that its abscissa is 1.15 times abscissa
of the first line. The intersection of this line with the experimental curve identifies R 90 and the time
required for 90% consolidation, t90, is read off (Fig.) With t 90, coefficient of consolidation (Cv) can
be determined from the equation:
(Tv )90 d 2 0.848d 2 Ri
Cv = =
t 90 ( )t
90
2

Ro

Dial
Gauge
Readings
(mm)
R90
x
0.15x

t 90
t
Note: Time (t) in minutes
v) Coefficient of Permeability (k):

k = cv mv g w

7. RESULTS OF CONSOLIDATION PROPERTIES:

Coefficient of Compressibility (a v) =
Compression Index (Cc) =
Coefficient of consolidation = (Cv) = cm2 /sec
Expt. No: 9 Date:

DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF THE SOIL

BY DIRECT SHEAR TEST (BOX SHEAR TEST)
As per IS 2720 (Part XIII)-1986
1. AIM:
To determine the shear strength parameters of the soil with the shear box.

2. THEORY:

The shear strength of the soil is the resistance to deformation by continuous shear displacement of soil
particles upon the action of shear stress.
S = c + s tanf
Where c, f are called Shear Strength Parameters
S = Shear strength (KN/m2 or Kg/cm2)
s = Normal stress (KN/m2 or Kg/cm2)
c = Cohesion (KN/m2 or Kg/cm2)
f = Angle of internal friction/ angle of shearing resistance (degrees)
The shear strength of a soil is constituted basically of three components. Namely i) Structural
resistance ii) Frictional resistance iii) Cohesion

Shear resistance can be determined in the laboratory under three types of drainage conditions
a) Undrained test or Quick test – (Q-test)
b) Consolidated – Undrained test – (R – test)
c) Drained test or slow test – (S – test)

Direct shear test is a simple and most commonly used test. This test can be conducted under all the
three drainage conditions. The failure plane is predetermined and is horizontal. This test is strain-
controlled test as the shear strain is made to increase at constant rate.

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 Shear box equipment,

3.2 Two gripper plates with grooves
3.3 Loading frame,
3.4 Set of weights for applying normal stress,
3.5 Proving ring with dial gauge
 x. PREPARATION OF SOIL SAMPLE:

1. The undisturbed specimen is prepared by pushing a cutting ring of size 10cm diameter
and 2cm high in the undisturbed soil sample obtained from the field. Then the square
specimen of size 6cm x 6cm is cut from this circular specimen.
2. Non-cohesive soils will be tamped in the shear box with base plate and gripper plate at the
bottom of the box.
3. Cohesive remoulded soil samples can be obtained by compacting the soil at required density
and water content in a bigger mould and then trimming to the required size.

5. DECRIPTION OF DIRECT SHEAR TEST APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of shear box 6 cm x 6 cm in size, which is separated horizontally into two
halves. One half is fixed with the other half can move horizontally. A normal load is applied to the
soil in the sear box through a rigid loading cap.

TOP LOADING
PAD
LOAD BAR
LIFTING
RINGS TOP PERFORATED
LOCKER
STEEL PLATE
BOLT
BALL U-BRACKET

SHEAR BOX TOP GRIPPER PLATE

UPPER HALF

SOIL SAMPLE
SHEAR BOX (6cmx 6cm x 2cm)
LOWER HALF
BOTTOM
GRIPPER PLATE
WATER DRAIN
JACKET COCK

ROLLER STRIPS BOTTOM PERFORATED PLATE BASE PLATE

FIG. SHEAR BOX ASSEMBLY

6. TEST PROCEDURE FOR UNDRAINED TEST

1. Place the gripper plate at the bottom of the box with the grooves on the specimen side and
perpendicular to the direction of the movement of the movable half of the shear box. Place
the pins in the shear box so that the halves in the box do not move while filling the box and
compacting the soil in it.

2. Place the sample in the shear box. For this take some amount of granular soil and weigh it.
Divide it into three parts and fill the shear box with the soil in three layers, tamping each
layer with a tamper. The final thickness of the compacted specimen should be 2 cm.

3. Place the other plate with grooves facing the soil specimen and in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of movement. Place the loading plate on the top of the gripper plate. Adjust
the normal loading yoke and place it centrally on the specimen. Apply the normal loads to
the lever pan attached to the hanger (the loads are calibrated loads, based on the lever arm
ratio).

4. Place the horizontal deformation measuring dial gauge with its spindle touching the moving
half of the shear box.

5. Adjust the proving ring dial gauge to measure the shearing load. Note the initial readings of
the proving ring dial gauge and the deformation dial gauge.

6. Shear the soil specimen after removing the pins from the shear box. Note the readings of the
proving ring, dial gauge and the deformation dial gauge corresponding to different
percentage strains until failure of the specimen has occurred. Shearing in the soil specimen
can be induced either manually or with the help of an electric motor.

7. Repeat the test with three or four more normal loads every time with a different soil
specimen, compacted to the same initial dry density i.e. dry weight and volume of the soil
being kept constant.

8. Draw a plot between the normal stress and the shear stress as the abscissa and the ordinate
respectively. This will yield a straight line. If the soil has cohesion there will be an intercept
on the shear stress axis. This gives the magnitude of cohesion. If the soil is cohesionless the
straight line passes through the origin. The slope of the line gives the angle of internal
friction of the soil.

6. OBSERVATIONS:

Weight of soil sample= W=

Area of Box shear=6cm x 6cm = 36 cm2
Thickness of soil specimen=H=
Volume of soil specimen= V= 6x6xH= cm3
Dry density of soil sample= ρd= W/V=
 TABLE
Normal Maximum shear Shear stress
stress load measured Shear load
applied (τ) =
(σ) Area of Box shear

7. COMMENTS:

Direct shear test is the simplest and the least expensive test of all the shear tests. It is particularly
best suited for the determination of the shear parameters of dry cohesionless soils. It is very
difficult to control drainage especially in fine-grained soils. As a result, it is difficult to measure
the pore water pressure also. The horizontal plane along which the soil is forced to fail is not
necessarily the weakest plane. This might induce some error in determining the actual shear
strength of the soil specimen.

8. GRAPH:
Plot the graph between normal stresses applied and corresponding shear stresses at failure. The
Y-intercept when s = 0 is the cohesion (c) and angle made with horizontal is the angle of internal
friction (f).
Mohr-Coulomb Failure
envelope for cohesive (c-f)
soils
Shear stress (τ) Mohr-Coulomb Failure
envelope for cohesionless (f)
f soils
c
f
Normal stress (σ)
9. RESULTS:

From graph:

Cohesion = c =
Angle of internal friction = f =
 Expt. No: 10 Date:
DETERMINATION OF UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL BY
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION (UCC) TEST

As per IS 2720 (Part X)-1985

1. AIM:

To determine undrained cohesive strength of given cohesive soil sample.

2. THEORY:

The unconfined compressive strength is defined as the ratio of failure load to cross sectional area
of the soil sample when it is not subjected to any lateral pressure.
P
qu =
Ac
Where qu = unconfined compressive strength
P = failure load
A
Ac = corrected area at failure = o
1- Î
Where Ao = initial area
DL
Î= strain =
Lo
Where Lo = initial length of the sample
This test is undrained, since the rates of loading do not allow dissipation of pore water pressure.

Plastic equilibrium equation:

σ1 = σ3 tan2αf + 2c tanαf
where σ1 = major principal stress at fature
σ3 = minor principal stress at failure
αf = failure angle with major principal plane =(45+ f /2)
f = Angle of internal friction
In unconfined compression test: σ3 = 0; σ1 = qu
If the soil is pure clay: c=cu and f=0
\qu = 2cu .
q
\cu = u
2
3. APPLICATIONS:

This is simplest and quickest test for determining the cohesion and shear strength of the cohesive
soils. These values are used for checking the short-term stability of foundations and slopes, soil
consistency can be known from the value of unconfined compressive strength from the following
table.
 Table
qu (kg / cm2) Soil Consistency
< 0.25 Very soft
0.25-0.50 Soft
0.50-1.00 Medium
1.00-2.00 Stiff
2.00-4.00 Very stiff
> 4.00 Hard

Sensitivity: Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of unconfined compressive strength of undisturbed soil
sample to the unconfined compressive strength of remoulded sample at constant moisture content.
Sensitivity is a very useful factor to know the effect of remoulding on shear strength of cohesive
soils. Remoulding of soil is very common during pile driving and excavation. Generally soil having
sensitivity <4 are considered good for the construction purposes.
(q )undisturbed
Sensitivity = u
(qu )remoulded
Soils are designated as follows with respect to sensitivity.
Table
Sensitivity Designation
1-4 Normal
4-8 Sensitive
8-16 Extra sensitive
>16 Quick
3. APPARATUS:

3.1 Unconfined compression apparatus (screw jack with spring load measuring device),
3.2 Sampling tube
3.3 Split mould
3.4 Sample extractor,
3.5 Oven,
3.6 Balance, and
3.7 Vernier calipers.

4. PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMEN

1. Undisturbed cylindrical specimen may be cut from bigger sample obtained from the field.
2. Remoulded sample may be prepared by compacting the soil at the desired water content and
dry density.

5. PROCEDURE:

1) The initial length, diameter and weight of the specimen shall be measured and the specimen
placed on the bottom plate of loading device. The upper plate shall be adjusted to make the
contact with the specimen.
 2) The deformation dial gauge shall be adjusted to a suitable reading, preferably in multiples of
100. Force shall be applied so as to produce axial strain at a rate of 0.5 to 2% per minute
causing failure with 5 to 10. The force reading shall be taken at suitable intervals of the
deformation dial reading.
3) The specimen shall be compressed until the failure surfaces have definitely developed, or the
stress-strain curve is reached its peak, or until an axial strain of 20% is reached.
4) The failure pattern shall be sketched carefully and shown on the data sheet or on the sheet
presenting the stress-strain plot. The angle between the failure surface and the horizontal may
be measured, if possible, and reported.
5) Determine the moisture content of the soil samples taken from the failure zone of the
specimen.

PROVING RING
DEFORMATION
DIAL GUAGE

CYLINDRICAL
SEATINGS SOIL SAMPLE

FIG. UNCONFINED COMPRESSION (UCC) TEST APPARATUS

5. PRECAUTIONS:

1) Two ends of the specimen should be perpendicular to the long axis of the specimen.
2) The loading of the sample should be at constant rate.
3) Remoulded specimen should be prepared at the same moisture content and density as of
undisturbed sample.

6. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION:

Initial diameter of soil specimen, D0 =

Initial length of soil specimen, L0 =
Initial area of soil specimen = A0 =
Initial volume of soil specimen = V0 =
Initial mass of soil specimen = M0 =
Initial density of soil specimen = M0 / V0 =
INITIAL WATER CONTENT OF SOIL SPECIMEN:
Can No. :
Wt. of Can =
Wt. of can + wet soil =
Wt. of Can = Dry soil =
Ware content =

Rate of strain:

Deformation Proving Axial strain Corrected Axial Stress

dial reading ring dial deformation DL area at force P
reading DL Î= failure (P) Ac
L0 Ao
Ac =
(%) 1- Î
(mm) (cm2) (kg)
 · Plot the Stress – Strain diagram to find UCC strength and to know about the type of
failure.

UCC

Stress
(kPa)

Strain
(%)
· Water content of the soil specimen after the test (determined from soil samples taken
from the failure zone of the specimen)

Final mass of soil specimen (after completion of UCC test) = Mf=

FINAL WATER CONTENT OF SOIL SAMPLE:

Find the final water content of soil sample after end of the test

Can No :
Weight of can = g
Weight of can + wet soil = g
Weight of can + Dry soil = g
Water Content =

6. RESULT:

Unconfined compressive strength of the given soil specimen = q u = kPa

Undrained Cohesion = Cu= kPa
Expt. No: 11 Date:

DETERMINATION OF UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL BY

LABORATORY VANE SHEAR TEST

As per IS 2720 (Part 30)-1980

1. AIM: To determine the undrained cohesive strength or cohesion of soil.

2. THEORY:

The ability of a soil mass to support an imposed loading or for a soil mass to support itself is
governed by the shear strength of the soil. As a result, the shearing strength of the soil becomes of
primary importance in foundation design, highway and airfield design, slope stability problems, and
lateral earth pressure problems that deal with forces exerted on underground walls, retaining walls,
bulkheads and excavation bracing. The shearing strength and related deformations (or stress-strain
relationship) of a foundation or construction soil is conventionally studied in the laboratory by
testing soil samples obtained from the construction site.

In soils, shear strength is contributed by the two properties (i) cohesion and (ii) angle of
internal friction. In pure clays the shear resistance due to internal friction is negligible, Hence, the
complete shear strength, in clays, is due to cohesion (c).

Vane Shear Test is cheaper and quicker test. The test is used for determination of the
undrained cohesion of clay, particularly very soft to medium stiff clay. Vane shear test is most
valuable in sensitive clays wherein it is difficult to obtain truly undisturbed samples without
disturbing their in-situ strength. The vane shear test is also useful in finding out sensitivity of subsoil
by determining strength in undisturbed and remoulded state. The ratio of strength in undisturbed to
remoulded state is known as sensitivity.

The undrained shear strength is obtained from the following equation:

T
Cu =
PD2 (H/2+D/6)
Where Cu = Undrained cohesion,
T= Applied Torque,
D= Diameter of Vane,
H= Height of Vane = 2D

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 Vane shear apparatus: The vane shear test apparatus consists of a torque head mounted on a
bracket. The four steel shear vanes are fixed on a shaft and the shaft is fixed in the lower end of a
circular plate graduated in degrees. A torsion spring is fixed between torque head and the circular
plate (disc). A maximum pointer is provided to facilitate reading the angle of torque. As the strain
indicating pointer rotates when the torque is applied, it moves the maximum pointer, leaving it in
position when the torque gets released at failure and the vane returns to its initial position. Rotation
of the vane is effected by turning the torque applicator handle,
3.2. Sampling mould,
3.3. Containers for moisture content determination,
3.4. Weighing balance sensitive to weigh 0.01 g.

4. PROCEDURE:

1. Clean the Vane shear apparatus thoroughly. Apply grease to the lead screw.

2. Fill up the sampling mould with remoulded soil at required density and moisture content or
the undisturbed soil sample level the surface of the sample with the mould.

3. Mount the sampling tube with sample under the base of the unit and clamp it in position.

4. Bring the maximum pointer into contact with the strain indicating pointer. Note down the
initial reading of these pointers on the Circular graduated scale.

5. Lower the bracket until the shear vanes go into soil sample to their full length.

6. Operate the torque applicator handle until the specimen fails which is indicated by the return
of the strain indicating pointer.

7. Note down the reading of the maximum pointer.

8. The difference between the two readings (Initial and final) gives the angle of torque.

9. Repeat steps (3) to (8) with different moisture contents.

5. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION:

Height of vane = H = cm.
Diameter of vane = D = cm.
Spring constant = kg-cm

S. No Initial Final Angle of Torque, Undrained Water

Reading, Reading, Torque = T = θ x k/180 Shear Content
θ1 θ2 Difference Strength,
(degrees) (degrees) Angle, Cu
θ = θ2~ θ1 (kg-cm) (kg/cm2)
1
2
3
4
5

6. RESULT: The undrained cohesive strength or cohesion of soil = kPa

Expt. No: 12 Date:

DETERMINATION OF DIFFERENTIAL FREE SWELL INDEX OF SOILS

IS: 2911-Part 3

1. AIM: To determine the free swell index of the given soil.

2. THEORY:

The clay especially the black cotton soils have a tendency to swell in small or more
proportions when submerged in water. IS 2720(Part XL) –1977 has given a procedure to identify the
expansive soils based on the differential free swell index of the soil which helps to identify the
potential of a soil to swell which might need further investigation regarding swelling pressures under
different field conditions.

The degree of expansiveness and consequent damage to the structures with light loading may be
qualitatively judged as shown below (IS: 2911-Part 3).
Degree of Differential Free
Expansiveness Swell Index
(%)
Low <20
Moderate 20 to 35
High 35 to 50
Very high >50

From IS 2911 Part III- 1980.

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 425 micron sieve

3.2. Weighing balance sensitive to weigh 0.01 g.
3.3 Glass Graduated cylinders- Two, 100ml capacity.

4. PROCEDURE:

1. Take two 10g soil specimens of oven dry soil passing through 425-microns IS Sieve.
(Note: In the case of highly swelling soils, such as sodium bentonites, the sample size may
be 5g or alternatively a cylinder of 250ml capacity may be used).

2. Each soil specimen shall be poured in each of the two glass graduated cylinders of 100ml
capacity. One cylinder shall then be filled with kerosene oil and the other with distilled water
up to the 100ml mark.
 3. After removal of entrapped air (by gentle shaking or stirring with a glass rod), the soils in both
the
cylinders shall be allowed to settle. Sufficient time (not less than 24h) shall be allowed for the
soil
sample to attain equilibrium state of volume of soils in each of the cylinders shall be read out.

5. CALCULATION:

The level of soil in the kerosene graduated cylinder shall be read as the original volume of the
soil samples, kerosene being a non-polar liquid does not cause swelling of the soil. The level of the
soil in the distilled water cylinder shall be read as the free swell level.

The free swell index of the soil shall be calculated as follows:

Free Swell Index (FSI), percent = (Vd-Vdb)/Vdb x100

The differential free swell index of the soil shall be calculated as follows:

Differential Free Swell Index, percent = (Vd - Vk)/ Vk x100

Where
Vd = the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing distilled water.
Vk = the volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing distilled
kerosene.

Soil Volume of soil Volume of soil Volume of soil Free Swell Index, Differential Free
Sample in distilled in distilled in kerosene percent Swell Index, percent
No water at the water after one after one day
beginning day FSI DFSI
(Vdb ) (Vd ) (Vk) =(Vd-Vdb)/Vdb x100 = (Vd-Vk )/Vk x100

1.

2.
3.

6. RESULT:

Free Swell Index (FSI) of the given soil= %

Differential Free Swell Index (DFSI) of the given soil= %
Expt. No: 13 Date:

LABORATORY CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR) TEST

AS per IS 2720 (Part 16)-1992

1. AIM:

To determine California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of given soil specimen.

2. THEORY:

The CBR is a measure of resistance of material to penetration of standard plunger under

controlled density and moisture conditions. The test procedure should be strictly adhered if
high degree of reproducibility is desired. The CBR test may be conducted in remoulded or
undisturbed specimens in the laboratory. Many methods exist today, which utilize mainly CBR
test values for designing pavement thickness requirement.

This standard (Part 16) covers the laboratory method for the determination of
Caylfornia’oearing ratio (CBR) of undisturbed soil specimens obtained from the field and also
remoulded specimens of the soil compacted in the laboratory both by the static and dynamic
method, and in the soaked and unsoaked state.

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 Loading machine: This is compression machine, which can operate at a constant rate of
1.25 mm/minute. A metal penetration piston or plunger of diameter 50 mm is attached to
the loading machine.
3.2 Cylindrical mould: Mould of 150 mm diameter and 175 mm height provided with a collar
of about 50 mm length and a detachable base.
3.3 Spacer Disc: A spacer disc of 148 mm diameter and 47.7 mm thickness is used to obtain a
specimen of exactly 127.3 mm height.
3.4 Compaction Rammer
3.5 Annular weights: In order to simulate the effect of the overlying pavement weight, annular
weights each of 2.5 kg weight and 147 mm diameter are placed on the top of the specimen,
at the time of testing the sample, as surcharge.
3.6 Penetration Plunger - To use a plunger of greater length, a suitable extension rod may be
used.
3.7 Expansion Measuring Apparatus - The adjustable stem with perforated plates and tripod
3.8 Dial Gauges - Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.
3.9 Sieves - 47.5-mm IS Sieve and 19-mmIS Sieve.
3.10 Miscellaneous Apparatus - Other general apparatus, such as a mixing bowl,
straightedge, scales, soaking tank of pan, drying oven, filter paper, dishes and calibrated
measuring jar.
4. PREPARATION OF SOIL SPECIMENS

4.1 Undistrubed Specimens:

Undisturbed specimens shall be obtained by fitting to the mould, the steel cutting edge of
150 mm internal diameter and pushing the mould as gently as possible into the ground. This
process may be facilitated by digging away the soil from the outside as the mould is pushed in.
When the mould is sufficiently full of soil, it shall be removed by underdigging, the top and
bottom surfaces are then trimmed flat so as to give the required length of specimen ready for
testing. If the mould cannot be pressed in, the sample may be collected by digging at a
circumference greater than that of the mould and thus bringing out a whole undisturbed lump of
soil. The required size of the sample to fit into the test mould shall then be carefully trimmed
from this lump.
If the specimen is loose in the mould, the annular cavity shall be filled with paraffin wax
thus ensuring that the soil receives proper support from the sides of the mould during the
penetration test. The density of the soil shall be determined either by weighing the soil with
mould when the mould is full with the soil, or by measuring the dimensions of the soil sample
accurately and weighing or by measuring the density in the field in the vicinity of the spot at
which the sample is collected. In all cases, the water content shall be determined.

4.2 Remoulded Specimens:

Remoulded soil specimen is compacted by dynamic compaction. The preparation of soil

specimens by dynamic compaction or ramming is more commonly adopted and is explained
below.

5. PROCEDURE:

1. About 4.5 kg material is dried and sieved in 20 mm sieve. If a noteworthy proportion of

material is retained on 20 mm sieve, allowance for larger size materials is made by
replacing it by an equal weight of material passing 20 mm sieve and retained on 4.75
mm sieve. The optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of soil are
determined by adopting either IS light compaction (Proctor compaction) or IS heavy
compaction (modified Proctor or AASHTO compaction) as per the requirement 5.5 kg
weight for granular soils and 4.5 kg weight for fine grained soils is mixed with water up
to the optimum moisture content or the filed moisture content if specified so.

For IS Light Compaction, the soil to be compacted is divided in to three equal parts; the
soil is compacted in 3 equal layers, each of compacted thickness about 44 mm by
applying 56 evenly distributed blows of 2.6 kg rammer.
For IS Heavy Compaction, the soil is divided in to 5 equal parts; the soil is compacted
in 5 equal layers, each of compacted thickness about 26.5 mm by applying 55 evenly
distributed blows of the 4.89 kg rammer. After compaction the last layer, the collar is
removed and the excess soil above the top of the mould is evenly trimmed off by means
of the straight edge. Any hole that develops on the surface due to the removal of coarse
particles during trimming may be patched with smaller size material.
2. The spacer disc is placed at the bottom of the mould over the base plate and a course
filter paper is placed over the spacer disc. The moist soil sample is to be compacted
over this in the mould by adopting either IS light compaction or IS heavy compaction.
The mould with the compacted soil is weighed.

3. A filter paper shall be placed over the specimen and the adjustable stem and perforated
plate shall be placed on the compacted soil specimen in the mould. Two surcharge
weights to produce a surcharge equal to the weight of base material and pavement are
placed over the perforated plate.

4. The whole mould and weights shall be immersed in a tank of water allowing free access
of water to the top and bottom of the specimen. This set-up shall be kept as such
undisturbed for 4 days (96 hours) soaking.
NOTE - Soaking for 96 hours is the standard procedure. However, certain types of soils
may require more or less period of soaking. The designer may therefore decide on the
period of soaking depending upon soil and environmental conditions.

5. The free water collected in the mould shall be removed and the specimen allowed to
drain downward for 15 minutes. Care shall be taken not to disturb the surface of the
specimen during the removal of the water. The weights, the perforated plate and the top
filter paper shall be removed and the mould with the soaked soil sample shall be
weighed and the mass recorded to determine water absorption.

6. The whole mould with the weights is placed under the penetration plunger of the
loading machine. The penetration plunger is seated at the center of the specimen and is
brought in contact with the top surface of the soil sample by applying a seating load of 4
kg.

7. The dial gauge for measuring the penetration values of the plunger is fitted in position.
The dial gauge of the proving ring (for load readings) and the penetration dial gauge are
set to zero.

8. The load is applied through the penetration plunger at a uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min.
The load readings are recorded at penetration readings of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0,
4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 and 12.5 mm. In case the load readings start decreasing before 12.5
mm penetration, the maximum load value and the corresponding penetration value are
recorded. After the final reading the load is released and the mould is removed from the
loading machine. The proving ring calibration factor is noted so that the load dial values
can be converted into load in kg.

9. For the determination of water content, soil sample of not less than 100 g for fine-
grained soil and 500 g for coarse grained soil is collected.
 LOAD APPLIED
PROVING RING FOR MEASURING
LOAD

DIAL GAUGE FOR PENETRATION

MEASUREMENT
f 50mm PENETRATION
PLUNGER

SURCHARGE
WEIGHT

SOIL SPECIMEN
125mm

FIG. SET-UP FOR CBR TEST

6. OBSERVATIONS:

Compacting moisture content =

Dry density =
Condition of test specimen: - unsoaked/ soaked
Proving ring calibration factor =
Surcharge weight =
 Table.
Penetration Proving ring dial Load on Plunger, Corrected load,
mm reading kg kg
(1) (2) (3) (4)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.0
10.0
12.0

7. CALCULATION:

The load-penetration curve is then plotted in natural scale for each specimen. If the
curve is uniformly convex upwards no correction is needed. In case there is a reverse curve or
the initial portion of the curve is concave upwards necessity of a correction is indicated. A
tangent is drawn from the steepest position on the curve to intersect the base at point y which is
the corrected origin corresponding to zero penetration. The load values corresponding to2.5 and
5.0 mm penetration values (either from the original origin for curve with out correction or from
the corrected origin for the curve with correction, as the case may be) are found from the graph.

Load (kg)

2.5mm 5mm

Penetration (mm)

Fig. Load- Penetration Curve

The CBR value is calculated from the formula.

Load carried by soil sample at defined penetration level
CBR % = x100
load carried by standard crushed stones at the above penetration level
Load values on standard stones are given in Table.
Penetration, mm Standard load, kg
2.5 1370
5.0 2055

The CBR values at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations are calculated for each specimen
from the graph. Generally the CBR value at 2.5 mm is higher and this value is adopted.
However, if higher CBR value is obtained at 5.0 mm penetration, the test is to be repeated to
verify the results. If the value at 5.0 mm is again higher, this is adopted as CBR value of the
soil sample.

8. COMMENTS:

The CBR test is essentially an arbitrary test and hence cannot be used to evaluate the
fundamental soil properties. Unless the test procedure is strictly followed, dependable results
cannot be obtained. The compaction specifications such as the total height of compacted
specimen (before trimming off), the quality of thickness of five compacted layers and the
uniformity of distribution, the blows of the rammer in each layer affect the test results. The
initial upward concavity of the load penetration curve calling for the correction may be due to
piston surface not being fully in contact with top of the specimen. The test is meant for soil and
granular base course materials and hence may not be suitable for semi-rigid materials like soil-
cement.

9. RESULTS:
CBR2.5 =
CBR5.0 =
Design value of CBR = Maximum of CBR2.5 and CBR5.0

TEST FOR SWELLING

The swelling test may be omitted if it is unnecessary. A filter paper shall be placed over the
specimen and the adjustable stem and perforated plate shall be placed on the compacted soil
specimen in the mould. Weights to produce a surcharge equal to the weight of base material and
pavement to the nearest 2.5 kg shall be placed on the compact soil specimen. The whole mould
and weights shall be immersed in a tank of water allowing free access of water to the top and
bottom of the specimen. The tripod for the expansion measuring device shall be mounted on the
edge of the mould and the initial dial gauge reading recorded. This set-up shall be kept as such
undisturbed for 96 hours (see Note) noting down the readings everyday against the time of
reading. A constant water level shall be maintained in the tank throughout the period.

At the end of the soaking period, the final reading of the dial gauge shall be noted, the
tripod removed and the mould taken out of the water tank.

The free water collected in the mould shall be removed and the specimen allowed
draining downward for 15 minutes. Care shall be taken not to disturb the surface of the specimen
during the removal of the water. The weights, the perforated plate and the top filter paper shall
be removed and the mould with the soaked soil sample shall be weighed and the mass recorded.

NOTE - Soaking for 96 hours is the standard procedure. However, certain types of soils may
require more or less period of soaking. The designer may therefore decide on the period of
soaking depending upon soil and environmental conditions.

Expansion Ratio - The expansion ratio based on tests conducted as specified in 5.1 shall be
calculated as follows:
df - ds
Expansion ratio = ----------- x 100
h
where
df = final dial gauge reading in mm,
ds = initial dial gauge reading in mm, and
h = initial height of the specimen in mm.
Expt. No: 14 Date:
DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF A SOIL SPECIMEN
BY TRI-AXIAL COMPRESSION TEST

UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED(UU) TRI-AXIAL COMPRESSION TEST

As per IS 2720 (Part XI)

1. AIM:

To determine the shear strength parameters of a given soil specimen in tri-axial

compression test apparatus by UU test without measurement of pore water pressure.

2. THEORY:

Shear strength of the soil is the resistance to deformation by continuous shear

displacement of soil particles upon the action of shear stress. Shear strength of the soil is
expressed as function of principal stresses (coulomb’s) as
τ = f (σ1, σ2, σ3)
τ = c + σ tanf
Where, c= Cohesion
f = angle of internal friction
τ = Shear strength
σ = Normal stress
Shear resistance can be determined in the laboratory using tri-axial test under three types of
drainage conditions:
a) Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) test or quick test (Q-test)
b) Consolidated Undrained (CU) test (R-test)
c) Consolidated Drained (CD) test or slow test (S-test)

3. APPARATUS:

3.1 Triaxial cell,

3.2 Loading frame,
3.3 Apparatus for applying and maintaining cell pressure (or confining pressure),
3.4 Split mould, Sample tubes and other accessories,
3.5 Dial gauges,
3.6 Seamless Rubber Membrane,
3.7 Rubber ‘O’ rings.

4. SAMPLE PREPARATION:

(i) Undisturbed specimen: If the undisturbed sample collected from the field in the thin-walled
tube has the equal diameter as that of specimen then the sample is pushed into the split mould
with sample extruder and ends are trimmed flat and normal to its axis. If sample is of large
diameter it should be cut by thin wall tube (or) hand trimming.
 (ii) Remoulded Sample: These remoulded specimens are prepared by compacting the soil to
required water content and density in a big size mould by static (or) dynamic method and then
preparing cylindrical specimen of required dimensions.
Axial Load

Air Valve

Loading Cap
Perspex Cylinder Rubber
Top Drainage connection ‘O’ ring
via flexible tube
Rubber
Cell filled with water SOIL Membrane
SAMPLE

Base Cap Rubber

‘O’ rings
Pedestal
Cell base seal
Drainage
Valve (Burette) Valve
Cell
Pore pressure Pressure
measurement
Valve
FIG. TRI-AXIAL CELL

Additional Axial Stress=Deviator Stress=σd = (σ1-σ3)

σ1
σc= σ3

σc= σ3 σc= σ3= Confining Pressure

σc= σ3
σ1
σd = (σ1-σ3)
Fig. Stress condition on the tri-axial specimen
5. PROCEDURE FOR UU TRI-AXIAL TEST:

(i) At the first pedestal in the tri-axial cell was covered with soil specimen end cap and
specimen is kept centrally on pedestal. The cell with loading ram initially covered of top
of specimen and placed on the loading machine.

(ii) The fluid entered the cell and its pressure raised to desired value. The initial reading is
taken from load measuring gauge. Ensure that loading ram comes just at the top of the
specimen and the initial reading is taken from the dial gauge which measuring axial
compression.

(iii)When the compressive force applied at a constant rate of axial compression, a failure is
produced at time 5 to 15 minutes. Simultaneously readings are taken from load and
deformation dial gauges. Test conducted till maximum stress has been passed or axial
strain of 20 % has been passed.

(iv) The specimen is unleaded and fluid is drained off and cell is dismantled and specimen is
taken out, the rubber membrane is removed and mode of failure was noted.

(v) Specimen was weighted and sample is to take for determination of water content.

(vi) Test is repeated on three or more samples which are identical under the different cell
pressure.

8. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Water content of soil specimen before testing:

Wt. of moisture container =-----g
Wt. of moisture container+ wet soil =-----g
Wt. of moisture container+ dry soil =----- g
Wt. of wet soil =----- g
Wt. of dry soil =----- g
Water content at failure =-----%

Initial Length/ Height of the Soil Sample (L) = 7.62 cm

Initial Diameter of the Soil Sample (D) = 3.81 cm
Initial c/s Area of the Sample (A0) = ∏/4xD2 =------- cm2
Initial Volume of the Sample (V0) = A0 x L =-------cc
Initial Weight of the sample (W) = ------ g
Initial Density of the Sample (ρ=W/Vo) =--------g/cc

Strain rate =------- mm/min

Least count of strain dial gauge =--------
∆L= (Strain dial gauge reading x Least count of strain dial gauge) = -------
Axial Strain (%) = Є = (∆L/Lx100) % =------%
Corrected area of the sample= Ac = A0/ (1- Є) = ---------cm2
 Proving ring constant = -------
Additional Axial Load applied = (Proving ring reading x Proving ring Constant) =
Additional Axial Load applied
Deviator stress (or) Additional axial stress = s d =
Corrected area of the sample
\Major Principal Stress= σ1 = (σd + σ3)

Water content of soil specimen at failure:

Wt. of moisture container =-----g

Wt. of moisture container+ wet soil =-----g
Wt. of moisture container+ dry soil =----- g
Wt. of wet soil =----- g
Wt. of dry soil =----- g
Water content at failure =-----%
9.
10.

Table:
Table:
Deviator stress ( s d )
Strain Axial Additional axial load readings
Dial strain (proving ring readings) (in kg/cm2)
Gauge Î= (∆L/L (Additional Axial Stress)
Readings x 100) % Cell Pressures (in kg / cm2) Cell Pressures (in kg / cm2)
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
15
30
45
60
75
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
360
390
390
420
450
480
510
540
570
600
 Table: Stress at Failure
Test Cell Pressure Deviator stress at failure Major Principal Stress
No. (Minor Principal Stress)
σ3 σd = (σ1-σ3) σ1 = (σ3 + σd)
(in kg/cm2)
2
(in kg/cm ) (in kg/cm2)
1
2
3

7. GRAPH:

Draw the graph between normal stress (σ) on X- axis and shear stress ( t ) on Y- axis
using natural scale. On the X- axis locate major and minor normal stresses (σ1 and σ3) at
failure obtained from tests on soil sample. Construct Mohr’s Circles. Draw a common
tangent to Mohr’s Circles to determine shear strength parameters (c &f). The intercept at y-
axis will give cohesion (c) and inclination of the tangent to the horizontal is the angle of
internal friction (f).

Shear stress (τ)

Sample 3

Sample 2
Sample 1
f
c
σ3 σ1 σ1 σ1
σNormal stressσ(σ) σ σ

8. RESULT:

From the graph between t & s , the shear strength parameters of the given soil sample at
water content ------ % are:

Cohesion = cUU =
Angle of internal friction =fUU =