Trial Lenses in Vision Correction

Douglas A. Kerr
Issue 2
December 18, 2016

ABSTRACT

When prescribing corrective lenses (eyeglass lenses), the prescriber

may determine the optimum parameters for the lenses with a
technique involving calibrated trial lenses, placed in an eyeglass-like
“trial frame”.In this article, this process and its apparatus are
described. An introductory section gives background in some areas of
lens theory and the nature and correction of certain vision defects.

INTRODUCTION
Caveat
I am not an eye care professional, nor do I have any formal training in
the practice in that field nor in its own unique branch of optical
science. The information in this article is my own interpretation of the
results of extensive (mostly quite recent) research into the available
literature, through the prism of my own scientific and engineering
background and outlook.

Refraction
In general optical theory, refraction refers to the “bending” of light
rays by a lens or prism. But in the field of vision correction, refraction
also refers to measuring the optical parameters of “refractive” flaws in
a person’s vision with the objective of properly specifying eyeglass
lenses that will best correct those flaws.

Two techniques of refraction are commonplace, using the refractor

and the trial lens system.

The refractor
A refractor1 is the scary mask-like instrument that is placed in front of
your face while the examiner turns various dials while asking. “Which
is better, one [click] or two?”. It is essentially an eyeglass simulator. It
places lenses of different optical parameters in the path of the
patent’s vision. Simplistically, those parameters are varied until the

1
Often called a “phoropter”, although Phoropter is a trademark of one manufacturer
for their instruments.

Copyright © 2010-2016 Douglas A. Kerr. May be reproduced and/or distributed but only intact,
including this notice. Brief excerpts may be reproduced with credit.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 2

patient experiences the best vision (in different contexts). The

resulting “prescription” is a specification for the optical parameters of
eyeglass lenses that should have the same effect on the patient’s
vision.

Figure 1 shows a typical refractor.

Figure 1. Refractor
U. S. Navy photograph, P.D.

The trial lens system

The trial lens system also simulates the effect of eyeglasses in a more
direct way. It uses a special eyeglass frame (the trial frame) into which
interchangeable, calibrated lenses can be readily placed (solo or in
combination) until the best vision is obtained. The prescription then
specifies the parameters of eyeglass lenses that should parallel the
optical behavior of the final setup in the trial frame.

The entire “kit” of trial frame and a large arsenal of different trial
lenses (perhaps as many as 266 of them) is often housed in a tidy
case, leading to the entire system often being called a trial case.

Figure 2 shows a typical modern trial frame with lenses in place.

Figure 2. Trial frame

Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 3

Pros and cons

The refractor is, generally speaking, a more convenient tool for
conducting refraction. It is always a little tricky to slip the various
lenses into and out of their “slots” in the trial frame while the frame is
in place on the patient’s head. On the other hand, often young
children and some adults are intimidated by the refractor (can you
imagine, after seeing figure 1?) and children in particular may enjoy
the game as the examiner works like a close-up magician in
manipulating the trial lens system. (”Is that a lens in your ear?”)

From an objective standpoint, many experts feel that the indications

given by skilled use of the trial lens system are more insightful than
those gained with the refractor. Some clinics insist that, after the
patient has been examined with a refractor, and a prescription drafted,
the examiner emulate that prescription with trial lenses and have the
patent actually walk around, look at familiar documents, crochet,
maybe swing a putter, and so forth, before confirming and issuing the
prescription.

There are then logistic and economic considerations. A nice trial case
is about the size of a large briefcase, and can easily be taken to
“storefront clinics”, clinics in remote areas, and the like. That is hardly
practical for a refractor. A nice trial case can be purchased today for
perhaps $750.00, while a first rate refractor is over ten times as
costly.

BACKGROUND
Lenses
This whole activity is about lenses—the lenses that will be used to
correct a patent’s vision, and the lenses used in the trial frame. Let us
first review some pertinent things about lenses.

In figure 3, we will see some important properties of a biconvex,

convergent lens.
Apparent site of refraction PS2
for this ray
Back focal length (bfl)

P2 V2 F2

f
Effective focal length (efl)

Figure 3. Focal lengths of a lens

Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 4

We see the lens in an important situation. We consider rays of light,

perhaps coming from the same point on an object at an infinite
distance, that arrive parallel to each other and to the lens axis. In that
situation, ideally, the lens will converge all such rays at a point on the
axis called the second (or rear) focal point (F2).

We realize that in reality, the refraction of these rays (that is, the
deflection in their direction of travel) occurs once as they cross the
front surface of the lens and again when they cross the rear surface.

But if we consider the action from the standpoint of the lens as a

“black box”, then (in this case, with the arriving rays parallel), it
appears that the rays are deflected just once, at a plane we call the
second principal surface, labeled PS2.2

It turns out that perhaps the most important property of the lens is its
focal length (called, formally, its effective focal length, but don’t let
the “effective” throw you off—it is the “real” focal length).

For a reason we will develop shortly, a distance that is critical to the

use in vision correction, in the scheme that has been adopted for that
art, is the distance to the second focal point from the rear surface of
the lens (to be precise, from the rear surface at the axis, a point called
the second (or rear) vertex of the lens, V2. This is called the back
focal length, bfl, (or back focal distance)

In the correction of vision, we will be concerned with the properties of

two classes of lens.

The refractive power of a lens (often, just power) is the reciprocal of

the focal length (that is, the effective focal length). The modern unit is
the inverse meter (m-1), but the traditional unit (and always used today
in vision correction work) is the diopter, which has the same
definition. A lens with a focal length of 1.0 m has a power of 1.0
diopter.

The focal length may be positive (for a converging lens) or negative

(for a diverging lens); the power carries the corresponding sign.

Consistent with the emphasis in vision correction work on the back

focal length of a lens, in that field we are most often concerned with a
different definition of power, the back vertex power. It is the
reciprocal of the back focal length.

2
Why “surface”, not “plane”? Because in reality, this is usually a curved surface,
not a plane. However, our theoretical examination of the behavior of rays is always
conducted in an infitesimal region near the axis (even though we don’t draw it that
way), and in that context it doesn’t matter whether the surface is a plane of not. So
we label it a surface (for rigor), and draw it as a plane (for convenience).
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 5

Two classes of lens

In the correction of vision, we will be concerned with the properties of
two classes of lens.

Spherical lenses
The lens that is familiar in such areas as photography or astronomy is
rotationally-symmetrical. That means that its cross section is the same
shape in any plane containing the axis. A lens whose surfaces are
portions of a sphere is the traditional and most familiar type of
rotationally-symmetrical lens, and in the field of corrective lenses,
rotationally-symmetrical lenses (whether their surfaces are actually
portions of spheres or not) are referred to as spherical lenses.

The important performance consideration is that the refractive effect

of such lenses is the same along any “meridian”—a transverse line
passing through the axis—whether the “6 o’clock to 12 o’clock”
meridian or the “2 o’clock to 8 o’clock” meridian.

Cylindrical lenses
The surfaces of a cylindrical lens are portions of a cylinder (not
necessarily circular cylinders).

The important performance consideration is that their refractive effect

is different in different directions (along different meridians). It is the
greatest along a meridian that is a right angles to the cylinder axis
(sometimes called the power meridian), zero along a meridian parallel
to the cylinder axis (the axis meridian), and has intermediate values at
meridians in between.

Refractive error of vision

The term accommodation is used in the field of vision science to refer
to the eye’s ability to focus on objects at different distances.
Ophthalmic lenses, as found in eyeglasses and contact lenses, are in
part intended to overcome deficiencies in the eye that prevent the
person from fully utilizing that capability.

The basic “defects” in accommodation (often described as “refractive

errors”) are:

Hyperopia3 (“far-sightedness”) is the deficiency in which the total

range of accommodation is “offset outward”, such that distant objects
(even at “infinity”) can be focused, but the near limit is not nearly as
close as is normal. From a theoretical standpoint, the far limit is

3
Usually called in formal ophthalmological writing “hypermetropia”.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 6

“beyond infinity”, although since there are no objects there that is not
of any value to the person.

Simply, we correct hyperopia with a converging (positive power) lens.

Myopia (“near-sightedness”) is the deficiency in which the total range
of accommodation is “offset inward”, such that close objects can be
focused on but the far limit is short of infinity.

Note that in both these it is assumed that the person still has the
normal “span” of accommodation; it has just been shifted from the
desirable place (so one “end” is forfeit).

The basic cause of these defects is that the focal length of the eye’s
lens system (which comprises two lens elements, the cornea and the
“crystalline lens) is not appropriate for the distance from the lens to
the retina.

Simply, we correct myopia with a diverging (negative power) lens.

Presbyopia (“old person’s vision”) is the deficiency in which the eye is

able to make less change in the distance at which it focused than is
“normal” (an ability called accommodation). It may be combined with
hyperopia, which case the far limit of the range of vision is “beyond
infinity”, and the near limit may still be a large distance.

Or it may be combined with myopia, in which case the far limit may
be at a modest distance, and the near limit not much closer.

In “full blown” presbyopia, the eye cannot change its vision distance
at all, so the near and far limits become the same (and what distance
that is can be affected by myopia or hyperopia).

The basic cause of presbyopia is decline in the effectivity of the eye’s

mechanism for changing the focal length of the crystalline lens.

We correct for presbyopia with bifocal lenses, which have one power
to be used for vision at a distance and another (more positive) power
to be used for near vision.

Astigmatism
Astigmatism is a refractive defect that is not a flaw in
accommodation.

In astigmatism, the eye cannot, in the same “state of

accommodation”, focus on a line at a certain distance running in one
direction and a line at the same distance running in a different
direction.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 7

We correct astigmatism with a cylindrical lens (or, more likely, by

having the effect of a cylindrical lens combined with the effect of a
spherical lens). The axis of the cylindrical lens must be appropriate to
the orientation of the astigmatism being corrected.

The use of vertex power

The effect of a lens on vision correction depends on the power of the
lens (and here I mean in the conventional optical theory sense—the
inverse of the effective focal length) the distance from the first
principal point of the eye’s lens system and the second principal point
of the corrective lens.

Our dealings with this would be greatly simplified if we adopt a

standard distance between the eye and the lens, as then only the
power of the lens needs to be taken into account.

But doing so is made difficult for two reasons. Firstly, the second
principal point of the lens is not discernible in any simple way, and
thus measuring to establish the standard distance, when mounting the
lens, is not easy.

Further, the location of the second principal point on the lens varies
dramatically with the shape of the lens. A certain distance in the case
of one shape of lens may place the lens so far from the face as to
seem silly, while on another shape of lens that distance would result
in the lens being pressed against the face (or worse).

We can ameliorate these difficulties by instead adopting a standard

distance from the eye to the back of the lens (in particular, to its rear
vertex—the point on its axis at its rear surface.

Fortunately, when we adopt such a norm, we find that the effect of

the lens on vision correction (for distant vision) is consistently
determined by the back vertex power of the lens.

Thus, in vision correction work, we (whenever possible) place the

back vertex of the lens at a fixed distance from the eye (and if that is
not practical in a specific case, we describe the alternate distance in
those terms). Then, we specify lenses in terms of their back vertex
power. And it all works out.

The prescription
Basically, in the case of bifocal lenses, the prescription that defines
the needed optical parameters is typically written for each eye in a
form such as this (there are several variants):
OD +3.50/ +0.75 X 30 add 1.75
The meanings of the elements are:
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 8

OD (oculus dexter): This is for the right eye. (For the left eye, it is OS,
oculus sinister).

+3.50: The lens overall has a spherical power component of

+3.50 D.

+0.75: The lens overall has a cylindrical power component of

+0.75 D with its axis at 30°4.

add +1.75: In the near-vision segment, the spherical component of

the power is 1.75 D more positive than specified for the lens overall
(thus +4.25 D in this example). The cylindrical component of the
power in the segment is taken to be the same as specified for the lens
overall.

Near vision effective vertex power

Imagine that we had a spherical lens with a vertex power of +3.50 D.
If we consider its use in the correction of hyperopic vision, assuming
that the lens is placed so its rear vertex is at a standard distance from
the eye, the value +3.50 D tells us exactly its effect on the correction
of distant vision—exactly what degree of hyperopia it would correct in
distant vision.

But if we consider the use of that same lens in the correction of near
vision at some assumed near distance, assuming again that the lens is
placed so its rear vertex is at a standard distance from the eye, the
value +3.50 D does not in general tell us exactly its effect on the
correction of near vision. Here, we have lost the great convenience of
the vertex power telling us the effect on vision correction.

A slightly different value, called the near vision effective vertex power,
does tell us exactly the effect of the lens on near vision (at some
assumed distance).

The difference between the near vision effective vertex power of a

lens and its vertex power is called the near vision effectivity error
(NVEE). It is ordinarily negative, meaning that the near vision effective
vertex power is less positive than the vertex power. The amount of
the NVEE depends on the curvature of the front surface of the lens,
the thickness of the lens (at the center), and the distance for which
we are interested in correcting the near vision.

The power in the near vision segment of a bifocal lens implied by the
prescription (as the sum of the basic spherical power and the “add”) is

4
The axis runs, in normal scientific terms, from 0° to just shy of 180°, but 0° is
actually written as 180°, so the range as written is from just above 0° to 180°.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 9

intended to be the near vision effective vertex power in the near vision
segment of the finished lens.

THE TRIAL CASE

The trial frame
Figure 4 shows a typical modern trial frame, from our personal
collection. This one is made in Hong Kong, and closely follows the
design of the American Optical Company models 11070 (U.S. made)
and 11072 (made in Japan). The design, in specific detail, actually
goes back to about 1939 (amazingly modern in terms of “industrial
design”).

Figure 4. Trial frame (after AO design)

The positions of the two side assemblies can be adjusted laterally by

two small micrometer knobs in order to place the center of the
respective lens laterally in line with the patent’s pupils. The positions
can be read on scales. The sum of the two readings will be the
interpupillary distance (PD).

The nosepiece assembly, which actually provides for the location of

the frame on the patient, can be adjusted in two ways. It can be
moved fore-and-aft, so as to adjust the distance of the trial lenses
from the eye to meet the standard distance or the special distance
chosen for the patient.5 It can be adjusted up-and-down, so as to
place the centers of the lenses vertically in line with the patient’s
pupils.

The temple pieces have adjusting knobs which adjust their angle with
respect to the frame proper, in turn adjusting the angular “tilt” of the
lenses with respect to the line from the eye to the center of the
aperture (the pantoscopic angle). The lengths of the temple pieces can

5
Some trial frames have a little gunsight-like feature on each side allowing the
distance from the reference plane of the frame to the front of the cornea to be
precisely measured. Ours (illustrated) is not quite that fancy.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 10

also be adjusted to suit the location of the patient’s ears after the eye
distance has been set.

On each side, there is a ring with two bars each having three notches
to receive trial lenses, plus a set of three spring clips for holding them
in place. The front notches are spaced 3.5 mm center-to-center.

Each ring can be separately rotated with a small knurled knob.

Although all the trial lenses rotate together, this is only of importance
to a cylindrical lens, if present. A scale allows the orientation of the
axis of a cylinder lens (indicated by a “tick mark” on the lens) to be
ascertained.

There is also on the rear of each side a similar provision for holding a
fourth lens, when needed. There is no mechanical provision for
rotating that lens.

For historical comparison, Figure 5 shows another trial frame from our
personal collection. This is from American Optical Company, and is
believed to date from about 1890.

Figure 5. Trial frame (ca. 1890)

In this design, the two units are moved symmetrically by a single

screw (with a knob on each side, however). Two scales are provided
for this movement, both in inches (as for all movement scales on the
unit). The one on our right shows the interpupillary distance. The one
on the left shows the separation between the temple pieces. In this
specimen, all the scales are of engraved ivory. The cylinder axis scale
on the left side (to our right in the photo) has lost a piece (there is
evidence of other repairs nearby).

It will hold one trial lens on the front (rotatable with a small knob to
the side) and one to the rear (not mechanically-rotatable).

The lenses sit in round-bottomed grooves in two circular posts, held

with a spring clip.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 11

On the front side, the posts have a second groove, presumably to

facilitate the temporary placing of a second lens, but no spring clip is
provided to complete its residency. This is presumably used in
connection with the placing of an incremental lens to confirm the
power of the trial lens in place.

The trial lenses

The trial case typically includes as many as 266 lenses. They include:

• Spherical lenses, with a wide range of powers, both positive and

negative, generally 0.12 D, 0.25 D, and then in steps of 0.25 D up
to a certain point, then in steps of 0.50 D, and then finally in steps
of 1.00 D. At least two of each power are included.

• Cylindrical lenses, again in a variety of powers, often both positive

and negative, mostly in steps of 0.25 D.

• Special lenses used for various special tests, “opaque” disks used
to block one eye, and so forth.

Figure 6 shows three trial lenses of the “traditional” type from our
personal collection. They have thin metal rims (typically 1.5-1.7 mm
thick), with a rounded edge, and an overall nominal diameter of 38
mm (1.5”). Generally, spherical lenses of this type are symmetrical
(same curvature on each surface). Cylindrical lenses usually have one
flat (“plano”) surface.

Figure 6. Trial lenses—traditional

The leftmost lens is a spherical lens. The next two are cylindrical
lenses.

The cylindrical lenses have a pair of tick marks on the glass near the
rim. These indicate the orientation of the cylinder axis (see second and
third lenses—the tick marks have been darkened here for better
visibility).

In some cases, the cylindrical lenses also have “frosted” portions

outside a central roughly-rectangular clear portion (see the third lens).
The cylinder axis of the lens runs along the center of the clear portion.
The purpose of the frosting is to allow the examiner to quickly grasp
the general orientation of the cylinder lens without having to refer to
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 12

the tick marks, as well as to readily distinguish the cylindrical lenses

from the spherical lenses.

The metal tabs serve to hold the lenses for manipulation, and also
carry a designation of the lens power.

In some cases, the difference between plus and minus power was
conveyed by the color of the tab, in some case by the shape of the
tab, in some cases with a sign pierced through the tab, and in some
cases with two or more of those. (Those shown are from a set in
which the sign was conveyed both by a pierced mark and by the
shape of the tab.)

In some cases, the class of lens (spherical or cylindrical) is indicated

by the shape or color of the tab, but in most cases, the user is left to
ascertain that by the presence or absence of the tick marks showing
the axis of cylindrical lenses (and the frosting, for sets having such).

Lenses of this style are still offered by almost all trial case suppliers.

Figure 7 shows two trial lenses of the “modern” type (from Marco
Ophthalmic, Inc.) from our personal collection. In these, the lens
proper is in an anodized aluminum mount (for some manufactures, it is
plastic), with a nominal diameter of 38 mm and a typical edge
thickness of 1.7 mm.

Figure 7. Modern trial lenses

The left lens is spherical, the right one cylindrical (see discussion
below on identification).

Naturally, the actual lens has smaller diameter than the mount. Such a
smaller diameter that was found in the “traditional” lenses is
intentional, having been found to be advantageous in the avoidance of
various undesired effects. Common actual working diameters are
25 mm for the moderate powers (as seen above) and 18 mm for the
larger ones (perhaps above 8.00 D).

Typically, in such sets, the spherical lenses are of the meniscus form
(curved overall, with a positive curvature on the front surface and a
negative curvature on the back surface). Often they follow the
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 13

“corrected curve” design, in which the overall curvature, for a given

power, is optimized in order to minimize certain aberrations. They may
also follow (or closely follow) the “additive vertex power” system
(described later).

In some cases, the cylindrical lenses have a flat (”plano”) back

surface, and a cylindrical front surface. In other cases, they have a
spherical rear surface (concave) and a toroidal front surface with a
convex spherical component (to give the cylindrical power desired,
while taking the spherical power to zero despite the back surface
curvature).

Normally the sign of the power is included in the marking, and as well,
the frames are black for plus power and red for minus (as prescribed
by the international standard).

The distinction between spherical and cylindrical lenses is often only

shown by virtue of the fairly prominent tick marks on the mount
showing the axis of cylindrical lenses. In the Marco spherical lenses,
the power is marked twice (suggesting that it applies to “both
meridians”, although of course that could be any two meridians). For
the cylindrical lenses, the power only appears once (at the specific
meridian to which it applies, the “power” meridian, at right angles to
the cylinder axis).

TRIAL LENS EXAMINATION

Basics
There are various procedures recommended for the conduct of a
refraction using a trial lens system. They all have various subtle
advantages.

Here, I will discuss the setup for one procedure, one that perhaps best
illustrates the technical principles involved.

In this procedure, the lens that represents the basic power of the final
lens overall is placed in the rearmost position (or “cell”), “position 1”—
closest to the eye. If a cylindrical component is involved, the trial
cylinder lens is placed in “position 2”—farther from the eye.

In figure 8 we see this setup in our “modern” trial frame, with two
“modern” trial lenses—spherical and cylindrical—on each side.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 14

Figure 8. Modern trial frame with modern trial lenses

To give history its due, in figure 9 we see the corresponding setup in

our antique AO trial frame, with “traditional” trial lenses.

Figure 9. Antique trial frame with traditional trial lenses

Note here that the rear lenses (spherical) are in “position 0”, behind
the frame, as this frame only has one fully-equipped position on the
front side. The cylindrical lenses shown here are the type having
frosted areas to help recognize the general orientation of the cylinder
axis (they also have tick marks, not readily visible in this photo, that
are read against the calibrated scales).

Without describing the actual step-by-step procedure, the objective is

to end up with a combination of the power of the spherical lens and
the power and axis orientation of the cylindrical lens that produce the
best distant vision with the patient observing a “distant” target.

Then, to determine the optimum lens properties for near vision (as will
be implemented in the near vision segment of the final bifocal lens),
we place an additional positive spherical lens in the outermost position
in the frame (“position 3”). One advantage of this, rather than
replacing the main spherical lens with ones of successively
more-positive power, is that the result comes out directly in “add”
notation. (There is also a subtle technical advantage, which we will
cover later.)
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 15

Imagine that we end up with this “stack” in the frame for one eye
when best distant vision has been attained:
Cell 1 (nearest face): Sphere, +3.50 D
Cell 2: Cylinder, +0.75 D, axis 30°
After we have added the third lens, and best near vision has been
attained, we have this stack:
Cell 1 (nearest face): Sphere, +3.50 D
Cell 2: Cylinder, +0.75 D, axis 30°
Cell 3 (outermost): Sphere, 1.75 D
Then we write this as the prescription for the actual lens to be made:
OD +3.50/ +0.75 X 30 add 1.75
Straightforward.

But of course, there are a number of wrinkles, some of which we will

now explore.

The additive vertex power scheme

We noted at the outset that the effect of a lens on vision correction
depends on both the power of the lens and its distance from the eye.

This is a manifestation of the broader optical principle that the power

of a compound lens comprising two lens “elements” is dependent on
the powers of the two elements, their respective thicknesses, and the
distance between them (measured in a certain way). Here, in effect,
the eye’s lens system is one element and the corrective lens the other.

But the concept has a further application in the case of trial lens
refraction of a patient, when two or more lenses may make up the
“lens” that is being tried. In the situation just described (the distant
vision phase), we take the power of the spherical lens to be the
spherical component of the power of the “stack”.

Yet it would not be exactly so, owing to the fact that the thicknesses
of the elements and the distances between them is not negligible. The
spherical power component of the “stack” (observed at its rear vertex,
that is, at the rear vertex of the rearmost component, the cylindrical
lens). This is the cause of an error in the prescription that will guide
the making of the actual corrective lens.

We can care of this in a clever way, called the “additive vertex power
system”.

Firstly, for all the lenses (of various powers) in the set from which
lenses are intended to be placed in “position 1” (closest to the eye—
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 16

the “ocular” lenses) [in our example above, those would be the
spherical lenses]:

• Have a constant thickness (measured along the axis; that is,

between the two vertexes), and

• Have a constant front surface curvature

We mark all those lenses with their actual (back) vertex power.

Then, we design the trial frames so as to give a constant distance

between the “front” and “rear” lenses (measured along the axis; that
is, between the two adjacent vertexes).

Then, we mark each lens in the set intended to be placed in “position

2” (the “anterior” lenses) with a value calculated by a formula
involving:

• The actual (back) vertex power of the lens.

• The standard curvature of the lenses in the ocular lens set.

• The standard axial thickness of the lenses in the ocular lens set.

• The standard spacing between the front and rear lenses when in
the trial frame.

Note that we are free to have each of the anterior lenses have any
shape we wish, as might be chosen to meet further objectives. There
is no requirement for uniformity in the curvature of either surface or in
the axial thickness.6

Having done all that, the (back) vertex power of the stack of any two
lenses, each from the proper set for its position in the trial frame, will
be the sum of the markings on the two lenses.

Note that since the “anterior” lenses in the common setup are
the cylindrical ones, this result has meaning with regard to the
power in the power meridian of the cylinder lens. The cylinder
lenses have zero power in their axis meridian, and contribute
zero to the power of the combination in that meridian.

If we want “zero” power in the rear position (perhaps the patient

needs no correction for hyperopia/myopia, but only for astigmatism)),
we must put in the rear position a lens that fulfills our norms regarding
front surface curvature and thickness but has zero back vertex power.

6
There is a very small implication of the thickness of the anterior lens with regard to
the distance assumed for near vision measurement, but this is typically negligible.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 17

Otherwise, the effect of the cylindrical lens on the vertex power of the
stack (along the cylindrical power meridian, of course) would not be
that implied by its marked power.

In many “additive” trial lens sets (such as the Marco lenses shown
above), the design restrictions on the lenses for use in the ocular
position to support “additivity” are not strictly observed, the design
yielding to other criteria that may be more compelling. Substantial
departures, however, can be made without destroying additivity by a
consequential amount.

Sadly, despite wishful thinking on the part of some eminent

ophthalmic scientists, it is not possible to extend this scheme to
embrace three or more ranks of lenses. That is, for example, we
cannot establish a third set of lenses, each marked with a number that
would always represent the increment to the vertex power of the
stack that lens would confer if placed in position 3 regardless of the
lenses in positions 1 and 2.

Near vision correction

With regard to near vision correction, we recall the effect of the near
vision segment portion of the lens on vision, at a certain assumed near
vision distance, is not (in general) the same as the vertex power of the
segment (the difference being quantified as the near vision effectivity
error, or NVEE).

In a bifocal lens prescription (the situation in which we most often

encounter the near vision issue), we would like the “add” value to
reflect the difference between (a) the near vision effective vertex
power of the near vision segment (for the near vision distance in
which we are interested) and (b) the power of the basic lens (that is,
in its “distant vision part”, outside the near vision segment).

Suppose that, after determining the distant vision correction, we have

the patient regard a near test target and then replace the spherical
lens in position 2 with lenses of successively more positive power,
until best near vision is attained. The marked power of the spherical
lens then in place will not be the near vision effective vertex power
then in effect; that effective power is lower then the marked vertex
power, owing to the effect of NVEE.

Thus, the marked power of the spherical lens then in place does not
accurately indicate the needed power in the near vision segment of
the actual lens, and does not lead us to the appropriate “add” value in
the prescription.

But in fact the approach I described a little earlier, in which we place a

positive lens in position 3 to determine the amount of near vision
“add”, outsmarts the NVEE. Here’s the underlying concept.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 18

If we visualize the near vision segment of an actual bifocal lens as

being made by sticking onto the front of the “base” lens a little
“addition” lens with a front vertex power of, say, +1.75 D, then the
near vision effective vertex power of the segment will be the power of
the base lens plus 1.75 D (just as called for by our model prescription)
for a near vision distance of 1/1.75 m.7 This result is absolute, not
diminished by the mechanism that causes NVEE.8

We can practice that same game with our “lens construction set”—the
trial lens system. With the main spherical lens in position 1, and the
cylinder lens in position 2, we have the patient regard a near target.
Then we put positive spherical lenses of various powers in position 3,
reversed front-to-back from their normal orientation, until best vision is
obtained.

Recall that in this particular implementation of the additive vertex

power system, the spherical lenses are labeled with their actual (back)
vertex powers.

Then the marked power of this trial “addition” lens (which is its front
vertex power in this situation) is in fact the appropriate “add” for the
prescription (based on near vision at the distance that is the reciprocal
of that back vertex power).

The Jackson cross cylinder

When determining the optimum parameters for the cylinder component
of the lens (for correction of astigmatism), the examiner puts in place
cylindrical lenses of various powers, and adjust the lens axis to various
angles, until the best near vision is attained. This optimum is a bit
“vague”. There is a clever technique that can confirm that the power,
and axis, of the trial cylindrical lens is indeed optimum.

The Jackson cross cylinder9 (JCC) can be thought of as a composite

lens comprising two cylinder lenses, with the same magnitude of
power (typically in the range 0.25 to 0.50 D) but one plus and one
minus, with their axes at right angles. A pair of dots or tick marks of
one color (usually white or black) shows the direction of the axis of
the plus cylinder component and a pair of dots or tick marks of

7
*Often, the desired “add” is the reciprocal of the desired near vision distance
(especially for patients with severe presbyopia), so this condition is fulfilled. What if
that is not so? Then the result is not precisely as stated, but is generally quite close.

8
Neither is it disrupted by the considerations that led to the “additive vertex power”
system for trial lenses.

9
Less frequently, “crossed cylinder”, better grammar actually.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 19

another color (usually red) shows the direction of the axis of the minus
cylinder component 10.

Figure 10. Jackson cross cylinder

Figure 10 shows a typical Jackson cross cylinder (±0.25 D) for use in

trial lens refraction.

If we were to place a JCC in front of our “stack” and orient it in four

different ways, compared to the axis of the cylinder trial lens in place,
in increments of 45°, it would successively have the following
effects:

a. Make the cylinder power more positive (less negative).

b. Move the cylinder axis slightly clockwise.

c. Make the cylinder power less positive (more negative).

d. Move the cylinder axis slightly counterclockwise.

The lens is mounted on a long handle by which it is held to place it. If

we place it in front of the lens stack in orientation a, and twist the
handle so as to flip the lens over, it will be in orientation c. If we place
it in front of the lens stack in orientation b, and twist the handle so as
to flip the lens over, it will be in orientation d.

To confirm the appropriateness of the power in our current cylinder

trial lens, we place the JCC in front of the lens stack in orientation a,
and ask the patient, “Which is better, one or [flip the JCC] two?”

If the patient prefers “one” (orientation a), we know that we need to

use a cylinder trial lens with a more positive power; if he prefers
“two” (orientation c), we know that we need to use a cylinder trial

10
The convention is reversed between the U.S. and the U.K., probably due to a
misunderstanding as to whether a pair of dots showed the axis of a cylindrical
component or the direction of the meridian along which that component exhibits its
power. The international standard, like U.S. practice, calls for the red dots to
indicate the axis of the minus cylinder component.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 20

lens with a less positive power. We then try the test again. If he says
they are the same, we know that the current choice of cylinder power
is good.

Then we place the JCC in front of the lens stack in orientation b, and
ask the patient, “Which is better, one or [flip the JCC] two?”

If the patient prefers “one” (orientation b), we know that we need to

move the cylinder trial lens axis a bit in the clockwise direction; if he
prefers “two” (orientation d), we know that we need to move the
cylinder trial lens axis a bit in the counterclockwise direction. We then
try the test again. If he says they are the same, we know that the
current choice of cylinder axis is good.

Incidentally, the same scheme, by the same name, is used in a

refractor, refined by fancy mechanism engineering. There, the JCC is
put in place by a revolving turret, and is flipped with a nice little
knurled wheel, aided by a detent.

We can see them in figure 1, in their “parked” positions, with their

little white and red dots (U.S. convention here).

ANOTHER VINTAGE TRIAL FRAME

In figure 11 we see another vintage trial frame, recently added to our
personal collection:

Figure 11. Vintage trial frame (ca. 1898)

We believe this unit was manufactured by American Optical Company,

likely around 1898. If differs from the frame shown in figure 5
principally in that the arrangements for adjusting the separation
between the two eye units, and for the vertical movement of the
nosepiece, both involve rack-and-pinion mechanisms rather than screw
mechanisms. The temple bows are also suspended in a different way,
and the screw movement for the nosepiece, fore-and-aft, has a
different principle.
Trial Lenses in Vision Correction Page 21

The cylinder axis scales are printed on celluloid, rather than being
engraved on ivory, as for the other unit. For a while, this was often a
distinction between variations within a model family, perhaps between
the “basic” and deluxe” units. (For example, sometimes the ”basic”
version does not have gear operated rotation of the lens holders.)

In figure 12 we see it with two trial lenses in place on both sides.

Figure 12. Vintage trial frame with lenses

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks to Wayne Starling of Marco Ophthalmic, Inc., a major
supplier of ophthalmic and optometric instruments, for his patient
assistance in helping me grasp exactly how the additive vertex power
system is implemented and utilized in modern trial lens sets.

ISSUE NOTE
This issue primarily makes corrections of various typographical errors.
Thanks to Steven Falco for bringing these to my attention.