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Chapter One: Electric Charges and Field

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313 views65 pages

Chapter One: Electric Charges and Field

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Shankar R

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Chapter One

ELECTRIC
CHARGES AND
FIELD

CLASS XII
MATHS & SCIENCE PHYSICS PHYSICS NOTES
AT HOME AT HOME SHANKAR R
for STD IX & X for STD XI & XII +919821248228
Hint for solving physics problems

I believe that the best way of learning how to solve physics

problems is by practice and from example. However, there are a
few basic hints, all of which are just common sense and therefore
fairly obvious.
Try to understand the physics of the problem before launching
into a mathematical analysis. It will sometimes be possible to
obtain a rough preliminary numerical answer, perhaps using
simplifying assumptions.
Lay your work out neatly on the page, without being
obsessive about it, and explain what your are doing and why
you are doing it.
Draw a diagram if it helps (it nearly always does.)
Try to keep expressions algebraic rather than numerical. This
may mean that you have to invent symbols for quantities that
are specified numerically. But it has advantage that the
dimensions of your answer can be checked at the end of the
calculation. it is also much less likely that you will make
mistakes if you are manipulating a few symbols rather that
strings of digits. Finally, if you can express your answer
algebraically you may be able to check that the variables
affect the answer in the way you expect.
Check the dimensions of your answer if this is possible and
appropriate.
Check the magnitude of your answer against common sense
or other knowledge , if possible.
If your numerical answer to a problem does not agree with a
value which you are reasonably sure is correct, and all other
attempts at identifying the error have failed, look at the ration
of your answer to “correct” one. You may find that your
answer is wrong by a simple factor such as 2, pi, ln2 etc. If so
go back to your working and try to find where you introduced
the error, but remember that the error could be in the
“correct” answer, and not in your solution. (some teacher may
dislike this suggestion, but i have found it useful as a last
resort!)

- W G Rees, Cambridge University

1 - Electric Charges and Fields 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
All of us have the experience of seeing a spark or hearing a crackle when we
take off our synthetic clothes or sweater, particularly in dry weather.
Another common example of electric discharge is the lightning that we see in
the sky during thunderstorms.
We also experience a sensation of an electric shock either while opening the
door of a car or holding the iron bar of a bus after sliding from our seat.
Have you ever tried to find any explanation for this phenomenon?
The reason for these experiences is discharge of electric charges through our
body, which were accumulated due to rubbing of insulating surfaces.
You might have also heard that this is due to generation of static electricity.
Static means anything that does not move or change with time. Electrostatics
deals with the study of forces, fields and potentials arising from static charges.

1.2 ELECTRIC CHARGE

History
Concept of Electric charges
These seemingly simple facts were established from years of efforts and
careful experiments and their analyses.
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It was observed that if two glass rods rubbed with wool or silk cloth are
brought close to each other, they repel each other.

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The two strands of wool or two pieces of silk cloth, with which the rods were
rubbed, also repel each other.
However, the glass rod and wool attracted each other.
Two plastic rods rubbed with cat’s fur repelled each other but attracted the fur.
On the other hand, the plastic rod attracts the glass rod and repel the silk or
wool with which the glass rod is rubbed.
The glass rod repels the fur.
If a plastic rod rubbed with fur is made to touch two small pith balls suspended
by silk or nylon thread, then the balls repel each other and are also repelled by
the rod.
A similar effect is found if the pith balls are touched with a glass rod rubbed
with silk.
A dramatic observation is that a pith ball touched with glass rod attracts
another pith ball touched with plastic rod.
These seemingly simple facts were established from years of efforts and
careful experiments and their analyses.

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The experiments on pith balls suggested that there are two kinds of
electrification and we find that
Like charges repel.
Unlike charges attract each other.

The property which differentiates the two kinds of charges is called the
polarity of charge.

When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires one kind of charge
and the silk acquires the second kind of charge. This is true for any pair of
objects that are rubbed to be electrified
Positive and Negative Charges
The charges were named as positive and negative by the American scientist
Benjamin Franklin.
Unlike charges acquired by the objects neutralise or nullify each other’s effect
By convention, the charge on glass rod or cat’s fur is called positive and that
on plastic rod or silk is termed negative.

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If an object possesses an electric charge, it is said to be electrified or

charged. When it has no charge it is said to be neutral.

GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

The gold-leaf electroscope is simple apparatus to detect charge on a body

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It consists of a vertical metal rod housed in a box, with two thin gold leaves
attached to its bottom end.

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When a charged object touches the metal knob at the top of the rod,
charge flows on to the leaves and they diverge.
The degree of divergence is an indicator of the amount of charge.
Working
On charging the metal rod by touching the ball end with an electrified body,
charge is transferred to the metal rod and the attached gold leaves.
Both the halves of the leaves get similar charge and therefore repel each other.

The divergence in the leaves depends on the amount of charge on

Why material bodies acquire charge.

All matter is made up of atoms and/or molecules.
Normally the materials are electrically neutral, they do contain charges; but
their charges are exactly balanced.
To electrify a neutral body, we need to add or remove one kind of charge.
When we say that a body is charged, we always refer to this excess charge or
deficit of charge.

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In solids, some of the electrons, being less tightly bound in the atom, are the
charges which are transferred from one body to the other.
A body can thus be charged positively by losing some of its electrons.
A body can be charged negatively by gaining electrons.

Particles with the same sign of electrical charge repel each other, and
particles with opposite signs attract each other.

For example,
When we rub a glass rod with silk, some of the electrons from the rod are
transferred to the silk cloth.
Thus the rod gets positively charged and the silk gets negatively charged.
No new charge is created in the process of rubbing.
The number of electrons, that are transferred, is a very small fraction of the
total number of electrons in the material body.
Only the less tightly bound electrons in a material body can be transferred
from it to another by rubbing.

1.3 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors Copyright Insulators

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1. Those which allow electricity to
pass through them easily are
1. Those which do not allow electricity
to pass through them are called
called conductors. insulators.
2. They have electric charges 2. They do not have electric charges
(electrons) that are (electrons) that are comparatively
comparatively free to move free to move inside the material.
inside the material. 3. Most of the non-metals like glass,
3. When some charge is porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood offer
transferred to a conductor, it high resistance to the passage of
readily gets distributed over the electricity through them.
entire surface of the conductor. 4. if some charge is put on an
4. Metals, human and animal insulator, it stays at the same
bodies and earth are place.
conductors.

Why a nylon or plastic comb gets electrified on combing dry hair or on

rubbing, but a metal article like spoon does not?
The charges on metal leak through our body to the ground as both are
conductors of electricity. Whereas nylon or plastic comb does not conduct.

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Grounding or Earthing
The process of sharing the charges with the earth is called grounding or
earthing.
When we bring a charged body in contact with the earth, all the excess charge
on the body disappears by causing a momentary current to pass to the ground
through the connecting conductor
Earthing provides a safety measure for electrical circuits and appliances.

A thick metal plate is buried deep into the earth and thick wires are drawn
from this plate; these are used in buildings for the purpose of earthing
near the mains supply.
The electric wiring in our houses has three wires: live, neutral and earth.
The first two electric current from the power station and the third is
earthed by connecting it to the buried metal plate.
Metallic bodies of the electric appliances such as electric iron, refrigerator,
TV are connected to the earth wire.
When any fault occurs or live wire touches the metallic body, the charge
flows to the earth without damaging the appliance and without causing
any injury to the humans.

1.4 CHARGING BY INDUCTION

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Bring two metal spheres, A and B, supported on insulating stands, in contact
as shown in Fig.  
Bring a positively charged rod near one of the spheres, sayA, taking care that
it does not touch the sphere.  
The free electrons in the spheres are attracted towards the rod.  
This leaves an excess of positive charge on the rear surface of sphere B. Both
kinds of charges are bound in the metal spheres and cannot escape. They,
therefore, reside on the surfaces, as shown in Fig. 1.4(b).
The left surface of sphere A, has an excess of negative charge and the right
surface of sphere B, has an excess of positive charge. However, not all of the
electrons in the spheres have accumulated on the left surface of A.
As the negative charge starts building up at the left surface of A, other
electrons are repelled by these.
In a short time, equilibrium is reached under the action of force of attraction
of the rod and the force of repulsion due to the accumulated charges. Fig.
1.4(b) shows the equilibrium situation.
The process is called induction of charge and happens almost instantly.
The accumulated charges remain on the surface, as shown, till the glass rod is
held near the sphere.

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If the rod is removed, the charges are not acted by any outside force and they
redistribute to their original neutral state  

(iii) Separate the spheres by a small distance while the glass rod is still held
near sphere A, as shown in Fig. 1.4(c). The two spheres are found to be
oppositely charged and attract each other.  

(iv) Remove the rod. The charges on spheres rearrange themselves as shown
in Fig. 1.4(d). Now, separate the spheres quite apart. The charges on them get
uniformly distributed over them, as shown in Fig. 1.4(e).  

In this process, the metal spheres will each be equal and oppositely  
charged. This is charging by induction. The positively charged glass rod does
not lose any of its charge, contrary to the process of charging by contact.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

In charging a metal sphere negatively by induction, by bringing a positively

charged rod near it , the electrons will flow from the ground to the sphere
when the sphere is connected to the ground with a wire. Why?
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Answer:
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When we charge a metal sphere negatively by bringing a positively charged
rod near its left surface, the electrons get attracted towards the left side and
positive charges on right side. Now, when the sphere is earthed the
electrons from earth flow to the sphere to neutralise the positive charge
collected on the right side. Now, when the positively charged rod is removed
the negative charges get distributed over the metal surface and the sphere
gets negatively charged.

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SAMPLE QUESTION

How can you charge a metal sphere positively without touching it?

Answer:

1. Figure (a) shows an uncharged metallic sphere on an insulating metal

stand.
2. Bring a negatively charged rod close to the metallic sphere, as shown in
Fig(b).
3. As the rod is brought close to the sphere, the free electrons in the sphere
move away due to repulsion and start piling up at the farther end. The
near end becomes positively charged due to deficit of electrons. This
process of charge distribution stops when the net force on the free
electrons inside the metal is zero.
4. Connect the sphere to the ground by a conducting wire. The electrons
will flow to the ground while the positive charges at the near end will
remain held there due to the attractive force of the negative charges on
the rod, as shown in Fig.(c).
5. Disconnect the sphere from the ground. The positive charge continues to
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be held at the near end [Fig. (d)].
6. Remove the electrified rod.
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7. The positive charge will spread uniformly over the sphere as shown in
Fig (e).

In this experiment, the metal sphere gets charged by the process of

induction and the rod does not lose any of its charge.
Similar steps are involved in charging a metal sphere negatively by
induction, by bringing a positively charged rod near it.

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1.5 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

Point Charges
If the sizes of charged bodies are very small as compared to the distances
between them, we treat them as point charges. All the charge content of the
body is assumed to be concentrated at one point in space.

Some properties of the electric charge are

1. Additivity of charges
2. Charge is conserved
3. Quantisation of charge

1. Additivity of charges
If a system contains two point charges q1 and q2, the total charge of the
system is obtained simply by adding algebraically q1 and q2 , i.e., charges
add up like real numbers or they are scalars like the mass of a body
If a system contains n charges q1, q2, q3, ..., qn, then the total charge of
the system is q1 +q2 +q3 +...+qn.

Charge has magnitude but no direction, similar to the mass.

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Mass of a body is always positive whereas a charge can be either positive
or negative.
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Proper signs have to be used while adding the charges in a system.
For example,
the total charge of a system containing five charges +1, +2, –3, +4 and –5, in
some arbitrary unit, is (+1) + (+2) + (–3) + (+4) + (–5) = –1 in the same
unit.
2. Charge is conserved
Within an isolated system consisting of many charged bodies, due to
interactions among the bodies, charges may get redistributed but it is found
that the total charge of the isolated system is always conserved.
Conservation of charge has been established experimentally.

Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed

It is not possible to create or destroy net charge carried by any isolated system
although the charge carrying particles may be created or destroyed in a
process.

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Sometimes nature creates charged particles: a neutron turns into a proton and
an electron.
The proton and electron thus created have equal and opposite charges and the
total charge is zero before and after the creation
Neutron ———>proton. + electron
charge=0. charge=+1. charge=-1
4. Quantisation of charge
When a physical quantity such as charge can have only discrete values rather
than any value, we say that the quantity is quantised.
Experimentally it is established that all free charges are integral multiples of a
basic unit of charge denoted by e.

q = ne

Where,
n is any integer, positive or negative
–19
e = 1.602192 × 10 C - Basic Unit of charge

This basic unit of charge is the charge that an electron or proton carries.
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The charge on an electron is taken to be negative; therefore charge on
an electron is written as –e and that on a proton as +e.
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The fact that electric charge is always an integral multiple of e is termed as
quantisation of charge.
International System (SI) of Units, a unit of charge is called a coulomb
and is denoted by the symbol C
Definition of Coloumb: one coulomb is the charge flowing through a wire in
1 s if the current is 1 A (ampere),
No of electrons in -1C of charge.
q 1
"n = = ≈ 6 × 1018 electrons
e 1.6 × 10 −19
18
Thus, there are about 6 × 10 electrons in a charge of –1C.
The protons and electrons are the only basic charges in the universe, all the
observable charges have to be integral multiples of e.
Thus, if a body contains n1 electrons and n 2
protons,

the total amount of charge on the body is n2 × e + n1 × (–e) = (n2 – n1) e.

Since n1 and n2 are integers, their difference is also an integer.

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Note on quantisation at macroscopic level.

At the macroscopic level,

one deals with charges that are enormous compared to the

magnitude of charge e. Since e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, a charge of
magnitude, say 1 µC, contains something like 1013 times the
electronic charge.
At this scale, the fact that charge can increase or decrease only in
units of e is not very different from saying that charge can take
continuous values.
Thus, at the macroscopic level, the quantisation of charge has no
practical consequence and can be ignored.
At the microscopic level, where the charges involved are of the
order of a few tens or hundreds of e, i.e., they can be counted,
they appear in discrete lumps and quantisation of charge cannot
be ignored.
It is the scale involved that is very important.

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Thus the charge on any body is always an integral multiple of e and can be
Shankar
CHECKPOINT
R +91-9821248228
Initially, sphere A has a charge of 50e and sphere B has a charge
of 20e. The spheres are made of conducting material and are
identical in size. If the spheres then touch, what is the resulting charge
on sphere A?

CHECKPOINT
The figure shows five 
pairs of plates: A, B, and 
D are charged plastic 
plates and C is an elec- 
trically neutral copper 
plate.The electrostatic forces between the pairs of plates are shown
for Three of the pairs. For the remaining two pairs, do the plates repel
or attract each other?

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increased or decreased also in steps of e.

1.6 COULOMB’S LAW

Coulomb’s law is a quantitative statement about the force between two point
charges.
When the linear size of charged bodies are much smaller than the distance
separating them, the size may be ignored and the charged bodies are treated
as point charges.

The law states that force between two point charges varied inversely as
the square of the distance between the charges and was directly
proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges and
acted along the line joining the two charges.

if two point charges q1, q2 are separated by a distance r in vacuum, the

magnitude of the force (F) between them is given by

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The constant k in Eq. is usually put as k = 1/4πε0 for later convenience, so that
Coulomb’s law is written as

1 q1q2
F=
" 4π ∈0 r 2
ε0 is called the permittivity of free space .

The value of ε0 in SI units is ε0 = 8.854 × 10–12 C2 N–1m–2

vector notation of Coulomb’s law
! !
Let the position vectors of charges q1 and q2 be r1 and r2 respectively
! !
We denote force on q1 due to q2 by F12 and force on q2 due to q1 by F21 .

The vector leading from 1 to 2 is denoted by r21  

" r21 = r2 − r1

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In the same way, the vector

leading from 2 to 1 is denoted
by r12:

r12 = r1 − r2 = −r21
The magnitude of the vectors
r21 and r12 is denoted by r21
and r12 , respectively (r12 =
r21).

The direction of a vector is

specified by a unit vector
along the vector.
To denote the direction from 1
to 2 (or from 2 to 1), we
define the unit vectors:
! !
r21 r12
r̂21 = , r̂12 = , r̂21 = − r̂12
| r21 | Copyright © 2019
| r12 |

Coulomb’s force law between

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two point charges q1 and q2
located at r1 and r2 is then expressed as :
"

! 1 q1q2
F21 = r̂21
4π ∈0 r 2

Important points:
1. Equation (1.3) is valid for any sign of q1 and q2 whether positive or  
negative. If q1 and q2 are of the same sign (either both positive or both
negative), F21 is along rˆ 21
, which denotes repulsion, as it should be for
like charges. If q1 and q2 are of opposite signs, F21 is along – rˆ 21
(= rˆ

12
), which denotes attraction, as expected for unlike charges. Thus, we do
not have to write separate equations for the cases of like and unlike
charges.

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2. The force F12 on charge q1 due to charge q2, is obtained from Eq. (1.3), by
simply interchanging 1 and 2, i.e.,  
! 1 q1q2 !
F21 = r̂ = − F Coulomb’s law agrees with the Newton’s third law
4π ∈0 r 2
21 12

3. Coulomb’s law [Eq. (1.3)] gives the force between two charges q1 and q2 in
vacuum. If the charges are placed in matter or the intervening space has
matter, the situation gets complicated due to the presence of charged
constituents of matter.  

HOW DID COULOMB ARRIVE AT THIS LAW FROM HIS EXPERIMENTS?

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SAMPLE PROBLEM

Coulomb’s law for electrostatic force between two point charges and
Newton’s law for gravitational force between two stationary point masses,
both have inverse-square dependence on the distance between the charges/
masses.
(a)Compare the strength of these forces by determining the ratio of their
magnitudes (i) for an electron and a proton and (ii) for two protons.
(b)Estimate the accelerations of electron and proton due to the electrical
force of their mutual attraction when they are 1 Å (= 10-10 m) apart? (mp
= 1.67 × 10–27 kg, me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg)

Answer:

(A)The electric force between an electron and a proton at a distance r apart

is:
1 e2
F=−
4π ∈0 r 2 where the negative sign indicates that the force is attractive.

F = −G Shankar R +91-9821248228
m m p e
2
r

where mp and me are the masses of a proton and an electron respectively.

Fe e2
= = 2.4 × 10 39
FG 4π ∈0 Gm p me

II.On similar lines, the ratio of the magnitudes of

electric force to the gravitational force between two protons at a distance r
apart is :

Fe e2
= = 1.3 × 10 36
FG 4π ∈0 Gm p me

However, it may be mentioned here that the signs

of the two forces are different. For two protons, the gravitational force is
attractive in nature and the Coulomb force is repulsive . The actual values of
these forces between two protons inside a nucleus (distance between two
protons is ~ 10-15 m inside a nucleus) are Fe ~ 230 N whereas FG ~ 1.9 ×
10–34 N.

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The (dimensionless) ratio of the two forces shows that electrical

forces are enormously stronger than the gravitational forces.
(b)The electric force F exerted by a proton on an electron is same in
magnitude to the force exerted by an electron on a proton; however the
masses of an electron and a proton are different. Thus, the
magnitude of force is

1 e2
F=− = 2.3 × 10–8 N
4π ∈0 r 2

Using Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma, the acceleration

that an electron will undergo is 
a = 2.3×10–8 N / 9.11 ×10–31 kg = 2.5 × 1022 m/s2 
Comparing this with the value of acceleration due to gravity, we can conclude
that the effect of gravitational field is negligible on the motion of electron and
it undergoes very large accelerations under the action of Coulomb force due
to a proton.
The value for acceleration of the proton is 
2.3 × 10–8 N / 1.67 × 10–27 kg = 1.4 × 1019 m/s2

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SAMPLE PROBLEM

A charged metallic sphere A is suspended by a nylon thread. Another

charged metallic sphere B held by an insulating handle is brought close to A
such that the distance between their centres is 10 cm, as shown in Fig.
1.7(a). The resulting repulsion of A is noted (for example, by shining a beam
of light and measuring the deflection of its shadow on a screen). Spheres A
and B are touched by uncharged spheres C and D respectively, as shown in
Fig. 1.7(b). C and D are then removed and B is brought closer to A to a
distance of 5.0 cm between their centres, as shown in Fig. 1.7(c). What is
the expected repulsion of A on the basis of Coulomb’s law? Spheres A and C
and spheres B and D have identical sizes. Ignore the sizes of A and B in
comparison to the separation between their centres.

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Answer:

Let the original charge on sphere A be q and that on B be q′. At a

distance r between their centres, the magnitude of the electrostatic force
on each is given by

1 qq'
F=
4π ∈0 r 2

neglecting the sizes of spheres A and B in comparison to r. When an

identical but uncharged sphere C touches A, the charges redistribute on A
and C and, by symmetry, each sphere carries a charge q/2. Similarly,
after D touches B, the redistributed charge on each is q′/2.

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FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES

Principle of superposition.
Force on any charge due to a number of
other charges is the vector sum of all the
forces on that charge due to the other
charges, taken one at a time. The
individual forces are unaffected due to the
presence of other charges. This is termed
as the principle of superposition.
Lets take an example,
consider a system of three charges q1, q2
and q3, as shown in Figure
The force on one charge, say q1, due to
two other charges q2, q3 can therefore

be obtained by performing a vector addition of the forces due to each one of

these charges.
the force on q1 due to q2 is denoted by F12
! 1 q1q2
F12 =
4π ∈0 r 212Copyright © 2019
r̂12

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In the same way, the force on q due to q , denoted by F , is given by
1 3 13

! 1 q1q2
F13 = r̂13
4π ∈0 r 213

which again is the Coulomb force on q1 due to q3, even though other charge q2
is present.
! ! ! 1 q1q2 1 q1q2
F1 = F12 + F13 = r̂12 + r̂13
4π ∈0 r 12
2
4π ∈0 r 213

Generalizing to system of n charges,

The principle of superposition says that in a system of charges q1, q2, ..., qn,
the force on q1 due to q2 is the same as given by Coulomb’s law, i.e., it is
unaffected by the presence of the other charges q3, q4, ..., qn. The total force
F1 on the charge q1, due to all other charges, is then given by the vector sum
of the forces F12, F13, ..., F1n:

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The vector sum is obtained as usual by the parallelogram law of

addition of vectors.

All of electrostatics is basically a consequence of Coulomb’s law and

the superposition principle.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.6

Consider three charges q1, q2, q3 each equal to

q at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of
side l.
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What is the force on a charge Q (with the same
sign as q) placed at the centroid of the
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triangle, as shown in Figure?

Answer:

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.7

Consider the charges q, q, and –q

placed at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle, as shown in Fig. 1.10. What
is the force on each charge?

Answer:

The forces acting on charge q at A due to charges q at B and –q at C are F12

along BA and F13 along AC respectively, as shown in Fig. 1.10. By the
parallelogram law, the total force F1 on the charge q at A is given by

F1 = F rˆ1 where rˆ1 is a unit vector along BC. 

q2
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F=
4πε 0 r 2

The total force F2 on charge q at B is thus F2 =F rˆ2, where rˆ2 is a unit

vector along AC.
Similarly the total force on charge–q at C is F3 = √3 F nˆ, where nˆ is the
unit vector along the direction bisecting the ∠BCA. 
It is interesting to see that the sum of the forces on the three charges is
zero, i.e.,
F1 +F2 +F3 =0
The result is not at all surprising. It follows straight from the fact that
Coulomb’s law is consistent with Newton’s third law.

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ELECTRIC FIELD
Let us consider a point charge Q placed in vacuum, at the origin O.
If we place another point charge q at a point P, where OP = r, then the charge
Q will exert a force on q as per Coulomb’s law.
If charge q is removed, then what is left in the surrounding?
Is there nothing?
If there is nothing at the point P, then how does a force act when we place
the charge q at P?
To answer such questions, the early scientists introduced the concept of field.
According to this,
The charge Q produces an electric field everywhere in the surrounding.
When another charge q is brought at some point P, the field there acts on it
and produces a force.
The electric field produced by the charge Q at a point r is given as
! 1 Q
E(r) = r̂
4π ∈0 r 2

rˆ is a unit vector from the origin to the point.

The effect of the charge has been incorporated in the existence of the electric
field. Copyright © 2019
We obtain the force F exerted by a charge Q on a charge q, as
!
"F =
1 Shankar
qQ
r̂
R +91-9821248228
4π ∈0 r 2
charge q also exerts an equal and opposite force on the charge Q.
The electrostatic force between the charges Q and q can be looked upon as an
interaction between charge q and the electric field of Q and vice versa.
! !
F(r) = qE(r)

SI unit of electric field as N/C 

Some important points

1. From Eq we can infer that if q is unity, the electric field due to a charge Q is
numerically equal to the force exerted by it.

the electric field due to a charge Q at a point in space may be

defined as the force that a unit positive charge would experience if
placed at that point.

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2. Source Charge - The charge Q, which is producing the electric field, is called
a source charge
3. Test Charge - The charg e q, which tests the effect of a source charge, is
called a test charge

Note:

Note that the source charge Q must remain at its original location.
However, if a charge q is brought at any point around Q, Q itself is bound
to experience an electrical force due to q and will tend to move. A way
out of this difficulty is to make q negligibly small. The force F is then
negligibly small but the ratio F/q is finite and defines the electric field:

!
! ⎛ F⎞
E = lim q→0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ q⎠

A practical way to get around the problem of keeping Q undisturbed in

the presence of q is to hold Q to its location by unspecified forces!

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4. The electric field E due to Q, though defined operationally in terms of some
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test charge q, is independent of q.
5. the electric field E due to Q is also dependent on the space coordinate r. For
different positions of the charge q all over the space, we get different
values of electric field E. The field exists at every point in three-dimensional
space.
6. For a positive charge, the electric field will be directed radially outwards
from the charge. if the source charge is negative, the electric field vector, at
each point, points radially inwards.  

7. At equal distances from the charge Q, the magnitude of its electric field E is
same. The magnitude of electric field E due to a point charge is thus same
on a sphere with the point charge at its centre; in other words, it has a
spherical symmetry.  

The electric field due to a point charge has spherical symmetry

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Electric field due to a system of charges

Consider a system of charges q1, q2, ..., qn with position vectors r1, r2, ...,
rn relative to some origin O.

Electric field at a point in space due to the system of charges is defined to

be the force experienced by a unit test charge placed at that point,
without disturbing the original positions of charges q1, q2, ..., qn.

We can use Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle to determine

this field at a point P denoted by position vector r.
Electric field E1 at r due to q1 at r1 is given by
! 1 Q
E1 = r̂1 p
4π ∈0 r1 p 2

where r̂1 p is a unit vector in the direction from q to P, and r1P is the distance
between q1 and P. 
Electric field E2 at r due to q2 at r2 is
! 1 q2
E2 = r̂2 p
4π ∈0 r2 p 2

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where r̂2 p is a unit vector in the direction from q2 to P and r2P is the distance
between q2 and P.
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By the superposition principle, the electric field E at r due to the system of
charges is
E(r) = E1 (r) + E2 (r) + ... + En(r)

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Physical significance of electric field

For electrostatics, the concept of electric field is convenient, but not really
necessary.
Electric field is an elegant way of characterising the electrical environment of a
system of charges.
Electric field at a point in the space around a system of charges tells you the
force a unit positive test charge would experience if placed at that point
(without disturbing the system).
Electric field is a characteristic of the system of charges and is independent of
the test charge that you place at a point to determine the field.
The term field in physics generally refers to a quantity that is defined at every
point in space and may vary from point to point.
Electric field is a vector field, since force is a vector quantity.

The true physical significance of the concept of electric field, however, emerges
only when we go beyond electrostatics and deal with time- dependent
electromagnetic phenomena.
Suppose we consider the force between two distant charges q1, q2 in
accelerated motion.

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Now the greatest speed with which a signal or information can go from one
point to another is c, the speed of light.
Thus, the effect of any motion of q1 on q2 cannot arise instantaneously.
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There will be some time delay between the effect (force on q2) and the cause
(motion of q1).

It is precisely here that the notion of electric field (strictly, electromagnetic

field) is natural and very useful.
The field picture is this: the accelerated motion of charge q1 produces
electromagnetic waves, which then propagate with the speed c, reach
q2 and cause a force on q2.
The notion of field elegantly accounts for the time delay.
Even though electric and magnetic fields can be detected only by their effects
(forces) on charges, they are regarded as physical entities, not merely
mathematical constructs.
They have an independent dynamics of their own,
They evolve according to laws of their own.
They can also transport energy.
A source of time- dependent electromagnetic fields, turned on briefly and
switched off, leaves behind propagating electromagnetic fields transporting
energy.

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CHECKPOINT

TThe figure here shows a proton p and an electron e on an x axis.

What is the direction of the electric field due to the electron at (a)
point S and (b) point R? What is the direction of the net electric field
at (c) point R and (d) point S?

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.8

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An electron falls through a distance of 1.5 cm in a uniform electric field of
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magnitude 2.0 × 104 N C–1 [Fig. 1.13(a)]. The direction of the field is
reversed keeping its magnitude unchanged and a proton falls through the
same distance [Fig. 1.13(b)]. Compute the time of fall in each case.
Contrast the situation with that of ‘free fall under gravity’.

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Answer:

In Fig. 1.13(a) the field is upward, so the negatively charged electron

experiences a downward force of magnitude eE where E is the magnitude of
the electric field. The acceleration of the electron is
ae = eE/me 
where me is the mass of the electron.
Starting from rest, the time required by the electron to fall through a
distance h is given by

2h 2hme
t= =
ae eE

Fore=1.6×10–19C,me =9.11×10–31 kg,

E=2.0×104 NC–1,h=1.5×10–2 m,
te = 2.9 × 10–9s
In Figure, the field is downward, and the positively charged proton

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experiences a downward force of magnitude eE. The acceleration of the
proton is
ap = eE/m
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p
where mp is the mass of the proton; mp = 1.67 × 10–27 kg. The time of fall
for the proton is

2h 2hm p
t= = = 1.3 × 10 −7 s
ae eE

Thus, the heavier particle (proton) takes a greater time to fall through the
same distance. This is in basic contrast to the situation of ‘free fall under
gravity’ where the time of fall is independent of the mass of the body. Note
that in this example we have ignored the acceleration due to gravity in
calculating the time of fall. To see if this is justified, let us calculate the
acceleration of the proton in the given electric field:

ap = eE/mp =1.9 × 1012 ms–2

which is enormous compared to the value of g (9.8 m s–2), the acceleration
due to gravity. The acceleration of the electron is even greater. Thus, the
effect of acceleration due to gravity can be ignored in this example.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.9

Two point charges q1 and q2, of

magnitude +10–8 C and –10–8 C,
respectively, are placed 0.1 m
apart. Calculate the electric fields
at points A, B and C shown in
Figure

Answer:

The electric field vector E1A at A due to the positive charge q1 points towards
the right and has a magnitude

(9 × 10 9 Nm 2C −2 ) × (10 −8 )
E1A = = 3.6 × 10 4 NC −1
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(0.05m)2

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The electric field vector E2A at A due to the negative charge q2 points
towards the right and has the same magnitude. Hence the magnitude of the
total electric field EA at A is
EA =E1A +E2A =7.2×104 NC–1 EA is directed toward the right.
The electric field vector E1B at B due to the positive charge q1 points towards
the left and has a magnitude

(9 × 10 9 Nm 2C −2 ) × (10 −8 )
E1B = 2
= 3.6 × 10 4 NC −1
(0.05m)

The electric field vector E2B at B due to the negative charge q2 points
towards the right and has a magnitude

(9 × 10 9 Nm 2C −2 ) × (10 −8 )
E2 B = = 4 × 10 3 NC −1
(0.15m)2

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The magnitude of the total electric field at B is 

EB =E1B – E2B =3.2×104 NC–1 
EB is directed towards the left. 
The magnitude of each electric field vector at point C, due to charge q1 and
q2 is
(9 × 10 9 Nm 2C −2 ) × (10 −8 )
E1C = E2C = 2
= 9 × 10 3 NC −1
(0.10m)

The directions in which these two vectors point are indicated in Fig. 1.14.
The resultant of these two vectors is

π π EC points towards the right.

Ec = E1 cos + E2 cos = 9 × 10 3 NC −1
3 3

ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

Let us try to represent E due to a point charge pictorially
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Let the point charge be placed at the origin.
Draw vectors pointing along the direction of the electric field with their
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lengths proportional to the strength of the field at each point.
Since the magnitude of electric field at a point decreases inversely as the
square of the distance of that point from the charge, the vector gets
shorter as one goes away from the origin, always pointing radially
outward.
Each arrow indicates the electric field, i.e., the force acting on a unit
positive charge, placed at the tail of that arrow.
The magnitude of the field is represented by the density of field lines.
E is strong near the charge, so the density of field lines is more near the
charge and the lines are closer.
Away from the charge, the field gets weaker and the density of field lines
is less, resulting in well-separated lines.

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Electric field lines are thus a way of pictorially mapping the electric field around
a configuration of charges.
An electric field line is, a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent to it at
each point is in the direction of the net field at that point.
A field line is a space curve, i.e., a curve in three dimensions.

Properties of Electric Field Line

1. Field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges. If there
is a single charge, they may start or end at infinity.
2. In a charge-free region, electric field lines can be taken to be continuous
curves without any breaks.
3. Two field lines can never cross each other. (If they did, the field at the point
of intersection will not have a unique direction, which is absurd.)
4. Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This follows from the
conservative nature of electric field  

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Dependence of electric field strength on the distance and

its relation to the number of field lines.

Since the electric field decreases as the square of the distance from a point
charge and the area enclosing the charge increases as the square of the
distance, the number of field lines crossing the enclosing area remains
constant, whatever may be the distance of the area from the charge.
(what is the meaning of this?)
The relative density (i.e., closeness) of the field lines at different points
indicates the relative strength of electric field at those points.
The field lines crowd where the field is strong and are spaced apart where
it is weak. Copyright © 2019
We can imagine two equal and small elements of area placed at points R
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and S normal to the field lines there. The number of field lines in our
picture cutting the area elements is proportional to the magnitude of field
at these points. The picture shows that the field at R is stronger than at S.
To understand the dependence of the field lines on the area, or
rather the solid angle subtended by an area element
In three-dimensions the solid angle subtended by a small
perpendicular plane area ΔS, at a distance r, can be written as ΔΩ =
2
ΔS/r .
We know that in a given solid angle the number of radial field lines is
the same.
In Figure, for two points P1 and P2 at distances r1 and r2 from the
charge, the element of area subtending the solid angle ΔΩ is r12 ΔΩ at
P1 and an element of area r2 ΔΩ at P2, respectively.

The number of lines (say n) cutting these area elements are the
same. The number of field lines, cutting unit area element is therefore
n/( r12 ΔΩ) at P1 and n/(r2 ΔΩ) at P2, respectively.
Since n and ΔΩ are common, the strength of the field clearly has

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ELECTRIC FLUX
Consider flow of a liquid with velocity v, through a small flat surface dS, in a
direction normal to the surface.
The rate of flow of liquid is given by the volume crossing the area per unit time
v dS and represents the flux of liquid flowing across the plane.
If the normal to the surface is not parallel to the direction of flow of
liquid, i.e., to v, but makes an angle θ with it, the projected area in a
plane perpendicular to v is v dS cos θ. (what does this mean?)
Therefore the flux going out of the surface dS is v. nˆ dS.

For the case of the electric field, we define an analogous quantity and call it
electric flux.
The concept of electric flux
In the picture of electric field lines described above, we saw that the number of
field lines crossing a unit area, placed normal to the field at a point is a
measure of the strength of electric field at that point.

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If we place a small planar element of area ΔS normal to E at a point, the

number of field lines crossing it is proportional* to E ΔS.
Now suppose we tilt the area element by angle θ. Clearly, the number of field
lines crossing the area element will be smaller
The projection of the area element normal to E is ΔS cosθ.
Thus, the number of field lines crossing ΔS is proportional to E ΔS cosθ.

Note:It will not be proper to say that the number

of field lines is equal to EΔS. The number of field
lines is after all, a matter of how many field lines
we choose to draw. What is physically significant
is the relative number of field lines crossing a
given area at different points.

Case I : Maximum Flux :θ = 0°

Electric Flux , Δφ = E ΔS cosθ
Cos 0°=1
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Electric Flux , Δφ = EΔS
Case I : Maximum Flux :θ = 90°
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Electric Flux, Δφ = E ΔS cosθ
Cos 90°=0
Electric Flux, Δφ = 0

Direction of a planar area

The normal to the plane specifies the orientation of the plane.
Thus the direction of a planar area vector is along its normal.
For example,
in a stream, the amount of water flowing through a ring will naturally depend
on how you hold the ring.
If you hold it normal to the flow, maximum water will flow through it than if
you hold it with some other orientation.
This shows that an area element should be treated as a vector.
Direction of a planar area
We dividing the surface into a large number of very small area elements.

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Important Note:
A normal can point in two directions.
This problem is resolved by some convention appropriate to the given
context. For the case of a closed surface, this convention is very simple. The
vector associated with every area element of a closed surface is taken to be
in the direction of the outward normal.
This is the convention used in Figure above.
Thus, the area element vector ΔS at a point on a closed surface equals ΔS nˆ
where ΔS is the magnitude of the area element and nˆ is a unit vector in the
direction of outward normal at that point. 

Each small area element may be treated as planar and a vector associated with
it, as explained before.

Definition of Electric Flux

Electric flux Δφ through an area element ΔS is defined by 
Δφ = E.ΔS = E ΔS cosθ

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1. E (ΔS cosθ ) =E times the projection of area normal to E
2. (E cosθ)ΔS = E⊥ ΔS
–1 2
The unit of electric flux is N C m

Calculation of electric flux for any given surface

1. Divide the surface into small area elements.
2. Calculate the flux at each element.
3. Add them up.

the total flux φ through a surface S is φ ~ Σ E.ΔS

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ELECTRIC DIPOLE
An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges q and –q,
separated by a distance 2a.
Direction of the dipole.
The line connecting the two charges defines a direction in space.
By convention, the direction from –q to q is said to be the direction of the
dipole.
Centre of the dipole.
The mid-point of locations of –q and q is called the centre of the dipole.
The pattern of electric field lines
around an electric dipole, with an
electric field vector E: shown at one
point (tangent to the field line
through that point).

The total charge of the electric dipole is zero.

The Electric field of the electric dipole is not zero.

Since the charge q and –q are separated by some distance, the electric
fields due to them, when added, do not exactly cancel out.
At distances much larger than the separation of the two charges forming a
dipole (r >> 2a), the fields due to q and –q nearly cancel out.
The electric field due to a dipole therefore falls off, at large distance, faster
2
than like 1/r (the dependence on r of the field due to a single charge q).

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Electric Field for points on the axis

Let the point P be at distance r from the centre of the dipole on the side of the
charge q, as shown in Fig.
Then

where pˆ is the unit vector along the dipole axis (from –q to q).
The total field at P is
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Electric Field for points on the equatorial plane.

The magnitudes of the electric fields due to the two charges +q and –q are
equal and given by

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The directions of E+q and E–q are as shown in figure.
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Clearly, the components normal to the dipole axis cancel away.
The components along the dipole axis add up. The total electric field is
opposite to pˆ . We have

At large distances (r >> a), this

reduces to

it is clear that the dipole field at large distances does not involve q and a
separately; it depends on the product qa.

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Dipole Moment
The dipole moment vector p of an electric dipole is defined by

p = q × 2 a pˆ
it is a vector whose magnitude is charge q times the separation 2a (between
the pair of charges q, –q) and the direction is along the line from –q to q.
Electric Field in terms of P
At a point on the dipole axis

At a point on the equatorial plane

Important Points:
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1. The dipole field at large distances falls off not as 1/r
2
but as1/r .
3

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2. The magnitude and the direction of the dipole field depends not only on
the distance r but also on the angle between the position vector r and the
dipole moment p.

Point Dipole
When the dipole size 2a approaches zero, the charge q approaches infinity in
such a way that the product p = q × 2a is finite.
Such a dipole is referred to as a point dipole.

Physical significance of dipoles

In most molecules, the centres of positive charges and of
negative charges
lie at the same place.
Therefore, their dipole moment is zero. E.g. CO2 and CH

They develop a dipole moment when an electric field is

applied.

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Polar Molecules
In some molecules, the centres of negative charges and of positive charges do
not coincide.
Therefore they have a permanent electric dipole moment, even in the absence
of an electric field. Such molecules are called polar molecules.
eg. H2O

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.10

Two charges ±10 µC are placed 5.0 mm apart. Determine the electric field
at (a) a point P on the axis of the dipole 15 cm away from its centre O on
the side of the positive charge, as shown in Fig. 1.21(a), and (b) a point Q,
15 cm away from O on a line passing through O and normal to the axis of
the dipole, as shown in Fig.

Answer:

PASTE answer HERE

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PASTE Answer HERE

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DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD

Consider a permanent dipole of dipole moment p in a uniform external field E,
as shown in Figure.

Here permanent dipole means that p exists irrespective of E; it has not

been induced by E.

There is a force qE on q and a force –qE on –q.

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The net force on the dipole is zero, since E is uniform
However, the charges are separated, so the forces act at different points,
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resulting in a torque on the dipole.
When the net force is zero,
The torque (couple) is independent of the origin.
Magnitude of torque equals the magnitude of each force multiplied by the arm
of the couple (perpendicular distance between the two antiparallel forces).
Magnitude of torque = q E × 2 a sinθ
= 2 q a E sinθ
The magnitude of p × E is also p E sinθ and its direction is normal to the
paper, coming out of it.
τ= p × E

This torque will tend to align the dipole with the field E. When p is aligned
with E, the torque is zero.
Case I: Maximum torque: θ =90. [P perpendicular to E]
τ = 2 q a E sin90= 2 q a E

Case II: Minimum torque: θ =0. [P parellel/anti-parellel to E]

τ = 2 q a E sin 0= 0

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(a)An electric dipole in a uniform

:
external electric field E . Two centers
of equal but opposite charge are
separated by distance d. The line
between them represents their rigid
connection.
:
(b) Field E causes a torque t: on the
dipole.

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Dipole moment due to non-uniform electric field
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The net force will evidently be non-zero
Let us consider the simpler situations when p is parallel to E or antiparallel to
E.
In either case, the net torque is zero, but there is a net force on the dipole if E
is not uniform.

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A comb run through dry hair attracts pieces of paper. The comb, as we
know, acquires charge through friction. But the paper is not charged.
What then explains the attractive force?
The charged comb ‘polarizes’ the piece of paper, i.e., induces a net dipole
moment in the direction of field. Further, the electric field due to the comb is
not uniform. In this situation, it is easily seen that the paper should move in
the direction of the comb!

CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

it is impractical to work in terms of discrete charges and we need to work with
continuous charge distributions.
For example,
On the surface of a charged conductor, it is impractical to specify the charge
distribution in terms of the locations of the microscopic charged constituents
It is more feasible to consider an area element ΔS on the surface of the
conductor and specify the charge ΔQ on that element.

surface charge density σ

ΔQ Copyright ©. 2019
σ= The units for σ are C/m 2

ΔS
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σ is called the surface charge density.

The surface charge density σ so defined ignores the quantisation of

charge and the discontinuity in charge distribution at the microscopic
level

At the microscopic level, charge distribution is discontinuous, because

they are discrete charges separated by intervening space where
there is no charge.

linear charge density λ

ΔQ
λ= The units for λ are C/m.
Δl
Δl is a small line element of wire

volume charge density

ΔQ
ρ= The units for ρ are C/m3.
ΔV

Electric Field due to a continuous charge distribution

Suppose a continuous charge distribution in space has a charge density ρ.
Let O be the origin.
Let the position vector of any point in the charge distribution be r.
The charge density ρ may vary from point to point, i.e., it is a function
of r.
Divide the charge distribution into small volume elements of size ΔV.
The charge in a volume element ΔV is ρΔV.

Electric field due to the charge ρΔV is given by Coulomb’s law:

r′ is the distance between the charge element and P,

By the superposition principle,
the total electric field due to the charge distribution is obtained by summing
over electric fields due to different volume elements:

Note that ρ, r′, rˆ′ all can vary from point to point.

Using Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle, electric field can
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be determined for any charge distribution, discrete or continuous or part
discrete and part continuous.
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GAUSS’S LAW
We state Gauss’s law without proof:
Electric flux through a closed surface S = q/ε0

q = total charge enclosed by S.

The law implies that the total electric flux through a closed surface is zero if no
charge is enclosed by the surface.

Let us consider the total flux through a sphere of radius

r, which encloses a point charge q at its centre.
Divide the sphere into small area elements
The flux through an area element ΔS is

The unit vector rˆ is along the radius vector from the centre to the area
element.
rˆ . Δ S =ΔS

Because, the area element ΔS and rˆ have the same direction and the
magnitude of a unit vector is 1 

Therefore,

The total flux through the sphere is obtained by adding up flux through all the
different area elements

Σ ΔS =S Total surface area

q
⇒φ = S
4πε 0 r 2

q q
⇒φ = .4π r =
2

4πε 0 r 2
ε0

Lets take the example of cylinder

Here the electric field is uniform and we are considering a closed cylindrical
surface, with its axis parallel to the uniform field E.
The total flux φ through the surface is φ = φ1 + φ2 + φ3, where φ1 and φ2
represent the flux through the surfaces 1 and 2 (of circular cross-section) of
the cylinder and φ3 is the flux through the curved cylindrical part of the closed
surface.
Now the normal to the surface 3 at every point is perpendicular to E, so by
definition of flux, φ3 = 0.
Further, the outward normal to 2 is along E while the outward normal to 1 is
opposite to E.
Therefore,
φ1 =–ES1, φ2 =+ES2
S1 =S2 =S
where S is the area of circular cross-section.
Thus, the total flux is zero, as expected by Gauss’s law.

Copyright © 2019
whenever you find that the net electric flux through a closed surface is
zero, we conclude that the total charge contained in the closed surface
is zero.
Shankar R +91-9821248228
The great significance of Gauss’s law is that it is true for all closed
surfaces.

Some important points regarding Gauss’s Law

1. Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape  
or size.
2. The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, Eq. (1.31), includes the sum of
all charges enclosed by the surface. The charges may be located  
anywhere inside the surface.
3. In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are some  
charges inside and some outside, the electric field [whose flux appears on
the left side of Eq. (1.31)] is due to all the charges, both inside and outside
S. The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, however, represents only the
total charge inside S.
4. The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called the
Gaussian surface.

5. Gauss’s law is often useful towards a much easier calculation of the

electrostatic field when the system has some symmetry. This is facilitated
by the choice of a suitable Gaussian surface.
6. Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance
contained in the Coulomb’s law. Any violation of Gauss’s law will indicate
departure from the inverse square law.  

CHECKPOINT

The figure here shows three

nonconducting rods, one circular
and two straight. Each has a uniform
charge of magnitude Q along its top
half and another along its bottom
half. For each rod, what is the
direction of the net electric field at
point P ?

Copyright © 2019
CHECKPOINT
Shankar R +91-9821248228
(a) In the figure, what is the direction of
the electrostatic force on the electron
due to the external electric field shown?
(b) In which direction will the electron
accelerate if it is moving parallel to the y
axis before it encounters the external
field? (c) If, instead, the electron is initially
moving rightward, will its speed increase,
decrease, or remain constant?

CHECKPOINT
The figure shows four orientations of an
electric dipole in an external electric field.
Rank the orientations according to (a) the
magnitude of the torque on the dipole and (b)
the potential energy of the dipole, greatest
first.
Copyright © 2019 by Shankar R - +91-9821248228
All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express
written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.
www.yourphysicsclasses.in
1 - Electric Charges and Fields 48

SAMPLE PROBLEM

The electric field components in Fig.

1.27 are Ex = αx1/2, Ey = Ez = 0, in
which α = 800 N/C m1/2. Calculate
(a) the flux through the cube, and
(b) the charge within the cube.
Assume that a = 0.1 m.

Answer:

Since the electric field has only an x component, for faces perpendicular to x
direction, the angle between E and ΔS is ± π/2. Therefore, the flux φ = E.ΔS
is separately zero for each face of the cube except the two shaded ones.
Now the magnitude of the electric field at the left face is
EL = αx1/2 = αa1/2 
(x = a at the left face). 
The magnitude of electric field at the right face is ER = α x1/2 = α (2a)1/2 
(x = 2a at the right face). 
Copyright © 2019
The corresponding fluxes are
φL= EL.ΔS = ΔSEL ⋅nˆL =EL ΔS cosθ = –EL ΔS, since θ = 180° = –ELa2
Shankar R +91-9821248228
φR=ER.ΔS=ER ΔScosθ =ER ΔS, sinceθ=0° = ERa2
Net flux through the cube

=φR+φL =ERa2 –ELa2 =a2 (ER –EL)=αa2 [(2a)1/2 –a1/2]

= αa5/2 [(2)1/2 –1]

= 800(0.1)5/2 ((2)1/2–1) = 1.05 N m2 C–1
(b) We can use Gauss’s law to find the total charge q inside the cube. We
have φ = q/ε0 or q = φε0. Therefore,
q=1.05×8.854×10–12 C=9.27×10–12 C.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

An electric field is uniform, and in the positive x direction for positive x, and
uniform with the same magnitude but in the negative x direction for
negative x. It is given that E = 200 ˆi N/C for x>0 and E=–200 ˆi N/C for
x<0.
A right circular cylinder of length 20 cm and radius 5 cm has its centre at
the origin and its axis along the x-axis so that one face is at x = +10 cm
and the other is at x = –10 cm (Fig. 1.28).
(a)What is the net outward flux through each flat face?
(b) What is the flux through the side of the cylinder?
(c) What is the net outward flux through the cylinder?
(d)What is the net charge inside the cylinder?

Answer:

(a) We can see from the figure that on the left face E and ΔS are
parallel. Therefore, the outward flux is
φL= E.ΔS = – 200 i.ΔS ˆ
Copyright © 2019
= +200 ΔS, since i.ΔS=–ΔS 
Shankar R +91-9821248228
= +200×π(0.05)2 =+1.57Nm2 C–1 
On the right face, E and ΔS are parallel and therefore
φR= E.ΔS= +1.57Nm2 C–1.
(b) For any point on the side of the cylinder E is perpendicular to ΔS and
hence E.ΔS = 0. Therefore, the flux out of the side of the cylinder is zero.  
(c) Net outward flux through the cylinder
φ=1.57+1.57+0=3.14Nm2 C–1  

(d) The net charge within the

cylinder can be found by using
Gauss’s law which gives 
q = ε0φ
= 3.14 × 8.854 × 10–12 C
= 2.78 × 10–11 C

APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW

For some symmetric charge configurations, however, it is possible to obtain the
electric field in a simple way using the Gauss’s law.
We will see how to obtain electric field using Gauss’s Law for the following
charge configurations
1. Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire.
2. Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.
3. Field due to uniformly charged thin spherical shell.

1. Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged

wire.

Figure shows a section of an infinitely long

cylindrical plastic rod with a uniform
charge density l.
We want to find an expression for the
electric field magnitude E at radius r from
the central axis of the rod, outside the rod.

Copyright © 2019
The charge distribution and the field have
cylindrical symmetry.
To find the field at radius r, we enclose a
Shankar R +91-9821248228
section of the rod with a concentric Gaussian
cylinder of radius r and height h.
If you want the field at a certain point,
put a Gaussian surface through that
point.
We can now apply Gauss’ law to relate the charge enclosed by the cylinder and
the net flux through the cylinder’s surface.
First note that because of the symmetry, the electric field at any point must be
radially outward (the charge is positive).
That means that at any point on the end caps, the field only skims the surface
and does not pierce it. So, the flux through each end cap is zero.
To find the flux through the cylinder’s curved surface, first note that for any
patch element on the surface, the area vector dS is radially outward (away
from the interior of the Gaussian surface) and thus in the same direction as the
field piercing the patch.
At the cylindrical part of the surface, E is normal to the surface at every point,
and its magnitude is constant, since it depends only on r. The surface area of
the curved part is 2πrl, where l is the length of the cylinder.

Flux through the Gaussian surface 

= flux through the curved cylindrical part of the surface
= E×2πrl 

The surface includes charge equal to λ l. Gauss’s law then gives

E × 2πrl = λl/ε0
λ
E=
2πε 0 r
Vectorially, E at any point is given by
! λ
E= n̂
2πε 0 r

where nˆ is the radial unit vector in the plane normal to the wire passing
through the point.
E is directed outward if λ is positive and inward if λ is negative.
2. Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.
Figure shows a portion of a thin, infinite, nonconducting sheet with a uni-form
(positive) surface charge density σ
A sheet of thin plastic wrap, uniformly charged on one side, can serve as a
simple model. Copyright © 2019
:

Shankar R +91-9821248228
Let us find the electric field E a distance r in front of the sheet.

A useful Gaussian surface is a closed cylinder with end caps of area A,

arranged to pierce the sheet perpendicularly as shown.

:
From symmetry, E must be perpendicular to the sheet and hence to the end
caps.
:
Furthermore, since the charge is positive, E is directed away from the sheet,
and thus the electric field lines pierce the two Gaussian end caps in an outward
direction.
Because the field lines do not pierce the curved surface, there is no flux
through this portion of the Gaussian Surface.
Flux E.ΔS through both the surfaces are equal and add up.
Therefore the net flux through the Gaussian surface is 2 EA.
The charge enclosed by the closed surface is σA.
Therefore by Gauss’s law,
2 EA = σA/ε0

or, E = σ/2ε0

Vectorically,
! σ
E= n̂
2ε 0

where nˆ is a unit vector normal to the plane and going away from it. 

Copyright © 2019
E is directed away from the plate if σ is positive and toward the plate if σ is
negative.
Shankar R +91-9821248228
the above application of the Gauss’ law has brought out an additional fact:
E is independent of x also. 

3. Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell

Let σ be the uniform surface charge density of a thin spherical shell of radius
R.
The situation has spherical symmetry.
The field at any point P, outside or inside, can depend only on r (the radial
distance from the centre of the shell to the point) and must be radial (i.e.,
along the radius vector).
1. Field outside the shell:
Consider a point P outside the shell with radius vector r. To calculate E at P, we
take the Gaussian surface to be a sphere of radius r and with centre O, passing
through P
The electric field at each point of the Gaussian surface, therefore, has the
same magnitude E and is along the radius vector at each point.

Thus, E and ΔS at every point are parallel and the flux through each element is
E ΔS.
2
Summing over all ΔS, the flux through the Gaussian surface is E × 4 π r .
2
The charge enclosed is σ × 4 π R .
By Gauss’s law
σ
E × 4π r 2 = 4π R 2
ε0
"
σ R2
⇒E=
ε 0r 2
2
where q = 4 π R σ is the total charge on the spherical shell.
q
E= r̂
4πε 0 r 2

The electric field is directed outward if q > 0 and inward if q < 0.  

This, is exactly the field produced by a charge 

Shankar R +91-9821248228

2. Field inside the shell:

In Figure the point P is inside the shell. The Gaussian surface is again a sphere
through P centred at O.
2
The flux through the Gaussian surface, calculated as before, is E × 4 π r .
However, in this case, the Gaussian surface encloses no charge.

Gauss’s law then gives 

2
E×4πr = 0
i.e., E=0 (r<R)
that is, the field due to a uniformly charged thin shell is zero at all points
inside the shell.
This important result is a direct consequence of Gauss’s law which follows from
Coulomb’s law.
2
The experimental verification of this result confirms the 1/r dependence in
Coulomb’s law.

CHECKPOINT

The figure here shows a Gaussian cube of face area A immersed in a uniform
:
electric field E that has the positive direction of the z axis. In terms of E and
A, what is the flux through
(a) the front face (which is in the xy plane),
(b) the rear face,
Copyright © 2019
(c) the top face, and
(d) the whole cube?
Shankar R +91-9821248228

CHECKPOINT

The figure shows three situations in which a Gaussian cube sits in an electric
field. The arrows and the values indicate the directions of the field lines and
the magnitudes (in N ? m2/C) of the flux through the six sides of each cube.
(The lighter arrows are for the hidden faces.) In which situation does the
cube enclose
(a) a positive net charge,
(b) a negative net charge,
and
(c) zero net charge?

CHECKPOINT

There is a certain net flux φ through a Gaussian sphere of radius r enclosing

an isolated charged particle. Suppose the enclosing Gaussian surface is
changed to
(a)a larger Gaussian sphere,
(b)a Gaussian cube with edge length equal to r, and
(c) a Gaussian cube with edge length equal to 2r.
(d)In each case, is the net flux through the new Gaussian surface greater
than, less than, or equal to φ?

CHECKPOINT

The figure shows two

large, parallel, Copyright © 2019
nonconducting sheets
Shankar R +91-9821248228
with identical (positive)
uniform surface charge
densities, and a sphere
with a uniform (positive)
volume charge density.
Rank the four numbered points according to the magnitude of the net electric
field there, greatest first.

End of Chapter

QUESTIONS
1. Figure 21-12 shows three pairs
of identical spheres that are to
be touched together and then
separated. The initial charges on
them are indicated. Rank the
pairs according to
(a) the magnitude of the charge transferred during touching and
(b) the charge left on the
positively charged
sphere, greatest
first.
2. Figure 21-13 shows four
situations in which
charged particles are
fixed in place on an
axis. In which situations
is there a point to the left of the particles where an electron will be in
equilibrium?
3. A positively charged ball is brought close to an electrically neutral isolated
conductor. The conductor is then grounded while the ball is kept close. Is
Copyright © 2019
the conductor charged positively, charged negatively, or neutral if (a) the
ball is first taken away and then the
4. Shankar R +91-9821248228
Figure 21-17 shows four arrangements
of charged particles. Rank the
arrangements according to the
magnitude of the net electrostatic force
on the particle with charge Q, greatest
first.
5. Figure 21-18 shows four situations in
which particles of charge q or q are fixed
in place. In each situation, the particles
on the x axis are equidistant from the y
axis. First, consider the middle particle
in situation 1; the middle particle
experiences an electrostatic force from
each of the other two particles.
(a) Are the magnitudes F of those forces
the same or different?
(b) Is the magnitude of the net force on
the middle particle equal to, greater
than, or less than 2F ?

(c) Do the x components of the two forces add or cancel?

(d) Do their y components add or cancel?
(e) Is the direction of the net force on the middle particle that of the
canceling components or the adding components?
(f) What is the direction of that net force? Now consider the remaining
situations: What is the direction of the net force on the middle particle
in
(g) situation 2,
(h) situation 3, and
(i) situation 4? (In each situation, consider the symmetry of the charge
distribution and determine the canceling components and the adding
components.)
6. In Fig., two particles of charge q are arranged symmetrically about the y-
axis; each produces an electric field at point P on that axis.
(a) Are the magnitudes of the fields at P
equal?
(b) Is each electric field directed toward or
away from the charge producing it?
(c) Is the magnitude of the net electric field
at P equal to the sum of the magnitudes E
Copyright © 2019
of the two field vectors (is it equal to 2E)?
(d) Do the x components of those two field
Shankar R +91-9821248228
vectors add or cancel?
(e) Do their y components add or cancel?
(f) Is the direction of the net field at P that
of the canceling components or the
adding components?
(g) What is the direction of the net field?
7. Figure shows four situations in which four
charged particles are evenly spaced to the left
and right of a central point. The charge values
are indicated. Rank the situations according to
the magnitude of the net electric field at the
central point, greatest first.
8. Figure shows two charged particles fixed in
place on an axis.
(a) Where on the axis (other than at an
infinite distance) is there a point at
which their net electric field is zero:
between the charges, to their left, or
to 

their right?
(b) Is there a point of zero net electric field
anywhere off the axis (other than at an
infinite distance)?
9. In Fig. 22-30a, a circular plastic rod with uniform
charge Q produces an electric field of magnitude
E at the center of curvature (at the origin). In
Figs. 22-30b, c, and d, more circular rods, each
with identical uniform charges Q, are added until
the circle is complete. A fifth arrangement (which
would be labeled e) is like that in d except the rod in the fourth quadrant
has charge Q. Rank the five arrangements according to the magnitude of
the electric field at the center of curvature, greatest first.
:
10. A surface has the area vector A (2iˆ +3jˆ) m2. What is the flux of a
: :
uniform electric field through the area if the field is (a)E 4iˆ N/C and (b)E
4kˆ N/C?
11. A small charged ball lies within the hollow of a metallic spherical shell of
radius R. For three situations, the net charges on the ball and shell,
respectively, are (1) 4q, 0; (2) 6q, 10q; (3) 16q, 12q. Rank the situations
according to the charge on (a) the inner surface of the shell and (b) the
outer surface, most positive first.
Copyright © 2019
12. Rank the situations of Question 9 according to the magnitude of the
electric field (a) halfway through the shell and (b) at a point 2R from the
Shankar R +91-9821248228
center of the shell, greatest first.

PROBLEMS
1. When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, charges appear on both. A
similar phenomenon is observed with many other pairs of bodies. Explain
how this observation is consistent with the law of conservation of charge.
2. What is the force between two small charged spheres having charges of 2
× 10–7C and 3 × 10–7C placed 30 cm apart in air?
3. The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge 0.4 µC due to another
small sphere of charge –0.8 µC in air is 0.2 N. (a) What is the distance
between the two spheres? (b) What is the force on the second sphere due
to the first?
4. Check that the ratio ke2/G memp is dimensionless. Look up a Table of
Physical Constants and determine the value of this ratio. What does the
ratio signify?
5. (a) Explain the meaning of the statement ‘electric charge of a body is
quantised’.  

(b) Why can one ignore quantisation of electric charge when dealing with
macroscopic i.e., large scale charges?
6. Four point charges qA =2µC,qB =–5µC,qC =2µC, and qD =–5µCare located
at the corners of a square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the force on a
charge of 1 µC placed at the centre of the square?
7. (a) An electrostatic field line is a continuous curve. That is, a field line
cannot have sudden breaks. Why not?  
(b) Explain why two field lines never cross each other at any point?
8. Two point charges qA = 3 µC and qB = –3 µC are located 20 cm apart  
in vacuum. (a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of the line AB
joining the two charges? (b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 1.5 ×
10–9 C is placed at this point, what is the force experienced by the test
charge?
9. A system has two charges qA =2.5×10–7 C and qB = –2.5×10–7 C located at
points A: (0, 0, –15 cm) and B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively. What are the
total charge and electric dipole moment of the system?
10. An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10–9 C m is aligned at 30° with
the direction of a uniform electric field of magnitude 5 × 104 NC–1.
Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole.
11. A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of
Copyright © 2019
3 × 10–7 C. (a) Estimate the number of electrons transferred (from which
to which?)  

Shankar R +91-9821248228
(b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool to polythene?  

12. (a) Two insulated charged copper spheres A and B have their centres
separated by a distance of 50 cm. What is the mutual force of electrostatic
repulsion if the charge on each is 6.5 × 10–7 C? The radii of A and B are
negligible compared to the distance of separation. (b) What is the force of
repulsion if each sphere is charged double the above amount, and the
distance between them is halved?
13. Suppose the spheres A and B in Exercise 12 have identical sizes. A third
sphere of the same size but uncharged is brought in contact with the first,
then brought in contact with the second, and finally removed from both.
What is the new force of repulsion between A and B?
14. Figure shows tracks of three charged particles in a uniform electrostatic
field. Give the signs of the three charges. Which particle has the highest
charge to mass ratio?  

15. Consider a uniform electric field E = 3 × 103 î N/C. (a) What is the flux of
this field through a square of 10 cm on a side whose plane is parallel to
the yz plane? (b) What is the flux through the same square if the normal
to its plane makes a 60° angle with the x-axis?
16. What is the net flux of the uniform electric field of Exercise 1.15 through a
cube of side 20 cm oriented so that its faces are parallel to the coordinate
planes?
17. Careful measurement of the electric field at the surface of a black box
indicates that the net outward flux through the surface of the box is 8.0 ×
103 Nm2/C. (a) What is the net charge inside the box? (b) If the net
outward flux through the surface of the box were zero, could you conclude
that there were no charges inside the box? Why or Why not?
18. A point charge +10 µC is a distance 5 cm directly above the centre of a
square of side 10 cm, as shown in Fig. 1.34. What is the magnitude of the
electric flux through the square? (Hint: Think of the square as one face of
a cube with edge 10 cm.)  

20. A point charge causes an electric flux of –1.0 × 103 Nm2/C to pass through
a spherical Gaussian surface of 10.0 cm radius centred on the charge. (a)
If the radius of the Gaussian surface were doubled, how much flux would
pass through the surface? (b) What is the value of the point charge?
21. A conducting sphere of radius 10 cm has an unknown charge. If the
electric field 20 cm from the centre of the sphere is 1.5 × 103 N/C and
points radially inward, what is the net charge on the sphere?
22. A uniformly charged conducting sphere of 2.4 m diameter has a surface
charge density of 80.0 µC/m2. (a) Find the charge on the sphere. (b) What
is the total electric flux leaving the surface of the sphere?
23. An infinite line charge produces a field of 9 × 104 N/C at a distance of 2
cm. Calculate the linear charge density.

24. Two large, thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other. On their
inner faces, the plates have surface charge densities of opposite signs and
of magnitude 17.0 × 10–22 C/m2. What is E: (a) in the outer region of the
first plate, (b) in the outer region of the second plate, and (c) between the
plates?

All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express
written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.
www.yourphysicsclasses.in
LEARN WITH ME THROUGH
by Savreet Sahi (parent)- Gyan
Bharti, Saket
Comprehensive Notes that cover
The overall experience with Shankar R Nair has been really
NCERT and other related textbooks for good. His expertise in the field of science is commendable
CBSE. and he also has a very professional way of delivering the
lecture. He will take good effort to make the concepts
Sample Questions simple to understand for a person new to the depths of
science. He is very punctual with his timings and also
Checkpoints to analyse and make organised when it comes to keeping record of classes taken
decisions about physics learnt under and course delivery. His over all impression is very good.
each section. by Khushi Pattnaik(student) -
GK 2
End Chapter Questions to test
Its a very good experience. Specially useful for
conceptual understanding. the students who are in 11th & 12th having
science stream."
End Chapter Problems to test and improve
the application of concepts.
by Shalini Bhasin (parent)- GK 2
Advanced Questions designed
Very dedicated , knows his subject very well, very
to test the aptitude of students.
patient with the child and cooperative . Very
Virtual Lab sessions. professional and makes the topic very simple while
explaining.

ABOUT THE TUTOR - SHANKAR R

An Electronics and Communication engineering graduate with 4 years of professional experience and 3+ years of
experience teaching Maths & science to class 9 & 10 students and physics to students from classes 11 and 12.
Specialisation in CBSE curriculum.

Associated with a reputed private coaching institute in South Delhi since 3 years.

A subject matter expert in Advanced Physics Question & Answers board at CHEGG Inc, an American Educational
Technology Company.

A published author of academic papers in International Journals and Conferences.

I aim to make students walk through the fundamental concepts of physics and undertake a journey together. I do not
believe in forcing concepts upon students.

MATHS & SCIENCE PHYSICS

AT HOME AT HOME
for STD IX & X for STD XI & XII

CALL NOW!
+91-9821248228
As a professional teacher, I know what it takes to get students
back on track and help them excel in their academic area of
interest. I provide customised tutoring services to students looking
for guidance in class 10, 11 & 12 physics

Visit www.yourphysicsclasses.com for sample notes

LEARN WITH ME THROUGH
by Savreet Sahi (parent)- Gyan
Bharti, Saket
Comprehensive Notes that cover
The overall experience with Shankar R Nair has been really
NCERT and other related textbooks for good. His expertise in the field of science is commendable
CBSE. and he also has a very professional way of delivering the
lecture. He will take good effort to make the concepts
Sample Questions simple to understand for a person new to the depths of
science. He is very punctual with his timings and also
Checkpoints to analyse and make organised when it comes to keeping record of classes taken
decisions about physics learnt under and course delivery. His over all impression is very good.
each section. by Khushi Pattnaik(student) -
GK 2
End Chapter Questions to test
Its a very good experience. Specially useful for
conceptual understanding. the students who are in 11th & 12th having
science stream."
End Chapter Problems to test and improve
the application of concepts.
by Shalini Bhasin (parent)- GK 2
Advanced Questions designed
Very dedicated , knows his subject very well, very
to test the aptitude of students.
patient with the child and cooperative . Very
Virtual Lab sessions. professional and makes the topic very simple while
explaining.

ABOUT THE TUTOR - SHANKAR R

Associated with a reputed private coaching institute in South Delhi since 3 years.

A subject matter expert in Advanced Physics Question & Answers board at CHEGG Inc, an American Educational
Technology Company.

A published author of academic papers in International Journals and Conferences.

I aim to make students walk through the fundamental concepts of physics and undertake a journey together. I do not
believe in forcing concepts upon students.

MATHS & SCIENCE PHYSICS

AT HOME AT HOME
for STD IX & X for STD XI & XII

Visit www.yourphysicsclasses.com for sample notes

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