Memory Management

Contiguous Allocation

Main memory usually into two partitions:

✦ Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with interrupt vector.

✦ User processes then held in high memory. Single-partition allocation

✦ Relocation-register scheme used to protect user processes from each other, and from
changing

operating-system code and data.

✦Relocation register contains value of smallest physical address; limit register

contains range of logical addresses – each logical address must be less than the limit
register.

Hardware Support for Relocation and Limit Registers

Multiple-partition allocation
 ✦Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered throughout memory.

✦When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large enough to accommodate
it.

✦Operating system maintains information about:

a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)

Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem

First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough.

Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must search entire list, unless ordered
by size.

Produces the smallest leftover hole.

Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list. Produces the largest leftover
hole.

How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes.

First-fit and best-fit better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage utilization.

Fragmentation

External Fragmentation – total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not
contiguous.

Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory;
this size difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being used.

Reduce external fragmentation by compaction

✦Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together in one large block.

✦Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is done at execution time.

 ✦I/O problem

✔Latch job in memory while it is involved in I/O.

✔Do I/O only into OS buffers.

Segmentation

Memory-management scheme that supports user view of memory.

A program is a collection of segments. A segment is a logical unit such as:

main program

procedure

function

method

object

local variables

global variables

common block

stack

symbol table

arrays

User’s View of a Program

Segmentation Architecture

Logical address consists of a two tuple: <segment-number, offset>,

Segment table – maps two-dimensional physical addresses; each table entry has:

1. base – contains the starting physical address where the segments reside in memory.

2. limit – specifies the length of the segment.

Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the segment table’s location in memory.

Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number of segments used by a program;

segment number s is legal if s < STLR.

Relocation.

1. dynamic

2. by segment table

3. Sharing.

4. shared segments

5. same segment number

6. Allocation.

7. first fit/best fit

8. external fragmentation
Protection. With each entry in segment table associate:

1. validation bit = 0 _ illegal segment

2. read/write/execute privileges

Protection bits associated with segments; code sharing occurs at segment level.

Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is a dynamic storage-allocation problem.

A segmentation example is shown in the following diagram

Segmentation Hardware

Example of Segmentation
Sharing of Segments
 Segmentation Advantages and Disadvantages

Segmentation

This method uses variable sized memory blocks. It is useful because it is very common for
size of objects in a program to change dynamically. If single adderss space is used, as in
paging, after memory has been allocated it cannot change size resulting in wasted memory or
not enough memory. To fix this, computer system would set up many independent address
spaces. Each of these address spaces is called Segment. A program is a collection of
segments. A segment is a logical unit such as: main program, procedure, function, method,
object, local variables, global variables, common block, stack, symbol table, arrays.

Solution differs from pure segmentation in that the segment-table entry contains not the base
address of the segment, but rather the base address of a page table for this segment. May be
unequal, dynamic size Simplifies handling of growing data structures Allows programs to be
altered and recompiled independently Lends itself to sharing data among processes Lends
itself to protection

Corresponding segment in main memory Each entry contains the length of the segment A bit
is needed to determine if segment is already in main memory Another bit is needed to
determine if the segment has been modified since it was loaded in main memory

Advantages :

 No internal fragmentation
 May save memory if segments are very small and should not be combined into one
page.
 Segment tables: only one entry per actual segment as opposed to one per page in VM
 Average segment size >> average page size
 Less overhead.

Disadvantages :

 External fragmentation.
 Costly memory management algorithms.
 Segmentation: find free memory area big enough.
 Paging: keep list of free pages, any page is ok.
 Segments of unequal size not suited as well for swapping.

File-System Structure

File structure

1. Logical storage unit

2. Collection of related information

File system resides on secondary storage (disks).

File system organized into layers.

File control block – storage structure consisting of information about a file.

Layered File System

A Typical File Control Block

In-Memory File System Structures

The following figure illustrates the necessary file system structures provided by the operating
systems.

Figure 12-3(a) refers to opening a file.

Figure 12-3(b) refers to reading a file.

In-Memory File System Structures

FIG 12.3

Virtual File Systems

Virtual File Systems (VFS) provide an object-oriented way of implementing file systems.

VFS allows the same system call interface (the API) to be used for different types of file
systems.

The API is to the VFS interface, rather than any specific type of file system.

Directory Implementation

Linear list of file names with pointer to the data blocks.

1. simple to program

2. time-consuming to execute

Hash Table – linear list with hash data structure.

1. decreases directory search time

2. collisions – situations where two file names hash to the same location

3. fixed size

Allocation Methods

An allocation method refers to how disk blocks are allocated for files:
Contiguous allocation

Linked allocation

Indexed allocation

Contiguous Allocation

Each file occupies a set of contiguous blocks on the disk.

Simple – only starting location (block #) and length (number of blocks) are required.

Random access.

Wasteful of space (dynamic storage-allocation problem).

Files cannot grow.

Contiguous Allocation of Disk Space

Extent-Based Systems

Many newer file systems (I.e. Veritas File System) use a modified contiguous allocation
scheme.

Extent-based file systems allocate disk blocks in extents.

An extent is a contiguous block of disks. Extents are allocated for file allocation. A file
consists of one or more extents.

Linked Allocation

Each file is a linked list of disk blocks: blocks may be scattered anywhere on the disk.
block =

Pointer

Linked Allocation

File-Allocation Table
Indexed Allocation

Brings all pointers together into the index block.

Example of Indexed Allocation

Need index table

Random access

Dynamic access without external fragmentation, but have overhead of index block.

Mapping from logical to physical in a file of maximum size of 256K words and block size of
512 words. We need only 1 block for index table.

Mapping from logical to physical in a file of unbounded length (block size of 512 words).

Linked scheme – Link blocks of index table (no limit on size)

10.3 Free-Space Management

Need to protect:

1. Pointer to free list

2. Bit map

3. Must be kept on disk

 4. Copy in memory and disk may differ.

5. Cannot allow for block [i] to have a situation where bit [i] = 1 in memory and bit [i] = 0 on disk.

6. Solution:

7. Set bit [i] = 1 in disk.

8. Allocate block [i]

9. Set bit [i] = 1 in memory

Linked Free Space List on Disk

Deadlock Characterization

1. Mutual exclusion: only one process at a time can use a resource.

2. Hold and wait: a process holding at least one resource is waiting to acquire additional
resources held

by other processes.

3. No preemption: a resource can be released only voluntarily by the process holding it,
after that

process has Completed its task.

 4. Circular wait: there exists a set {P0, P1, …, P0} of waiting processes such that P0 is
waiting for a

resource that is held by P1, P1 is waiting for a resource that is held by P2, …, Pn–1 is
waiting for a

resource that is held by Pn, and P0 is waiting for a resource that is held by P0.

Deadlock can arise if four conditions hold simultaneously.

Resource-Allocation Graph

V is partitioned into two types:

P = {P1, P2, …, Pn}, the set consisting of all the processes in the system.

R = {R1, R2, …, Rm}, the set consisting of all resource types in the system.

request edge – directed edge P1 → Rj

assignment edge – directed edge Rj → Pi

A set of vertices V and a set of edges E.

Process

Resource Type with 4 instances

Pi requests instance of Rj

Pi is holding an instance of Rj

Pi

Pi

Rj

Rj

Example of a Resource Allocation Graph

Resource Allocation Graph With A Deadlock

Resource Allocation Graph With A Cycle But No Deadlock

Basic Facts

If graph contains no cycles _ no deadlock.

If graph contains a cycle

if only one instance per resource type, then deadlock.

if several instances per resource type, possibility of deadlock.

Methods for Handling Deadlocks

Ensure that the system will never enter a deadlock state.

Allow the system to enter a deadlock state and then recover.

Ignore the problem and pretend that deadlocks never occur in the system; used by most operating
systems, including UNIX.

Deadlock Prevention
Mutual Exclusion – not required for sharable resources; must hold for non-sharable resources.

Hold and Wait – must guarantee that whenever a process requests a resource, it does not hold any
other resources.

Require process to request and be allocated all its sources before it begins execution, or allow process
to request resources only when the process has none. Low resource utilization; starvation possible.
Restrain the ways request can be made.

No Preemption – If a process that is holding some resources requests another resource that cannot be
immediately allocated to it, then all resources currently being held are released.

Preempted resources are added to the list of resources for which the process is waiting.

Process will be restarted only when it can regain its old resources, as well as the new ones that it is
requesting.

Circular Wait – impose a total ordering of all resource types, and require that each process requests
resources in an increasing order of enumeration

Deadlock Avoidance

Simplest and most useful model requires that each process declare the maximum number of resources
of each type that it may need.

The deadlock-avoidance algorithm dynamically examines the resource-allocation state to ensure that
there can never be a circular-wait condition.

Resource-allocation state is defined by the number of available and allocated resources, and the
maximum demands of the processes.

Requires that the system has some additional a priori information available.

Safe State

When a process requests an available resource, system must decide if immediate allocation leaves the
system in a safe state.

System is in safe state if there exists a safe sequence of all processes.

Sequence <P1, P2, …, Pn> is safe if for each Pi, the resources that Pi can still request can be satisfied
by currently available resources + resources held by all the Pj, with j<I.

1. If Pi resource needs are not immediately available, then Pi can wait until all Pj have finished.

2. When Pj is finished, Pi can obtain needed resources, execute, return allocated resources, and
 terminate.

3. When Pi terminates, Pi+1 can obtain its needed resources, and so on.

Basic Facts

If a system is in safe state _ no deadlocks.

If a system is in unsafe state _ possibility of deadlock.

Avoidance _ ensure that a system will never enter an unsafe state.

Safe, Unsafe , Deadlock State

Resource-Allocation Graph Algorithm

Claim edge Pi → Rj indicated that process Pj may request resource Rj; represented by a dashed

line.

Claim edge converts to request edge when a process requests a resource.

When a resource is released by a process, assignment edge reconverts to a claim edge.

Resources must be claimed a priori in the system.

Resource-Allocation Graph For Deadlock Avoidance

Unsafe State In Resource-Allocation Graph

Banker’s Algorithm

Multiple instances.

Each process must a priori claim maximum use.

When a process requests a resource it may have to wait.

When a process gets all its resources it must return them in a finite amount of time.

Data Structures for the Banker’s Algorithm

Available: Vector of length m. If available [j] = k, there are k instances of resource type Rj available.
Max: n x m matrix. If Max [i,j] = k, then process Pi may request at most k instances of resource type
Rj.

Allocation: n x m matrix. If Allocation [i,j] = k then Pi is currently allocated k instances of Rj.

Need: n x m matrix. If Need [i,j] = k, then Pi may need k more instances of Rj to complete its task.

Need [i,j] = Max [i,j] – Allocation [i,j].

Let n = number of processes, and m = number of resources types.

Safety Algorithm

1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively. Initialize:

Work = Available

Finish [i] = false for i - 1,3, …, n.

2. Find and i such that both:

(a) Finish [i] = false

(b) Needi ≤ Work

If no such i exists, go to step 4.

3. Work = Work + Allocation i

Finish [i] = true

go to step 2.

4. If Finish [i] == true for all i, then the system is in a safe state.

Resource-Request Algorithm for Process Pi

Request = request vector for process Pi. If Request i [j] = k

then process Pi wants k instances of resource type Rj.

1. If Request i ≤ Need i go to step 2. Otherwise, raise error condition, since process has

exceeded its maximum claim.

2. If Request i ≤ Available, go to step 3. Otherwise Pi must wait, since resources are not available.

3. Pretend to allocate requested resources to Pi by modifying the state as follows:

 Available = Available = Request i;

Allocation i = Allocation i + Request i;

Need i = Need i – Request i;;

• If safe _ the resources are allocated to Pi.

• If unsafe _ Pi must wait, and the old resource-allocation state is restored

Example of Banker’s Algorithm

5 processes P0 through P4; 3 resource types A (10 instances),

B (5instances, and C (7 instances).

Snapshot at time T0: Allocation Max Availabl

ABCABCABC

P0 010753332

P1 200322

P2 302902

P3 211222

P4 002433

The content of the matrix. Need is defined to be Max – Allocation.

Need

ABC

P0 743

P1 122

P2 600

P3 011

P4 431

The system is in a safe state since the sequence < P1, P3, P4, P2, P0> satisfies safety criteria.

Check that Request ≤ Available (that is, (1,0,2) ≤ (3,3,2) _ true.

Allocation Need Available

ABCABCABC
 P0 0 1 0 7 4 3 2 3 0

P1 3 0 2 0 2 0

P2 3 0 1 6 0 0

P3 2 1 1 0 1 1

P4 0 0 2 4 3 1

Executing safety algorithm shows that sequence <P1, P3, P4, P0, P2> satisfies safety requirement.

Can request for (3,3,0) by P4 be granted?

Can request for (0,2,0) by P0 be granted?

Deadlock Detection

Allow system to enter deadlock state

Detection algorithm

Recovery scheme

Single Instance of Each Resource Type

Maintain wait-for graph

Nodes are processes.

Pi → Pj if Pi is waiting for Pj.

Periodically invoke an algorithm that searches for a cycle in the graph.

An algorithm to detect a cycle in a graph requires an order of n2 operations, where n is the

number of vertices in the graph.

Resource-Allocation Graph and Wait-for Graph

Resource-Allocation Graph Corresponding wait-for graph

Several Instances of a Resource Type

Available: A vector of length m indicates the number of available resources of each type.

Allocation: An n x m matrix defines the number of resources of each type currently allocated

to each process.

Request: An n x m matrix indicates the current request of each process. If Request [ij] = k,

then process Pi is requesting k more instances of resource type. Rj.

Detection Algorithm

1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively Initialize:

(a) Work = Available

(b) For i = 1,2, …, n, if Allocation i ≠ 0, then

Finish [i] = false; otherwise, Finish [i] = true.

2. Find an index i such that both:

(a) Finish [i] == false

(b) Request i ≤ Work

If no such i exists, go to step 4.

3. Work = Work + Allocation i

Finish [i] = true

 go to step 2.

4. If Finish [i] == false, for some i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then the system is in deadlock state.

Moreover, if Finish [i] == false, then Pi is deadlocked.

Algorithm requires an order of O (m x n2) operations to detect whether the system is in deadlocked
state.

Example of Detection Algorithm

Five processes P0 through P4; three resource types

A (7 instances), B (2 instances), and C (6 instances).

Snapshot at time T0:

Allocation Request Available

ABCABCABC

P0 010000000

P1 200202

P2 303000

P3 211100

P4 002002

Sequence <P0, P2, P3, P1, P4> will result in Finish [i] = true for all i.

P2 requests an additional instance of type C.

Request

A B C

P0 0 0 0

P1 2 0 1

P2 0 0 1

P3 1 0 0

P4 0 0 2

State of system?
Can reclaim resources held by process P0, but insufficient resources to fulfill other processes;
requests.

Deadlock exists, consisting of processes P1, P2, P3, and P4.

Detection-Algorithm Usage

When, and how often, to invoke depends on:

1. How often a deadlock is likely to occur?

2. How many processes will need to be rolled back?

3. one for each disjoint cycle

if detection algorithm is invoked arbitrarily, there may be many cycles in the resource graph

and so we would not be able to tell which of the many deadlocked processes “caused” the deadlock.

Recovery from Deadlock: Process Termination

Abort all deadlocked processes.

Abort one process at a time until the deadlock cycle is eliminated.

In which order should we choose to abort?

✦Priority of the process.

✦How long process has computed, and how much longer to completion.

✦Resources the process has used.

✦Resources process needs to complete.

✦How many processes will need to be terminated.

✦Is process interactive or batch?

Recovery from Deadlock: Resource Preemption

Selecting a victim – minimize cost.

Rollback – return to some safe state, restart process for that state.

Starvation – same process may always be picked as victim, include number of rollback in cost factor.