Working Principle Of An Alternator

 The fundamental working principle of an alternator is same as the DC generator i.e as DC generator an
alternator or synchronous generator work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction.
 The Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that when a current carrying conductor is placed in
the magnetic field an electromagnetic force (emf) is induced in it.

 There are lots of similarity between an alternator and DC generator but there is one d ifference between
them.

 Similarity:- Both DC generator and alternator consist of theArmature winding and Field winding.
 Difference:- In case of DC generator the armature winding is placed on th e rotor and field winding is
placed on the stator i.e armature creates the required rotating magnetic field.
But in case of the alternator, the configuration is just reversed that is armature winding is placed on the
stator part and field winding is placed on the rotor and it is connected to the DC supply.

Maximum induced EMF in an

Alternator
 From the above figure consider the Position A when the sinθ = 0 o in that position the coil is just parallel
to the magnetic field therefore very less or no magnetic field line will pass through the conductor hence
the flux and current will be zero.
We know that
E =Blvsinθ
and θ = 0
sin0 = 0
E = 0 (where E is generated voltage)

 Now consider Position B when the sinθ = 90 o in that particular position the coi l is perpendicular to the
magnetic field of a line, therefore, maximum magnetic field line will pass through the conductor so the
flux and current generated will be maximum.
E =Blvsinθ
and θ = 90
sin90 = 1
E = Blv
where
E is the generated voltage
B is the magnetic flux density
l is the length of a conductor in the magnetic field
v is the velocity of the conductor

Advantages of Stationary Armature

1. High Level Of insulation: The alternator is usually designed for high -level voltage operation, therefore, it
required good insulation to withstand that high voltage as stationary winding is free from
centrifugal forces hence insulation of winding becomes easier.
2. Reduce Armature reaction: Due to the stationary armature more cross -sectional area is available hence
maximum mmf will be passed from the armature slots, therefore, it reduced armature leakage flux.
3. No Need of Brushes: The output terminals are fixed on the stator hence output terminal can be taken
directly from the fixed output to the load circuit.
4. Only 2 slip rings are required: If the armature of three phase alternator is not stationary (revolving type)
then it would require 3 slip rings and for six phase alternator we would be required six slip ring. By
making it stationary only two low voltage slip ring s are required to excite the field winding by DC current.
5. Improved heat dissipation and ventilation: Due to low lamination and larger cross -sectional area on
stator core the armature winding can be cooled more efficiently as well as effectively.

Construction of Alternator

 The AC generator (alternator) or synchronous generator is a machine which converts the mechanical power
or energy into electrical power.
 The construction of an alternator is very similar to the DC generator but the main difference between them
in DC generator the armature winding is the rotating part and field windin g is the stationary part whereas
in an alternator the armature winding is stationary and field winding is the rotary part.
Stator

 As the name suggests it is the stationary part of the machine and it is made up of special magnetic material
which can allow high magnetic permeability and low magnetic hysteresis such as fabricated steel.

Alternator stator
 The stator core is laminated to minimize the effect of eddy current losses.The lamination is insulated from
each other by a thin coating of an oxide and has space between them to allow passage of cool air flow.

 For the small machine, the laminations are stamped out in the complete ring structure and for the large
machine, the laminations are divided into the number of segments.
 The slots are provided in the i nner periphery of the core and the armature conductors or coils are
assembled in it.

 Generally, open slots are used permitting easy installation or removal of the stator coil.

 The fractional number of slots per pole is used in order to eliminate the harmon ic in the waveform.

 The armature winding of an alternator is usually connected in star and its neutral is connected to the
ground.
Why is the Armature winding of an Alternator connected in Star?

 The phase voltages in star connection are 57.7 % of the line voltages, i.e. the armature winding in star
connection is less exposed to voltage as compared to the delta connection which in turn prove more
economic if we consider insulation, breakdown strength, the requirement of conductor material etc.

 In star connection, if the neutral is grounded then it also provides a path for the Zero -Sequence currents
during faults, whereas in the delta connection the zero sequence currents flow within the delta circuit and
hence increasing the load on the winding.
Rotor

 The revolving field structure of the electrical machine is called as the rotor. In a synchronous generator,
the rotor carries a field winding which is supplied by the DC source.

 The DC source is also called an exciter which is generally a small d.c shunt or compo unded generator
mounted on the shaft of the alternator.

There are two types of rotor construction

1. Salient Pole Type

2. Cylindrical Type (non-salient pole)

Salient (or projecting Pole) Type

 The salient pole type rotor is used for low and medium speed machines (less than 1200 rpm) and have the
large diameter and small axial length.
 Salient Pole Rotor
 The poles are made up of thick steel lamination to reduce eddy current heating loss and it is attached to a
rotor by means of the dovetail joint.

 In salient pole rotor, the poles are always projected in the outward direction as shown in the figure.

 The field winding in the salient pole type is connected in series in such a way that when the field winding
is energised by the exciter, then adjacent poles will have opp osite polarities. The number of poles does not
affect the number of phases in the alternator output.

 To reduce the effect of haunting damper winding is provided in the pole faces. They don’t let the motor to
oscillate abruptly, they damp the oscillations t hus increasing the stability of the machine.

 Salient pole rotor found application for diesel engine and water turbine because they both required medium
speed (120-1000 rpm).

 The pole and Pole shoe cover 2/3 of the pole pitch.

 The rating of salient pole rot or is less than 500 kW.

Disadvantage of Salient Pole Rotor

The salient pole rotor has following disadvantages

1. The salient pole rotor cause excessive windage looses if they are driven at high speed and it also increases
the noise produced by an alternator.

2. The construction of salient pole rotor cannot withstand high mechanical stress.

3. The speed of an alternator is inversely proportional to the numbers of pole required (N s = 120f/p) so to
operate a salient pole type alternator, a large number of poles are req uired which increases the diameter of
the generator thus increasing space requirement for installation and initial cost due to extra material used.
Smooth Cylindrical Type | Non-Salient Pole Alternator

 This type of Rotor is used for steam driven alternat or i.e turbo alternator which runs at very high speed.

Cylindrical Type Rotor

 The Rotor is made up of smooth solid forgings of alloy steel cylinder having the number of slots along the
outer periphery.

 The field windings of cylindrical type rotor are connected in series to the slip rings through which they are
excited by the DC exciter.

 The top portion of the slot is covered with the help of steel or manganese wedges and
the unslotted portion of the cylinder acts as the poles of an alternator.
 The field windings are arranged in such a way that its flux density is maximum on the polar central line.

 In cylindrical rotor, the pole doesn’t project out from the smooth surface of the rotor hence they maintain
the uniform air gap between stator and rotor.

 Since steam turbine runs at very high speed, therefore, they required less number of poles hence the
diameter of the rotor is small and axial or rotor length is large.
Advantages of Cylindrical Rotor type Alternator

 The main advantages of the cylindrical rotor are that their construction has mechanical robustness and
gives noiseless operation at very high speed (1500 -3000 rpm).

 The flux distribution is nearly uniform sine wave hence better waveform is obtained.

 The hunting effect is very rare in the cylindrical rotor, therefore, there is no need to provide damper
winding except in case of assisting the alternator for synchronising purpose.
Types Of Alternator

The alternator can be divided into different types based on their application, prime mover, design, outp ut
power, and cooling.

Alternator Based on their Output Power

1. Single Phase Alternator

2. Two-Phase Alternator

3. Three Phase Alternator

Single Phase Alternator

The single phase alternator produces a continuous single alternating voltage. The armature coils are
connected in series forming a Single circuit in which output voltage is generated.

Single phase Alternator

In the above figure, the stator has four poles which are evenly spaced around the stator frame. The rotor also
consists 4 poles and each pole has op posite polarity to its neighbours which are angled at 90 degrees. Each
coil also has opposite winding to its neighbours. This configuration allows the lines of force at 4 poles to be
cut by 4 coils at the same amount at a given time. At each 90 -degree rotation, the voltage output polarity is
switched from one direction to the other. Therefore, there are 4 cycles of the AC output in one rotation.

Single-phase generators are used as standby generators in case of the main power supply is interrupted and
for supplying temporary power on construction sites.

Two-Phase Alternator
 Two-Phase Alternator
In a two-phase alternator, there are two single -phase windings spaced physically so that the ac voltage
induced in one is 90° out of phase with the voltage induced in the other. The windings are electrically
separate from each other. Suppose in the first quarter first winding produce maximum flux, then the second
winding generates zero flux and in the second quarter the second winding generates maximum flux and first
winding generate zero flux. This condition establishes a 90° relation between the two phases.

Three Phase Alternator

Three-phase-alternator
A three-phase alternator has 3 sets of single -phase windings arrangement so that the voltage induced in each
winding is 120° out of phase with the voltages in the other two windings. These windings are connected in
the star to provide a three -phase output.

Advantages of Three-phase Alternator

1. The three-phase alternator gives the most constant output than the single phase alternator.

2. Three phase power supply is more economical than the other two phases because three separate single -
phase voltage can be delivered at the same time from the power system.
Alternator based on their applications

According to their application usage, the alternator can be divided into 5 main part.

1. Automotive Type Alternator

2. Diseal electric locomotive Alternator

3. Brushless type Alternator

4. Marine Type Alternator

5. Radio Alternator
Alternator based on their Prime-mover

1. Turbo Generator

2. Hydro Generator

3. Diesel Engine driven Alternator

Alternator Based on Type of their Design

1. Salient pole Rotor

2. Smooth cylindrical Rotor

Synchronous Motor Working Principle

 Electric Motor is an electromechanical device which transforms electric energy into mechanical energy.
 According to their type of connection, electric motors are generally classified into the two types i.e single
phase motor and three phase motor.
 A synchronous motor is a 3 phase motor and it closely resembles 3 phase alternator.
 3 phase synchronous motor and 3 phase induction motor are most widely used AC motor.
 A synchronous motor is also called as doubly excited motor.
The synchronous motor consist of the two parts:
Stator: Stator is the armature winding. It consists of three phase star or delta connected winding and excited
by 3 phase A.C supply.
Rotor: Rotor is a field winding. The field winding is excited by the separate D.C supply through the slip
ring.
The construction of Rotor can be salient pole (projected pole) and non-salient pole (cylindrical pole) type.
Principle Of Working Of Synchronous Motor
 Synchronous motor work on the principle of magnetic locking.
 When two unlike strong unlike magnets poles are brought together, there exists a tremendous force of
extraction between those two poles. In such condition, the two magnets are said to be magnetically
locked.

 If now one of the two magnets is rotated, the other magnets also rotate in the same direction with the same
speed due to the strong force of attraction.
 This phenomenon is called as magnetic locking
For magnetic locking condition, there must be two unlike poles and magnetic axes of this two poles must be
brought very nearer to each other.

 Consider a synchronous motor whose stator is wound for 2 poles.

 The stator winding is excited with 3 phase A.C supply and rotor winding with D.C supply respectively.
Thus two magnetic fields are produced in the synchronous motor.
 When the 3 phase winding is supplied by 3 phase A.C supply than the rotating magnetic field or flux is
produced.
 This magnetic field or flux rotates in a space at a speed called synchronous speed.
 The rotating magnetic field or rotating flux has fixed relationship between, the number of poles, the
frequency of a.c supply and the speed of rotation.
 The rotating magnetic field creates an effect which is similar to the physical rotation of magnets in space
with a synchronous speed.
 So for rotating magnetic field

Where f = supply frequency

P = Number of poles
Synchronous Motor Action
 Suppose the stator poles are N 1 and S 1 which are rotating at a speed ofN s and the direction of rotation be
clockwise.
 When the field winding on a rotor is excited by the D.C source, it produces the two stationary poles
i.e N 2 and S 2 .
 To establish the magnetic locking between the stator and rotor poles the, unlike poles N1 and S2 or N2 and
S1 should be brought near to each other.
 As stator poles are rotating and due to magnetic locking the rotor poles will rotate in the same direction of
rotating magnetic field as that of stator poles with the same speed N s .
 Hence synchronous motor rotates at only one speed that issynchronous speed.
 The synchronous speed depends on the frequency therefore for constant supply frequency synchronous
motor speed will be constant irrespective of the load changed.
Features of Synchronous Motor
 It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all. That is while running it maintains a constant speed. The
speed is independent of load.
 It is not inherently self-starting. It has to be run at synchronous speed by some means before it can be
synchronized to supply.
 It can be operated under the wide range of power factors both lagging and leading.
 It will stall if, while running, counter torque is increased beyond the maximum torque that machine can
develop.
 The speed of the synchronous motor can be controlled by inverter units.
Application of Synchronous Motor.
Synchronous motor finds various application for following services:
 Power Factor correction
 Voltage Regulation
 Constant speed, Constant load drives
Power Factor Correction
 Over excited synchronous motor having leading power factor are widely used for improving power factor
for those power system which employs a large number of an induction motor.
 Under excited synchronous motor having lagging power factor found application in fluorescent light
welding etc.
Voltage Regulation
 The voltage at the long transmission lines varies greatly when the large inductive load is present.
 When line voltage decreases due to inductive load, motor excitation is increased thereby raising its power
factor which compensates for the line drop.
 If line voltage rises due to line capacitive effect, motor excitation is decreased thereby making its power
factor lagging which helps to maintain the line voltage to its normal value.
Constant Speed Application
 Because of their high efficiency and high-speed synchronous motor are well suited for loads where
constant speed is required such as a centrifugal pump, blowers, line shaft, paper mills etc.

Why Three Phase Synchronous Motor not Self Starting?

When a three-phase supply is given to the stator of a three-phase wound synchronous motor, a rotating field
is set up in the air gap which rotates at a synchronous speed (Ns = 120f/p). This is represented by the
imaginary stator poles.
Let us consider a two-pole synchronous motor as shown in Figure. and the stator rotating field is in the
anticlockwise direction. The field current of the motor produces a steady state magnetic field. Therefore,
there are two magnetic fields present in the machine.
The synchronous motor works on the principle of magnetic locking. The operating principle can be explained
with the help of 2-Pole synchronous machine with the following steps.
Step 1. When a three phase supply is given to the stator winding, a Rotating magnetic field is produced in the
stator.
Step 2. Due to Rotating Magnetic field, let the stator poles N s and S s rotate with synchronous speed. At a
particular time stator pole, N s coincides with the rotor poles N r and S S coincides with S r i.e like poles of the
stator and rotor coincide with each other. As we know, like poles experience a repulsive force. So rotor poles
experience a repulsive force F r . Assume that the rote tends to rotate in the anti-clockwise direction as shown
in the Fig.(i).

Step-3. After half cycle, the polarity of the stator pole is reversed, whereas the rotor poles cannot change
their position due to inertia as shown in Fig. (ii). Now unlike poles coinciding each other and rotor
experiences the attractive force f a and tends to rotate in clockwise direction. In brief, we can say, with the
rotation of stator poles the rotor tends to drive in the clockwise and anti-clockwise direction in every half
cycle. Hence, to and fro motion is excited on the rotor and as a result, the rotor does not rotate. As a result,
the average torque on the rotor is zero. Hence 3-phase synchronous motor is not a self-starting Motor.
In order to develop a continuous torque, the two fields must be stationary with respect to each other. This is
possible when the rotor also rotates at synchronous speed. The basic principle of synchronous motor
operation is that the rotor chases the stator magnetic field. In other words, the stator rotating magnetic field
tends to drag the rotor along as if the north pole on the stator locks into the south pole of the rotor.
Step 4. If the rotor of the synchronous motor is rotated by some external means at the start so that it also
reverses its polarity as the polarity of the stator poles, there exists a continuous force of attraction between
stator and rotor poles. This is called magnetic locking. Once the magnetic locking is obtained, the rotor poles
are dragged by the stator revolving field (or imaginary poles) and a continuous torque is obtained. As the
rotor poles are dragged by the stator revolving field, hence the rotor rotates at the same speed as that of stator
revolving field, i.e., at synchronous speed.
Step 5. Due to this, the rotor continuously experiences a unidirectional torque in the direction of the rotating
magnetic field. Hence 3-phase synchronous motor must run at synchronous speed.
What will happen if by chance the rotor position is in such a way that the, unlike the rotor and stator
poles, are facing each other?
But owing to the large inertia of the rotor, the rotor fails to rotate along with the stator poles. Hence again the
difference of position of magnetic axes gets created and the rotor gets subjected to quickly reversing torque.
This is because the speed with which routing magnetic field is rotating is so high that it is unable to rotate the
rotor from its initial position, due to the inertia of the rotor. So under any case, whatever may be the starting
position of the rotor, the synchronous motor is not self-starting.
In order to develop a continuous torque, the two fields must be stationary with respect to each other. This is
possible when the rotor also rotates at synchronous speed. The basic principle of synchronous motor
operation is that the rotor chases the stator magnetic field. In other words, the stator rotating magnetic field
tends to drag the rotor along as if the north pole on the stator locks into the south pole of the rotor.
PROCEDURE TO START SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Now suppose the rotor is rotated by some external means at a speed almost equal to synchronous speed. And
then the rotor is excited to produce its poles. At a certain instant now, the stator and rotor unlike poles will
face each other such that their magnetic axes are near each other. Then the force of attraction between the
twos pulls both of them into the magnetic locking condition.
Once magnetic locking is established, the rotor and stator poles continue to occupy the same relative position.
Due to this, the rotor continuously experiences a unidirectional torque in the direction of the rotating
magnetic field. Thence rotor rotates at synchronous speed and said to be in synchronism with rotating
magnetic field. The external device used to rotate rotor near synchronous speed can be removed once
synchronism is established. The rotor then continues its rotation at ^Ns due to magnetic locking. This is the
reason why synchronous motor runs only at synchronous speed and does not rotate at any speed other than the
synchronous. This operation is shown in the Figures. (a) and (b).
It is necessary to keep field winding i.e., rotor excited from dc supply to maintain the magnetic locking as
long as the motor is operating.
Procedure: A general procedure to start a synchronous motor can be stated as:
1. Give a three phase ac supply to the three-phase winding. This will produce rotating magnetic
2. field rotating at synchronous speed N S RPM.
3. Then drive the rotor by some external means like the diesel engine in the direction of rotating the magnetic
field, at a speed very near or equal to synchronous speed.
4. Switch on the dc supply given to the rotor which will produce rotor poles. Now there are two fields one is
the rotating magnetic field produced by stator while the other is produced by the rotor which is physically
rotated almost at the same speed as that of the rotating magnetic field.
5. At a particular instant, both the fields get magnetically locked. The stator field pulls the rotor field into
synchronism. Then the external device used to rotate rotor can be removed. But rotor will continue to
rotate at the same speed as that of rotating magnetic field i.e., N S due to magnetic locking.
Note:- To start the synchronous motor, it needs some device to rotate the rotor at a speed very near or equal
to the synchronous speed. In the next article, we will discuss the method of starting the synchronous motor.
Basic of Transformer
A transformer is a static device which converts the alternating current energy from one voltage level to
another voltage level.
Why is the Transformer a static device?
Unlike motor or generator where motion is required to generate output, but in the case of transformer both the
winding i.e primary winding and secondary winding are fixed therefore a transformer is called a static.

Ideal Transformer
Transformer Working
A transformer operates on the principle of mutual inductance, between two coils. Mutual induction is the
process by which a coil magnetically induces a voltage into another coil located in close proximity to it.
Transformers get their name from the fact that they “transform” one voltage level to another voltage level.
A single phase transformer basically consists of two electrical coils of wire, one called the “Primary
Winding” and another called the “Secondary Winding”.
The primary winding is energized by the sinusoidal voltage or AC.
The secondary winding is connected to the load( output is taken from the secondary winding).
The alternating current in primary winding generates an alternating flux (Φ) in the core. The secondary
winding is linked by most of the flux and e.m.f are induced in these two winding. Energy is transferred from
primary circuit to the secondary circuit by the magnetic field medium.
 Single phase transformer

Types of transformers
Transformers are classified into the different category such as on the basis of their voltage level, core used,
types of cooling etc.
On the basis of their construction:-
On the basis of their construction transformer are divided mainly into two parts:
Core type Transformer

Shell type Transformer

Difference between Core type and shell type transformers
On the basis of their Voltage conversion
On the basis of their voltage conversion transformers can be classified into 2 types
 Step-up Transformer
 Step-down Transformer
Step up Transformer
When the secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage it is called as a step-up transformer. The
function of the step-up transformer is to increase the voltage level. On a step-up transformer, there are more
turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil.
Step-up Transformer
Step down Transformer
When the primary voltage is greater than the secondary voltage it is called as step-down transformers.
The function of Step- down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. A step-down transformer
has fewer turns on the secondary coil that the primary coil.

Step down Transformer

On the basis of winding arrangement

On the basis of winding arrangements, transformers are classified into one type i.e Auto Transformer
In Auto Transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as secondary winding i.e
primary and secondary shares the common single winding. The primary is electrically connected to the
secondary, as well as magnetically coupled to it.
Transformer based on usage
The transformers are used to do many functions depending upon the application they have. These are
classified as
⇒Power transformer
⇒Distribution transformer
⇒Protection transformer
⇒Measuring transformer
Power transformer
 The power transformer is used for high power transfer application.
 It is used for the step up and steps down application where the transmission voltage is greater than
33KV and are generally rated above 200MVA.
 Higher flux density.
 Higher level of insulation
 Used for the transmission and distribution of electric power.
 Power transformer can be used in furnace and welding machine.

Power Transformer
Example of power transformer
Laminated core transformers, stray leakage transformers, variable auto transformers, polyphase transformers
etc.
NOTE- Power transformer should be designed to have maximum efficiency at near or full load.
Advantages of power transformer
 Low noise
 Higher efficiency
 High Insulation level
 High power application
Application of power transformers
 Used in transmission substations.
 It is used in the high voltage transmission network to step up and step down the voltage.
 used in power generation systems.
Distribution transformers
 It is used for distribution of electric energy at low voltage to end user level.
 For the industrial purpose, the operating voltage is around 33 KV.
 For the domestic purpose, the operating voltage is around 220 – 440 Volts.
 The efficiency of a distribution transformer is around 50 –
70{e3f30b17d1e2ee29a456ac094afcdceaab760d87d11dd966225a50cd59ff675b}, which is low as compared
to the power transformer.
 Smaller in size as compared to the power transformer.

Distribution Transformer
Example of distribution transformer
Oil-cooled transformers, three phase auto transformers.
NOTE- Distribution transformer should be designed to have maximum efficiency at a load much lower than
full load (about 50 percent)
Advantages of distribution transformer
 Easy in installation.
 Small in size.
 Low magnetic losses.
Disadvantages of distribution transformer
 They are not fully loaded.
 Efficiency is low.
Application of distribution transformer
 Used for distribution of electricity in house, farms, industries, railways etc.
Instrument Transformer
The instrument transformers are used for measuring high voltage and high currents in Ac Systems. It
measures electrical quantities such as voltage, current, frequency, power factor etc.
Types of Instrument Transformer
Instrument transformer are of two types:-
 Current transformer
 Voltage transformer
Current Transformer (C.T)
 Current transformers are generally used to measure currents of high magnitude.
 The current transformer is used to step down the current to a lower value so that current can be measured
with a normal range ammeter.
 The current transformer has a primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire connected in series.
 The secondary coil consists of a large number of turns of fine wireand it is connected across the
ammeter terminals.
 Therefore current transformer steps up the voltage while stepping down the current.
 A current transformer is always connected in series.
Potential transformer
 Potential transformers are also known as voltage transformers.
 Potential transformers are generally used to measure voltages of high magnitude.
 Potential transformers are used to step down the voltage to a lower value so that voltage can be measured
with a small range voltmeter.
 The primary of voltage transformer has a large number of turnsconnected across the line of the voltage.
 The secondary voltage transformer consists of few turns and it is connected directly to a voltmeter.
 The voltage transformer is always connected in parallel.

EMF Equation Of Transformer

⇒ Let us consider an ideal transformer on no load, when an alternating voltage V 1 is applied to the primary
side of the transformer thus magnetizing current start flowing in the primary winding and flux Φ is generated
in the transformer core.
⇒ The flux Φ is uniformly distributed around the transformer core and it is linked with both primary and
secondary winding of the transformer.

⇒ The flux Φ is alternating in nature therefore according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf
is induced in the primary side or winding of the transformer.

Where e 1 is primary induced emf

⇒ According to Lenz’s law, the induced e mf e 1 is equal and opposite the supply voltage V 1
⇒ Since the source given to the primary is sinusoidal therefore the flux produced is also sinusoidal in nature.
Hence the sinusoidal flux Φ produced by the primary can be represented as.
Φ = Φ m sin ωt
⇒ Putting the value of Φ we get

⇒ On differentiating the above equation we get

e 1 = -ω N 1 Φ m cosωt

e 1 = -2πf N 1 Φ m cosωt ……(since ω = 2πf )

e 1 = 2πf N 1 Φ m sin(ωt – 90 . ) . . . . . (1)
⇒ From equation 1 it is clear that the induced emf lags flux by 90 degree hence maximum value of induced
emf will be
e ma x = 2πf N 1 Φ m
⇒ The rms value can be obtained by dividing the maximum value of induced emf by √2 therefore

Note: From equation 1 it is clear that induced emf e 1 in the primary winding lags behind the flux by 90 o .
Similarly, the induced emf e 2 in the secondary lags behind the flux by 90 o
Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

The constant K is called as Voltage transformation ratio and it is given as:

For an ideal transformer, there is no voltage drop in the windings, therefore, E 1 = E 2 and V 1 = V 2 .

If N 2 > N 1 and K >1 then the transformer is called as step up transformer.

If N 1 > N 2 and K< 2 then the transformer is called as step down transformer.
There are no losses in an ideal transformer therefore volt -ampere input of the primary will be always equal to
the volt ampere of the secondary.

From above equation, it is clear that current is inversely proportional to the voltage i.e if we will increase the
value of voltage than the value of current will decrease.

Definition Of an Ideal Transformer

 An ideal transformer is a perfectly coupled loos e less transformer with infinite high core magnetic
permeability.

 It is purely an imaginary transformer which has many similar properties related to the practical
transformer and it is only used for study purpose.

 The energy in an ideal transformer is completely utilized i.e its efficiency is exactly 100%.
Characteristics of an Ideal Transformer

The ideal transformer posses following characteristics: -

Zero Leakage Flux

 An ideal transformer is a perfectly coupled transformer that means flux developed by the primary winding
of the transformer is completely linked with the secondary winding similarly the flux produced by the
secondary winding is linked with the primary wi nding of the transformer hence there is no leakage flux in
transformer.

 But in the practical transformer, some of the flux produced by the primary winding and secondary winding
doesn’t link up at all and the percentage of useful flux in a practical transfo rmer is about 97% – 98%.
No Core Losses
 The permeability of magnetic core is infinite in therefore all the magnetic field lines are concentrated
inside the core so small amount of magnetizing current is required to magnetize the core of the ideal
transformer hence energy dissipation is zero hence Hysteresis and Eddy current losses are nil.
Zero Winding Resistance

 The winding of an ideal transformer is made up of perfect conductivity material i.e winding has no
resistance hence there will be no volt age drop in the winding which ensures that it is free from I 2 R losses.
Maximum Efficiency

 As there are no Losses ( core losses, I2R losses, Eddy current losses, Hysteresis losses) and no
leakage flux, so the total input power given to the primary of the tr ansformer is exactly the same as total
output power received through the secondary of the transformer. Therefore the efficiency of an ideal
transformer is said to be 100%.
Ideal transformer Systematic Circuit Diagram

 Let us assume an ideal transformer with primary winding is connected to an AC supply and secondary
winding is open circuited i.e no load is applied to it.

 Now when an alternating voltage V 1 is applied to the primary winding due to electromagnetic induction an
emf E 1 is induced on the primary side. Since there is no voltage drop in ideal transformer, therefore,
counter emf is equal and opposite to applied voltage V 1
 Since the primary coil is pure inductive and there is no load connected to the secondary side, therefore,
primary winding draws a small magnetizing current Im.
 In case of pure inductance the current lags behind the applied voltage by 90 o
 This magnetizing current produces flux Φ which is directly proportional to current and therefore in phase
with it.

 The flux passes through both the primary and secondary winding of the transformer so according
to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the voltage V 2 gets induced in the secondary winding.
This V 2 produced a counter emf E 2 (mutually induced emf)
 At any instant (if the turns ratio is same) the value of V 1 is always equal to V 2 in case of an ideal
transformer.
 Both the emf E 1 and E 2 always lags behind the flux by 90 o and their magnitudes depend upon the rate of
change of flux and number of turns in the primary and secondary winding.
Note: As shown in the figure the emf E 1 and E 2 are in phase but E 1 is equal to V 1 and hence they E 1 and
V 1 are 180 o out of phase with each other.

Auto transformer basics

Normal transformers have two winding placed on two different sides i.e. primary and secondary. In Auto
Transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as secondary winding i.e primary and
secondary shares the common single winding. The primary is electrically connected to the secondary, as well
as magnetically coupled to it. Auto transformers are often used to step up or step down voltages up to 240 V
range.
An auto transformer has a single winding with two end terminals and always having one terminal in common
with the primary voltage. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary
voltage is taken from two terminals. The auto transformer develops a voltage in proportion to its number of
turns since the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings. In an auto-transformer part of the current flows
directly from the input to the output and the remaining part is obtained by transformer action, therefore, an
auto transformer work a the voltage regulator.
Auto transformer working
The winding AB is called as primary winding having total turn N 1 . The winding is tapped from the point C as
shown in the figure, now the windingBC becomes secondary winding having the number of turns N 2 .
 Auto Transformer
Let V 1 voltage is applied across “A & C”
Therefore voltage per turn in the winding is = V1N1V1N1
And the voltage across the “B&C” of the winding is = V1N1×N2V1N1×N2
This V1N1×N2V1N1×N2 is equal to voltage V 2 as shown in the figure.
Hence, V1N1×N2=V2V1N1×N2=V2
If no-load current and iron losses are neglected then
⇒V2V1=N2N1V2V1=N2N1 = Constant =K
Here the value of constant ′K′ is nothing but voltage ratio of the auto transformer. Load current I 2 starts
flowing ,when load is connected between secondary terminals i.e. between ′B′ and ′C′. The current in the
secondary winding i.e “B & C” is the difference of I 2 & I 1 where (I 2 > I 1 ).
Saving of Copper in Auto-Transformer:
The weight of conductor for any winding depends upon two parameters:
 Current carried by the winding
 Number of turns required in the winding
Hence the weight of conductor is proportional to the product of the number of turns and current to be carried
i.e MMF.
The weight of copper in auto-transformer = weight of copper in section AC + weight of copper in section
CB.
⇒weight of copper in section AC ∝ (N 1 – N 2 )I 1
⇒weight of copper in section BC ∝ N 2 (I 2 – I 1 )
⇒Weight of copper in auto-transformer = (N 1 – N 2 )I 1 + N 2 (I 2 – I 1 )
⇒N 1 I 1 – N 2 I 1 + N 2 I 2 – N 2 I 1
⇒N 1 I 1 – 2N 2 I 1 + N 2 I 2
⇒2N 1 I 1 – 2N 2 I 1 (∵ N 1 I 1 = N 2 I 2 )
⇒2(N 1 I 1 – N 2 I 1 )
The weight of copper in two winding transformers is ∝ N 1 I 1 – N 2 I 2
∴ N 1 I 1 – N 2 I 2 ⇒ 2N 1 I 1 (∵ N 1 I 1 = N 2 I 2 )
Let’s the weight of copper in auto transformer is (W a )
and the weight of copper in an ordinary transformer is (W o )

Hence WaWo=2(N1I1–N2I1)2N1I1WaWo=2(N1I1–N2I1)2N1I1
⇒ 1−N2N11−N2N1 = 1 – K
∴W a = W o (1 – K)
⇒W a = W o – KW o
∴ Saving of copper = W o – Wa = KW o
∴ Saving of copper = K × Weight of copper in ordinary transformer
Auto transformer advantages and disadvantages
Auto transformer advantages

⇒ auto transformer is smaller in size and cheaper

⇒Less ohmic loss and core loss due to reduction of transformer material therefore auto-transformer
has higher efficiency.
⇒Voltage drop in resistance and reactance is less in single winding therefore auto-transformer has higher
voltage regulation as compared to conventional two winding transformer of the same rating.
Auto transformer disadvantages
1. It has no isolation between the windings, so in case of faults or transients, the effect is transferred to the
other side.
2. It is used for small applications, and can’t be used for heavy switching applications.
3. Because of Low short circuit impedance value, short circuit currents can reach higher critical value.
4. In star-star connected auto transformer have common neutral therefore it is not possible to neutral only
one side of the auto transformer.
Auto transformer applications
1. It is used as control equipment in for 1-phase or 3-phase electrical locomotive.
2. To give the small boost to the distribution cable to correct the voltage drop.
3. Auto transformer is used for starting induction or synchronous motor as it gives 50 to
60{e3f30b17d1e2ee29a456ac094afcdceaab760d87d11dd966225a50cd59ff675b} full voltage to an induction
motor.