A REPORT ON SENSORS

Submitted by
NAME ROLL NO
GUNAL.R 17DB12
HARIHARAN. G 17DB13

HARISH. K 17DB14

HARISH KRISHNA. S 17DB15

JAGAN. N.P 17DB16

SABARI. S 17DB24

Under the guidance of

Mr.I.GOGUL

In partial fulfillment of the requirements of the program

TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

DIPLOMA IN AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

MARCH - 2019

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE (ENGLISH)

PSG POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

(Autonomous and an ISO 9001 certified Institution)

COIMBATORE – 641 004

1
 A REPORT ON SENSORS

Submitted by
NAME ROLL NO
GUNAL.R 17DB12
HARIHARAN. G 17DB13

HARISH. K 17DB14

HARISH KRISHNA. S 17DB15

JAGAN. N.P 17DB16

SABARI. S 17DB24

Under the guidance of

Mr.I.GOGUL

In partial fulfillment of the requirements of the program

TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

DIPLOMA IN AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

MARCH - 2019

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE (ENGLISH)

PSG POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

(Autonomous and an ISO 9001 certified Institution)

2
 COIMBATORE – 641 004
Internal Examiner External Examiner

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

To

Mr.I.Gogul,

Department of Basic Science (English),

PSG Polytechnic College,

Coimbatore - 641004.

Respected Sir,

The following report entitled “SENSORS” is submitted in the partial

fulfillment of the subject of Technical Communication Laboratory. The report
contains brief theory about SENSORS IN AUTOMOLIES

Yours faithfully

NAME ROLL NO
GUNAL.R 17DB12
HARIHARAN. G 17DB13

HARISH. K 17DB14

HARISH KRISHNA. S 17DB15

JAGAN. N.P 17DB16

SABARI. S 17DB24

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank the Principal of our college who gave us this opportunity to

prepare a report on this particular field. We also thank our English Faculty
Mr.I.Gogul and other staff members who encouraged us to complete this report in
a successful manner. Also we take immense pleasure to thank our friends and
department staff members who supported us in this report

4
 ABSTRACT

Abstract—Recent advances of sensor technologies havebeenpowered by

high-speed and low-cost electronic circuits, novelsignal processing methods, and
advanced manufacturing tech- nologes . The synergetic interaction of new
developments inthese fields provides promising technical solutions increasing
thequality, reliability, and economic efficiency of technical products.With selected
examples, we will give an overview about the sig-nificant developments of
methods, structures, manufacturing tech-nologies, and signal processing
characterizing today’s sensors andsensor systems. Predominantly observed
development trends in thefuture are discussed.Index Terms—Future trends, review,
sensor signal processing,sensor technology, smart sensors.

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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE NO

COVER 1

TITLE PAGE 2

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 4

ABSTRACT 5

CONTENTS 6

INTRODUCTION 7

POSITION SENSOR 13

TEMPERATURE SENSORS 18

TORQUE SENSOR 30

SENSORS FOR AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS 41

CONCLUSION 50

BIBLIOGRAPHY 52

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 UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION

History has shown that advancements in materials science and engineering have been
important drivers in the development of sensor technologies. For instance, the temperature
sensitivity of electrical resistance in a variety of materials was noted in the early 1800s and was
applied by Wilhelm von Siemens in 1860 to develop a temperature sensor based on a copper
resistor. The high resonance stability of single-crystal quartz, as well as its piezoelectric
properties, have made possible an extraordinarily wide range of high performance, affordable
sensors that have played an important role in everyday life and national defense. More recently, a
new era in sensor technology was ushered in by the development of large-scale silicon
processing, permitting the exploitation of silicon to create new methods for transducing physical
phenomena into electrical output that can be readily processed by a computer. Ongoing
developments in materials technology will permit better control of material properties and
behavior, thereby offering possibilities for new sensors with advanced features, such as greater
fidelity, lower cost, and increased reliability.

As noted in the preface, the Committee on New Sensor Technologies: Materials and
Applications was asked to identify novel sensor materials that could benefit the manufacture and
operation of advanced systems for the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration and to identify research and development (R&D) efforts that could
accelerate the development and incorporation of these emerging sensor materials in particular
applications with potentially high payoff. To provide a foundation for its recommendations in
these areas, the committee began by assessing the current status of sensor technologies. Early in
this assessment, the committee found that applications, not materials, drive new sensor
development. Therefore the committee identified a conceptual framework that could relate

7
sensor materials to application needs within which the importance of particular sensor materials
could be determined.

Given the extensive body of published work relating to the broad, multidisciplinary subject of
sensor technologies, the committee prepared a summary bibliography drawn from the recent
literature (APPENDIX A). The bibliography includes review articles, books, and monographs
relating to the wide range of sensor technologies. These references can form a basis from which
a more detailed study of any particular sensing technology, principle, or application can be
initiated. Several key journals dealing with sensing have been included in the bibliography; they
are suggested as starting points for investigating the most recent developments and trends in
sensor technologies. Additional information is available from the reference list at the end of each
chapter.

Despite the extensive published literature that treat the fundamentals of sensor technology,
considerable ambiguity exists in sensor definition and classification, as illustrated by a recent
buyer's

guide for sensors in which two lists of sensor suppliers are provided, one based on properties
sensed and the other on technologies used (Sensors, 1992). The latter list includes both physical
phenomena (for example, acoustic, electrochemical, Hall effect and infrared sensors), and
material types (such as bimetallic, fiberoptic, thick-and thin-film, and zirconium oxide sensors).

Understanding the physical or chemical effects that yield useful transduction is important in
selecting and designing sensors. However, these effects by themselves are usually not sufficient
to establish an unambiguous sensor classification, since typical sensors may use more than one
effect. A simple example is a diaphragm pressure gauge. The diaphragm uses one form of
mechanical energy to create another (pressure generates displacement and strain); however, the
creation of an electrical signal from the displacement or strain can be accomplished using many
approaches. The diaphragm could be made of a piezoelectric material, in which the air would
induce an electrical charge; an inductive or capacitive effect could be employed to measure the
charge related to the strain and the deflection and thereby infer the pressure. Thus understanding

8
all of the possible field effects and features of transducer materials behavior provides the most
complete set of sensor design options.

In order to accelerate the incorporation of emerging sensor materials in new applications, it is

critically important that the sensor materials community be able to readily identify sensing needs
that candidate materials could fulfill.

INTRODUCTION OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS:

Fig;1.1

Temperature sensors are vital to a variety of everyday products. For example, household
ovens, refrigerators, and thermostats all rely on temperature maintenance and control in order to
function properly. Temperature control also has applications in chemical engineering. Examples
of this include maintaining the temperature of a chemical reactor at the ideal set-point,
monitoring the temperature of a possible runaway reaction to ensure the safety of employees, and
maintaining the temperature of streams released to the environment to minimize harmful
environmental impact.

While temperature is generally sensed by humans as “hot”, “neutral”, or “cold”, chemical

engineering requires precise, quantitative measurements of temperature in order to accurately
control a process. This is achieved through the use of temperature sensors, and temperature
regulators which process the signals they receive from sensorFrom a thermodynamics
perspective, temperature changes as a function of the average energy of molecular movement. As

9
heat is added to a system, molecular motion increases and the system experiences an increase in
temperature. It is difficult, however, to directly measure the energy of molecular movement, so
temperature sensors are generally designed to measure a property which changes in response to
temperature. The devices are then calibrated to traditional temperature scales using a standard
(i.e. the boiling point of water at known pressure). The following sections discuss the various
types of sensors and regulators.

INTRODUCTION OF PRESSURE SENSORS:

Fig;1.2

A pressure sensor is a device for pressure measurements of gases or liquids, Pressure is an

expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of
force per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transcedur; it generates a signal as
a function of the pressure imposed. For the purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.

Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications.
Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow,
speed, waterlevel, and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure
transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure
indicators, piezometers and manometers, among other names.

Pressure sensors can vary drastically in technology, design, performance, application

suitability and cost. A conservative estimate would be that there may be over 50 technologies
and at least 300 companies making pressure sensors worldwide.

10
 There is also a category of pressure sensors that are designed to measure in a dynamic mode
for capturing very high speed changes in pressure. Example applications for this type of sensor
would be in the measuring of combustion pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas turbine.
These sensors are commonly manufactured out of piezoelectric materials such as quartz.

Some pressure sensors are pressure switches, which turn on or off at a particular pressure. For
example, a water pump can be controlled by a pressure switch so that it starts when water is
released from the system, reducing the pressure in a reservoir.

INTRODUCTION TO OXYGEN SENSOR:

Fig;1.3

An oxygen sensor (or lambda sensor, where lambda refers to air-fuel equivalence ratio usually
denoted by λ) is an electronic device that measures the proportion of oxygen (O2) in the gas or
liquid being analysed.

It was developed by robertboschGmbh during the late 1960s under the supervision of Dr.
Günter Bauman. The original sensing element is made with a thimble-
shaped zironiacermic coated on both the exhaust and reference sides with a thin layer
of platinum and comes in both heated and unheated forms. The planar-style sensor entered the
market in 1990 and significantly reduced the mass of the ceramic sensing element, as well as
incorporating the heater within the ceramic structure.[1] This resulted in a sensor that started
sooner and responded faster.

11
 The most common application is to measure the exhaust-gas concentration of oxygen
for internal combustion engine in automobiles and other vehicles in order to calculate and, if
required, dynamically adjust the air-fuel ratio so that catalytic convertors can work optimally,
and also determine whether the converter is performing properly or not. divers also use a similar
device to measure the partial pressure of oxygen in their breathing gas

Scientists use oxygen sensors to measure resipiration or production of oxygen and use a
different approach. Oxygen sensors are used in oxygen analyzers, which find extensive use in
medical applications such as anesthesia monitors, resipators and oxygen concentrator so.

Oxygen sensors are also used in hypocix air fire prevention system to continuously monitor
the oxygen concentration inside the protected volumes.

There are many different ways of measuring oxygen. These include technologies such
as zirconia electrochemical (also known as galvanic},infrared.ultrasonic, paramagnetic, and very
recently, laser methods.

12
 Unit-2

Position sensor

Position Sensors detect the position of something which means that they are referenced either
to or from some fixed point or position. These types of sensors provide a positional feedback.

One method of determining a position is to use either distance which could be the distance
between two points such as the distance travelled or moved away from some fixed point or by
rotation (angular movement). For example, the rotation of a robots wheel to determine its
distance travelled along the ground. Either way, Position Sensors can detect the movement of an
object in a straight line using Linear Sensors or by its angular movement using Rotational
Sensors.

Fig;2.1

The Potentiometer

The most commonly used of all the “Position Sensors”, is the potentiometer because it is an
inexpensive and easy to use position sensor. It has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical shaft
that can be either angular (rotational) or linear (slider type) in its movement, and which causes
the resistance value between the wiper/slider and the two end connections to change giving an

13
electrical signal output that has a proportional relationship between the actual wiper position on
the resistive track and its resistance value. In other words, resistance is proportional to position.

Potentiometers come in a wide range of designs and sizes such as the commonly available round
rotational type or the longer and flat linear slider types. When used as a position sensor the
moveable object is connected directly to the rotational shaft or slider of the potentiometer.

Fig;2.2

Inductive Position Sensors

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

One type of positional sensor that does not suffer from mechanical wear problems is the
“Linear Variable Differential Transformer” or LVDT for short. This is an inductive type position
sensor which works on the same principle as the AC transformer that is used to measure
movement. It is a very accurate device for measuring linear displacement and whose output is
proportional to the position of its moveable core.

It basically consists of three coils wound on a hollow tube former, one forming the primary
coil and the other two coils forming identical secondaries connected electrically together in
series but 180o out of phase either side of the primary coil.

A moveable soft iron ferromagnetic core (sometimes called an “armature”) which is connected
to the object being measured, slides or moves up and down inside the tubular body of the LVDT.

14
 Fig;2.3

A small AC reference voltage called the “excitation signal” (2 – 20V rms, 2 – 20kHz) is
applied to the primary winding which in turn induces an EMF signal into the two adjacent
secondary windings (transformer principles).

If the soft iron magnetic core armature is exactly in the centre of the tube and the windings,
“null position”, the two induced emf’s in the two secondary windings cancel each other out as
they are 180o out of phase, so the resultant output voltage is zero. As the core is displaced
slightly to one side or the other from this null or zero position, the induced voltage in one of the
secondaries will be become greater than that of the other secondary and an output will be
produced.

The polarity of the output signal depends upon the direction and displacement of the moving
core. The greater the movement of the soft iron core from its central null position the greater will
be the resulting output signal. The result is a differential voltage output which varies linearly
with the cores position. Therefore, the output signal from this type of position sensor has both an

15
amplitude that is a linear function of the cores displacement and a polarity that indicates
direction of movement.

The phase of the output signal can be compared to the primary coil excitation phase enabling
suitable electronic circuits such as the AD592 LVDT Sensor Amplifier to know which half of the
coil the magnetic core is in and thereby know the direction of travel

Fig;2.4

The Linear Variable Differential Transformer

ldvt position sensor

When the armature is moved from one end to the other through the centre position the output
voltages changes from maximum to zero and back to maximum again but in the process changes
its phase angle by 180 deg’s. This enables the LVDT to produce an output AC signal whose
magnitude represents the amount of movement from the centre position and whose phase angle
represents the direction of movement of the core.

16
 A typical application of a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) sensor would be as a
pressure transducer, were the pressure being measured pushes against a diaphragm to produce a
force. The force is then converted into a readable voltage signal by the sensor.

Advantages of the linear variable differential transformer, or LVDT compared to a resistive

potentiometer are that its linearity, that is its voltage output to displacement is excellent, very
good accuracy, good resolution, high sensitivity as well as frictionless operation. They are also
sealed for use in hostile environments

Fig;2.5

Inductive Proximity Sensors.

Another type of inductive position sensor in common use is the Inductive Proximity Sensor
also called an Eddy current sensor. While they do not actually measure displacement or angular
rotation they are mainly used to detect the presence of an object in front of them or within a close
proximity, hence their name “proximity sensor”.

Proximity sensors, are non-contact position sensors that use a magnetic field for detection with
the simplest magnetic sensor being the reed switch. In an inductive sensor, a coil is wound
around an iron core within an electromagnetic field to form an inductive loop.

When a ferromagnetic material is placed within the eddy current field generated around the
inductive sensor, such as a ferromagnetic metal plate or metal screw, the inductance of the coil
changes significantly. The proximity sensors detection circuit detects this change producing an
output voltage. Therefore, inductive proximity sensors operate under the electrical principle of
Faraday’s law o11f inducance.

17
 UNIT -3
TEMPERATURE SENSORS
Temperature sensors are used in diverse applications such as food processing, HVAC
environmental control, medical devices, chemical handling and automotive under the hood
monitoring (e.g., coolant, air intake, cylinder head temperatures, etc.). Temperature sensors tend
to measure heat to ensure that a process is either; staying within a certain range, providing safe
use of that application, or meeting a mandatory condition when dealing with extreme heat,
hazards, or inaccessible measuring points.

There are two main flavour s: contact and noncontact temperature sensors. Contact sensors
include thermocouples and thermistors that touch the object they are to measure, and noncontact
sensors measure the thermal radiation a heat source releases to determine its temperature. The
latter group measures temperature from a distance and often are used in hazardous
environments.

Thermocouples
A thermocouple (TC) is a pair of junctions that are formed from two different and dissimilar
metals. One junction represents a reference temperature and the other junction is the temperature
to be measured. They work when a temperature difference causes a voltage (See beck effect) that
is temperature dependent, and that voltage is, in turn, converted into a temperature reading. TCs
are used because they are inexpensive, rugged, and reliable, do not require a battery, and can be
used over a wide temperature range. Thermocouples can achieve good performance up to
2,750°C and can even be used for short periods at temperatures up to 3,000°C and as low as –
250°C.

Strengths and challenges of thermocouples include:

They measure their own temperature.

The temperature of the object must be inferred, and the user must be sure there is no heat
flow between them.

18
 They are prone to temperature-reading mistakes after long use. Reasons? If insulation of
the wires loses resistance because of moisture or thermal conditions, or if there are
chemical, nuclear radiation, or mechanical interference in the environment.

They are electrical conductors so they cannot contact another source of electricity.

They do not measure at the junctions.

These devices react rapidly when compared with resistance thermometers.

Thermistors

Thermistors, like thermocouples, are also inexpensive, readily available, easy to use, and
adaptable temperature sensors. They are used, however, to take simple temperature
measurements rather than for high temperature applications. They are made of semiconductor
material with a resistivity that is especially sensitive to temperature. The resistance of a
thermistor decreases with increasing temperature so that when temperature changes, the
resistance change is predictable. They are widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature
sensors, self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements.

Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that (1) the material used for
RTDs is pure metal and (2) the temperature response of the two is different can be classified into
two types; depending on the sign of k (this function refers to the Steinhart-Hart Equation to
convert resistance to temperature in degrees Kelvin). If k is positive, the resistance increases with
increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) . If k is
negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) .

As an example of NTC , we will examine the GE Type MA series assemblies designed for
intermittent or continual patient temperature monitoring. This application demands repeatability
and fast response, especially when used with the care of infants and during general .

The MA300 (Figure 1) makes routine continuous patient temperature monitoring feasible by

19
using the convenience of the patient’s skin site as an indicator of body temperature. The stainless
steel housing used is suitable for both reusable and disposable applications, while maintaining
maximum patient comfort. Nominal resistance values of 2,252, 3,000, 5,000, and 10,000 Ω at
25°C are available

Fig;3.2

Resistance temperature detectors

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are temperature sensors with a resistor that changes
resistive value simultaneously with temperature changes. Accurate and known for repeatability
and stability, RTDs can be used with a wide temperature range from -50°C to 500°C for thin film
and -200°C to 850°C for the wire-wound variety.

TD Series temperature sensors respond rapidly to temperature changes (Figure 2) and are
accurate to ±0.7C° at 20C°—and are completely interchangeable without recalibration. They are
RTD (resistance temperature detector) sensors, and provide 8 Ω/c° sensitivity with inherently
near-linear outputs.

RTDs have a better accuracy than thermocouples as well as good interchange ability. They are
also stable over the long term. With such high-temperature capabilities, they are used often in

20
industrial settings. Stability is improved when RTDs are made of platinum, which is not affected
by corrosion or oxidation.

Infrared sensors

Infrared sensors are used to measure surface temperatures ranging from -70 to 1,000°C. They
convert thermal energy sent from an object in a wavelength range of 0.7 to 20 um into an
electrical signal that converts the signal for display in units of temperature after compensating for
any ambient temperature.

These sensors are used to measure temperature when:

Thermocouples or probes cannot be used.

If the target object is in motion (on rollers, moving machinery, conveyor belts).

If the target object is in a vacuum.

If there is a hazard such as high voltage.

If distances are great.

If temperatures are too high for contact sensors.

When a very fast response is required.

When selecting an infrared option, critical considerations include field of view (angle of vision),
emissivity (ratio of energy radiated by an object to the energy emitted by a perfect radiator at the
same temperature), spectral response, temperature range, and mounting.

A recently announced product, the ,Texas Instruments TMP006 (Figure 3) is an infrared

thermopile sensor in a chip-scale package. It is contactless and uses a thermopile to absorb the
infrared energy emitted from the object being measured and uses the corresponding change in
thermopile voltage to determine the object sensor voltage range is specified from –40° to 125°C

21
to enable use in a wide range of applications. Low power consumption along with low operating
voltage makes the part suitable for battery-powered applications. The low package height of the
chip-scale format enables standard high volume assembly methods, and can be useful where
limited spacing to the object being measured is available.

The use of either contact or noncontact sensors requires basic assumptions and inferences when
used to measure temperature. So it is important to read the data sheets carefully and make sure
you have an understanding of influencing factors so you will be confident that tactual
temperature is the same as the indicated temperature

Temperature Sensor Types

Temperature detection is the foundation for all advanced forms of temperature

control and compensation. The temperature detection circuit itself monitors ambient temperature.
It can then notify the system either of the actual temperature or, if the detection circuit is more
intelligent, when a temperature control event occurs. When a specific high temperature threshold
is exceeded, preventative action can be taken by the system to lower the temperature. An
example of this is turning on a fan.
Similarly, a temperature detection circuit can serve as the core of a temperature compensation
function. Consider a system such as liquid measuring equipment. Temperature, in this case,
directly affects the volume measured. By taking temperature into account, the system can
compensate for changing environment factors, enabling it to operate reliably and
consistently. There are four commonly used temperature sensor types:

22
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor

A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that exhibits a large, predictable, and precise
change in resistance correlated to variations in temperature. An NTC thermistor provides a very
high resistance at low temperatures. As temperature increases, the resistance drops quickly.
Because an NTC thermistor experiences such a large change in resistance per °C, small changes
in temperature are reflected very fast and with high accuracy (0.05 to 1.5 °C). Because of its
exponential nature, the output of an NTC thermistor requires linearization. The effective
operating range is -50 to 250 °C for glass encapsulated thermistors or 150°C for standard.

Fig;3.3

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

An RTD, also known as a resistance thermometer, measures temperature by correlating the

resistance of the RTD element with temperature. An RTD consists of a film or, for greater
accuracy, a wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The most accurate RTDs are made
using platinum but lower-cost RTDs can be made from nickel or copper. However, nickle and
copper are not as stable or repeatable. Platinum RTDs offer a fairly linear output that is highly
accurate (0.1 to 1 °C) across -200 to 600 °C. While providing the greatest accuracy, RTDs also
tend to be the most expensive of temperature sensors.

23
Thermocouple

This temperature sensor type consists of two wires of different metals connected at two points.
The varying voltage between these two points reflects proportional changes in
temperature. Thermocouples are nonlinear, requiring conversion when used for temperature
control and compensation, typically accomplished using a lookup table. Accuracy is low, from
0.5 °C to 5 °C. However, they operate across the widest temperature range, from -200 °C to
1750 °C.

Fig;3.4

Semiconductor-based sensors

A semiconductor-based temperature sensor is placed on integrated circuits (ICs). These sensors

are effectively two identical diodes with temperature-sensitive voltage vs current characteristics
that can be used to monitor changes in temperature. They offer a linear response but have the
lowest accuracy of the basic sensor types at 1 °C to 5 °C. They also have the slowest
responsiveness (5 s to 60 s) across the narrowest temperature range (-70 °C to 150 °C).

24
 Fig;3.6

Advantages of temperature sensor | thermocouple, RTD, thermistor, IC sensor

Following are the advantages of temperature sensor :

Thermocouple measures temperature in -200oC to +2500oC range, RTD measures in -200oC to

+850oC range, thermistor measures in -100oC to +260oC range and IC sensors measures in -45oC
to 150oC range.
(Advantages of thermocouple are): No external power required, simple and rugged in
construction, cheaper, support for wider temperature range etc.
(Advantages of RTD are ): More stable, higher accuracy, more linearity compare to
thermocouple
(Advantages of thermistor are): Higher output, faster in operation
(Advantages of IC sensor are): Highest output, cheaper, most linear than all types.

Disadvantages of temperature sensor | thermocouple, RTD, thermistor, IC sensor

(Disadvantages of RTD are ): Lower absolute resistance, expensive, current source needed, less
rugged compare to thermocouples etc.
(Disadvantages of thermistor are): Nonlinearity, limited support for temperature range, current

25
source needed, fragile, self heating etc.
(Disadvantages of IC sensor are): Power supply needed, slower in operation, self heating, limited
configurations, temperature upto 150oC etc. Following are the disadvantages of
temperaturesensor :
(Disadvantages of thermocouple are): Non linearity, least stability, Low voltage, Reference is
needed, least sensitivity etc.

Uses for a Temperature Sensor

Fig;3.7

Temperature sensors are used just about everywhere. There are in the homes we live in, the cars
we drive, the schools we learn in. They are even in planes, trains and boats. You will also find
them in all sorts of electrical appliances and electronic devices. Refrigerators, stoves, hot water
tanks as well as computers, GPS devices and battery chargers all have temperature sensors.
Today’s digital medical thermometers, which are used in hospitals and millions of homes every
day, all have a temperature sensor in them.

26
Oil Exploration

Today’s oil drills must drill far down into the earth in their search for oil. As they drill down
deep into the earth, through rocks and dirt, the temperature of the drill increases. Oil workers
worry that the oil drill’s bit will become too hot and break. To prevent that from happening,
these oil drill bits often have a temperature sensor built inside of them. When the temperature
reaches a dangerous level, that is, a level that could break the drill bit, the sensor sends an
electronic signal to the oil workers to stop drilling.

Radiator Overheating

Your car contains a radiator. In it is a temperature sensor. The reason it is there is to warn you if
the water that circulates in your engine becomes too hot. And that’s because if it does, your
engine could break and will require that you purchase a new one. The temperature sensor in your
radiator measures the temperature of the radiator to the temperature gauge in your car. As the
temperature of the water increases, the temperature sensor creates a larger electrical current to
flow. That current flow causes the needle of your temperature gauge to move further to the right.

Battery Chargers

Battery chargers are used to recharge all sorts of batteries, such as car batteries, flashlight
batteries and even batteries in your computer. However, battery chargers must be designed so
that they don’t overcharge your battery and also so they don’t undercharge your battery.

Because the amount of charge a battery can store varies with temperature, the battery charger
must know the battery’s temperature to determine when to stop charging and when to begin
charging. In these applications, the temperature sensor is used to turn on or turn off the battery
charger.

27
Hot Air Balloons

For hot air balloons to rise, the temperature of the helium gas that is inside of the balloon must be
above a prescribed level. If the temperature of the gas is below that level, the hot air balloon will
start to fall. If it is exactly at the prescribed level, it will neither rise nor fall. In order to control
the temperature of the helium hot air balloon, and hence to control whether the balloon rises or
falls, gas temperature sensors are used to find out the temperature of the helium gas in the hot air
balloon.

How the Temperature Sensor Works

On most vehicles, the coolant temperature sensor (CTS) can be found somewhere near the
engine thermostat, which allows it to function optimally. The tip of the CTS is probably located
right next to the engine coolant.
The sensor works by measuring the temperature that’s being given off by the thermostat and/or
the coolant itself. The temperature is then sent to the on-board control system. From there, your
vehicle’s computer will use this temperature information to either continue operating or adjust
certain engine functions, always working to keep the engine temperature at an ideal level.
As the control system receives the temperature from the CTS, it may trigger the cooling fan to
either shut off or turn on. Additionally, it may signal the need for a richer fuel mixture or open
the exhaust gas recirculation.

As with any other component in your car, the sensor can go bad over time and fall into disrepair.
This can cause a range of problems, including overheating the engine.
If you know where the engine sensor is and what it looks like, you can conduct a visual
inspection to see if it has developed any cracks or fissures. While this visual check can be

28
helpful, it won’t help you diagnose every possible problem as some sensor malfunctions can
present without visual evidence.
Generally speaking, if your sensor is not working, it will send a signal to the computer and your
Check Engine light will be illuminated. If you see the Check Engine sign light up, take your car
in for professional servicing right away.

Replacing the Car Temperature Sensor

The sensor will eventually need to be replaced altogether after time. If the engine sustains any
kind of trauma or damage, sensor replacement is always recommended because you don’t want
to risk running the vehicle with a faulty one. Even general wear and tear can cause the sensor to
erode over time.
You can always have your CTS replaced by an auto care professional. This a of preventative
maintenance can certainly save you some headaches and hassle in the long run.

29
 Unit-4

Torque sensor

A torque sensor, torque transducer or torque meter is a device for measuring and recording
the torque on a rotating system, such as an engine, crankshaft, gearbox,transmission, rotor,
a bicycle crank or cap torque tester. Static torque is relatively easy to measure. Dynamic torque,
on the other hand, is not easy to measure, since it generally requires transfer of some effect
(electric, hydraulic or magnetic) from the shaft being measured to a static system.

One way to achieve this is to condition the shaft or a member attached to the shaft with a series
of permanent magnetic domains The magnetic characteristics of these domains will vary
according to the applied torque, and thus can be measured using non-contact sensors.
Such magnetoelastic torque sensors are generally used for in-vehicle applications on racecars,
automobiles, aircraft, and hovercraft.

Commonly, torque sensors or torque transducers us strain gaugesapplied to a rotating shaft or

axle. With this method, a means to power the strain gauge bridge is necessary, as well as a means
to receive the signal from the rotating shaft. This can be accomplished using slip rings,
wireless telemetry, or rotary transformers. Newer types of torque transducers add conditioning
electronics and an A/D converter to the rotating shaft. Stator electronics then read the digital
signals and convert those signals to a high-level analog output signal, such as +/-10VDC.

A more recent development is the use of SAW devices attached to the shaft and remotely
interrogated. The strain on these tiny devices as the shaft flexes can be read remotely and output
without the need for attached electronics on the shaft. The probable first use in volume will be in
the automotive field as, of May 2009, Schott announced it has a SAW sensor package viable for
in vehicle uses.

Another way to measure torque is by way of twist angle measurement or phase shift
measurement, whereby the angle of twist resulting from applied torque is measured by using two
angular position sensors and measuring the phase angle between them. This technique is used in
the Allison T56 turboprop engine.

30
Finally, (as described within the abstract for US Patent 5257535), if the mechanical system
involves a right angle gearbox, then the axial reaction force experienced by the inputting
shaft/pinion can be related to the torque experienced by the output shaft(s). The axial input stress
must first be calibrated against the output torque. The input stress can be easily measured via
strain gauge measurement of the input pinion bearing housing. The output torque is easily
measured using a static torque meter.

Fig;4.1

Tpes of torque sensors

Dynamic Torques Sensors

There are two types of dynamic torques sensors; rotary torques sensors and non-contacting
torque sensors. Rotary Torques Sensors are commonly used in applications on rotating shafts.
Non-contacting torque sensors use magnetic or inductive technology to provide accurate

31
 measurements at high rotational speeds; they r long maintenance free operation as they do not
use wearing parts such as slip rings.

Applications which may use a Dynamic Torque sensor

Test set ups for precision mechanics

Engine test benches

Biomechanical movements in medical engineering

Screwing technology

Measuring drag torque of motors and pumps

fig;4.2

32
Static torque Sensors

Static torque sensors are well suited to industrial applications and fatigue testing. They offer long
term reliability as they have non-moving parts. Static Torque sensors are used in applications
where angular motion is limited and in-line torque measurements are required.

Applications which may use Static Torque Sensors

Test structures in precision mechanics

Determination of friction torques

Acquisition of breakage moments on screw caps

Measuring friction torque of bearings

Measuring the torque applied to vehicle control elements.

Fig;4.3

33
Applications for Torque Sensors and Transducers;

Torque sensors are transducers are used across the industrial sector for a range of applications
including;
Screwing technology.
Biometric movements in the medical engineering sector
Drag torque measurement in motors and pumps
Measuring friction on torque bearings
Torque application measurement to vehicle controls

Circular Shaft - Slip Ring-Style Torque Sensor

Designed over 40 years ago, slip ring-style torque sensors feature graphite brushes that make
contact with silver alloy slip rings. Figure 4.4 shows the schematic of circular shaft- slip ring-
style torque sensor.

Fig;4.4

The advantages of the slip ring-style torque sensor include

Low torque capacity at affordable price

Low inertia

High response times

34
 AC or DC excitation

Mounting options

The disadvantages of the slip ring-style torque sensor are as follows

Electrical brush noise

Brush maintenance and errors

Bearing maintenance

RPM limitations

Stiffness

Backlash or key imbalance

Circular Shaft - Rotary Transformers

The mechanism of circular shaft – rotary transformers is similar to that of the slip ring sensor.
However, they use rotary transformers rather than brushes and slip rings. One of the transformers
excites the torque sensor, while the other takes back the data.

Fig;4.5

35
 Fig;4.6

The advantages of circular shaft – rotary transformers include

Higher RPM ratings then slip rings

Mounting options

Low torque capacity ranges at a reasonable cost

Low inertia

Non-contact data transmission

The disadvantages of circular shaft – rotary transformers include

Vibration sensitive

Use of AC excitation source

Stiffness

Backlash and key imbalance

Electrical noise

Bearing maintenance and errors

36
 RPM limitations

Low response time

Circular shaft - clamp-on style torque sensors

Clamp-on style torque sensors are employed when an in-line torque sensor needs to be installed
without breaking the shaft. Figure 4.7 shows the schematic of clamp-on style torque sensors.

Fig;4.7

The main advantages of the clamp-on style torque sensor include

Higher RPM ratings

Low torque capacity ranges

Low cost for high torque ranges

The disadvantages of the clamp-on style torque sensor include

Requires mathematical calculations

Difficult to repeat

Low accuracy or high uncertainty

37
Analog telemetry torque sensor

Analog telemetry is an accurate and inexpensive sensor which has been available since the early
1990s. Figure 4.8 shows the schematic of analog telemetry torque sensor.

Fig;4.8

Schematic of analog telemetry torque sensor

The advantages of the analog telemetry torque sensor include

Weight and length

Low electrical noise

High RPM ratings

Low or virtually no backlash

Stiffness

Non-contact data transmission

The disadvantages of the analog telemetry torque sensor are

38
Susceptible to nearby metal objects

High inertia

Better but limited response times

Digital Telemetry Torque Sensor

Digital telemetry is the most suitable way of manufacturing torque sensors. Figure 4.9 shows the
schematic of digital telemetry torque sensor.

Fig;4.9

The advantages of the digital telemetry torque sensor include

High response times

Set up software available

May not be susceptible to nearby metal objects

Low electrical noise

39
 High RPM ratings

Low or virtually no backlash

High stiffness

Non-contact data transmission

The disadvantages of the digital telemetry torque sensor include

More data conversions

Lower capacity ranges are expensive

High inertia due to larger diameter

Dual-Range Torque Sensor

It is impossible to manufacture a true dual-range torque sensor. However, some digital torque
sensors use software which allows them to operate as a dual-range torque sensor. Figure 4.10
shows the schematic of dual-range torque sensor.

Fig;4.10

40
 UNIT 5

Sensors for Automotive Applications

Temperature sensing and control are among the most important and well-established functions in
automotive electronics. In automotive electronics they are found especially in climate control
and powertrain applications. In recent years we have introduced a great variety of new sensors
and sensor systems to the automotive market and continuously develop innovative products to
meet customers’ requirements. EPCOS sensors stand out for excellent measuring accuracy and
long-term stability. Advanced technologies allow cost-efficient and large-scale production of
reliable sensors. Thus, we are able to offer sensors overmolded with plastic or encapsulated in
specific materials for reliable use in adverse environments for a large range of temperatures.
They can be delivered in numerous shapes and with a wide variety of cable and connector
geometries. If standard types do not match the purpose – we can also supply application-specific
sensors with customized parameters. Our design centers and plants for sensor products – in
Berlin, Germany, Deutschlandsberg, Austria, Zhuhai, China, and Batam, Indonesia – are
certified to ISO 9001:2008, ISO/TS 16949:2009 and ISO 14001:2004. With our comprehensive
sensor portfolio we help automotive manufacturers make their products safer, more convenient
to use and more energy-efficient. This product brief can only present a selection of our
continuously growing portfolio of both temperature and pressure sensor products. In addition to
the presented temperature sensors, we also offer an extensive range of pressure sensors that are
suitable for automotive industry. For example, pressure sensors can be used to measure the
pressure of various media and thus support engine management and safety systems. Such sensors
are needed to achieve precise engine control for low fuel consumption and to enable exhaust gas
treatment for a reduction of harmful emissions

Climate ControlThermal management and automatic transmissions

Temperature sensors in xEV applications must cover a wide range of operating temperatures,
high shock resistance and vibrational strength, high reliability and long term stability – even
under harsh operating conditions. They are used to measure the temperature of the battery in both
cell and coolant as well as motor and transmission oils. For these applications EPCOS offers

41
sensors with a high temperature range up to 250 °C and with different mounting solutions to
meet a wide variety of demands

Temperature sensors are vital to a variety of everyday products. For example, household ovens,
refrigerators, and thermostats all rely on temperature maintenance and control in order to
function properly. Temperature control also has applications in chemical engineering. Examples
of this include maintaining the temperature of a chemical reactor at the ideal set-point,
monitoring the temperature of a possible runaway reaction to ensure the safety of employees, and
maintaining the temperature of streams released to the environment to minimize harmful
environmental impact. While temperature is generally sensed by humans as “hot”, “neutral”, or
“cold”, chemical engineering requires precise, quantitative measurements of temperature in order
to accurately control a process. This is achieved through the use of temperature sensors, and
temperature regulators which process the signals they receive from sensors. From a
thermodynamics perspective, temperature changes as a function of the average energy of
molecular movement. As heat is added to a system, molecular motion increases and the system
experiences an increase in temperature. It is difficult, however, to directly measure the energy of
molecular movement, so temperature sensors are generally designed to measure a property which
changes in response to temperature. The devices are then calibrated to traditional temperature
scales using a standard (i.e. the boiling point of water at known pressure). The following sections
discuss the various
types of sensors and
regulators.

Fig;5.1

42
Temperature Sensors

Temperature sensors are devices used to measure the temperature of a medium. There are
2 kinds on temperature sensors: 1) contact sensors and 2) noncontact sensors. However, the 3
main types are thermometers, resistance temperature detectors, and thermocouples. All three of
these sensors measure a physical property (i.e. volume of a liquid, current through a wire), which
changes as a function of temperature. In addition to the 3 main types of temperature sensors,
there are numerous other temperature sensors available for use

Contact Sensors

Contact temperature sensors measure the temperature of the object to which the sensor is
in contact by assuming or knowing that the two (sensor and the object) are in thermal
equilibrium, in other words, there is no heat flow between them. Examples (further description of
each example provide below)

Thermocouples

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

Full System Thermometers

Bimetallic Thermometers

Noncontact Sensors

Most commercial and scientific noncontact temperature sensors measure the thermal
radiant power of the Infrared or Optical radiation received from a known or calculated area on its
surface or volume within it. An example of noncontact temperature sensors is a pyrometer,
which is described into further detail at the bottom of this section.

Thermometers

Thermometers are the most common temperature sensors encountered in simple,

everyday measurements of temperature. Two examples of thermometers are the Filled System
and Bimetal thermometers

43
Filled System Thermometer

The familiar liquid thermometer consists of a liquid enclosed in a tube. The volume of the
fluid changes as a function of temperature. Increased molecular movement with increasing
temperature causes the fluid to expand and move along calibrated markings on the side of the
tube. The fluid should have a relatively large thermal expansion coefficient so that small changes
in temperature will result in detectable changes in volume. A common tube material is glass and
a common fluid is alcohol. Mercury used to be a more common fluid until its toxicity was
realized. Although the filled-system thermometer is the simplest and cheapest way to measure
temperature, its accuracy is limited by the calibration marks along the tube length. Because filled
system thermometers are read visually and don’t produce electrical signals, it is difficult to
implement them in process controls that rely heavily on electrical and computerized control.

Bimetal Thermometer

In the bimetal thermometer, two metals (commonly steel and copper) with different
thermal expansion coefficients are fixed to one another with rivets or by welding. As the
temperature of the strip increases, the metal with the higher thermal expansion coefficients
expands to a greater degree, causing stress in the materials and a deflection in the strip. The
amount of this deflection is a function of temperature. The temperature ranges for which these
thermometers can be used is limited by the range over which the metals have significantly
different thermal expansion coefficients. Bimetallic strips are often wound into coils and placed
in thermostats. The moving end of the strip is an electrical contact, which transmits the
temperature thermostat

Resistance Temperature Detectors

A second commonly used temperature sensor is the resistance temperature detector

(RTD, also known as resistance thermometer). Unlike filled system thermometers, the RTD
provides an electrical means of temperature measurement, thus making it more convenient for
use with a computerized system. An RTD utilizes the relationship between electrical resistance
and temperature, which may either be linear or nonlinear. RTDs are traditionally used for their
high accuracy and precision. However, at high temperatures (above 700°C) they become very
inaccurate due to degradation of the outer sheath, which contains the thermometer. Therefore,

44
RTD usage is preferred at lower temperature ranges, where they are the most accurate. There are
two main types of RTDs, the traditional RTD and the thermistor. Traditional RTDs use metallic
sensing elements that result in a linear relationship between temperature and resistance. As the
temperature of the metal increases, increased random molecular movement impedes the flow of
electrons. The increased resistance is measured as a reduced current through the metal for a fixed
voltage applied. The thermistor uses a semiconductor sensor, which gives a power function
relationship between temperature and resistance.

RTD Structure

The RTD contains an outer sheath to prevent contamination from the surrounding
medium. Ideally, this sheath is composed of material that efficiently conducts heat to the resistor,
but resists degradation from heat or the surrounding medium. The resistance sensor itself is
responsible for the temperature measurement, as shown in the diagram. Sensors are most
commonly composed of metals, such as platinum, nickel, or copper. The material chosen for the
sensor determines the range of temperatures in which the RTD could be used. For example,
platinum sensors, the most common type of resistor, have a range of approximately -200°C –
800°C. (A sample of the temperature ranges and resistances for the most common resistor metals
is shown in Table 1). Connected to the sensor are two insulated connection leads. These leads
continue to complete the resistor circuit

There are 4 major categories of RTD sensors. There are carbon resistors, film
thermometers, wire-wound thermometers and coil elements. Carbon resisters are the most
commonly used. They are inexpensive and are accurate for low temperatures. They also are not
affected by hysteresis or strain gauge effects. They are commonly used by researchers. Film
thermometers have a very thin layer of metal, often platinum, on a plate. This layer is very small,
on the micrometer scale. These thermometers have different strain gauge effects based on what
the metal and plate are composed of. There are also stability problems that are dependent on the
components used. In wire-wound thermometers the coil gives stability to the measurement. A
larger diameter of the coil adds stability, but it also increases the amount the wire can expand
which increases strain and drift. They have very good accuracy over a large temperature range.
Coil elements are similar to wire-wound thermometers and have generally replaced them in all

45
industrial applications. The coil is allowed to expand over large temperature ranges while still
giving support. This allows for a large temperature range while decreasing the drift.

RTD Operation

Most traditional RTD operation is based upon a linear relationship between resistance
and temperature, where the resistance increases with temperature. For this reason, most RTDs
are made of platinum, which is linear over a greater range of temperatures and is resistant to
corrosion. However, when determining a resistor material, factors such as temperature range,
temperature sensitivity, response time, and durability should all be taken into consideration.
Different materials have different ranges for each of these characteristics. The principle behind
RTDs is based upon the Callendar – Van Dusen equation shown below, which relates the
electrical resistance to the temperature in °C. This equation is merely a generic polynomial that
takes form based upon experimental data from the specific RTD. This equation usually takes on
a linear form since the coefficients of the higher-order variables (a2, a3, etc.) are relatively small.
RT: Resistance at temperature T, in ohms R0: Resistance at temperature = 0°C, in ohms an:
Material’s resistance constant, in °Cn − 1 Another type of RTD is the thermistor, which operates
based upon an exponential relationship between electrical resistance and temperature.
Thermistors are primarily composed of semiconductors, and are usually used as fuses, or current-
limiting devices. Thermistors have high thermal sensitivity but low temperature measuring
ranges and are extremely non-linear. Instead of the Calendar - Van Dusen equation, the
thermistor operates based upon the nonlinear equation, equation (2), shown in degrees K. T0:
Initial temperature, usually set at 298K b: Material's temperature coefficient of resistance, in K
Errors associated with resistance thermometers will occur due to the individual or collective
efforts of: defective insulation, contamination of the resistor, or insecure lead wire connections.

Thermocouples

Another temperature sensor often used in industry is the thermocouple. Among the
various temperature sensors available, the thermocouple is the most widely used sensor. Similar
to the RTD, the thermocouple provides an electrical measurement of temperature

46
Thermocouple Structure

The thermocouple has a long, slender, rod-like shape, which allows it to be conveniently
placed in small, tight places that would otherwise be difficult to reach. A schematic diagram of a
typical thermocouple the thermocouple contains an outer sheath, or thermowell. The thermowell
protects the contents of the thermocouple from mechanical and chemical damage. Within the
thermowell lies two metal wires each consisting of different metals. Various combinations of
materials are possible for these metal wires. Three common thermocouple material combinations
used for moderate temperature measurements are the Platinum-Rhodium, Iron-Constantan, and
Chromel-Alumel metal alloys. The metal alloys chosen for a thermocouple is based upon the emf
value of the alloy pair at a given temperature. Sample emf values for the most common materials
at various temperatures are shown in Table 2. For a given pair of materials, the two wires are
connected at one end to form a junction. At the other end, the two wires are connected to a
voltage measuring device. These ends of the wires are held at a different reference temperature.

Various methods are used to maintain the reference temperature at a known, constant
temperature. One method consists of placement of the reference junction within either an ice
bath or oven maintained at a constant temperature. More commonly, the reference temperature is
maintained electronically. Though not as stable as an ice bath, electronically controlled reference
temperatures are more convenient for use. Reference temperatures could also be maintained
through temperature compensation and zone boxes, which are regions of uniform temperature.
The voltage difference across the reference junction is measured and sent to a computer, which
then calculates the temperature with this data.

Thermocouple Operation

The main principle upon which the thermocouple function is based on is the difference in
the conductivities of the two wire materials that the thermocouple is made of, at a given
temperature. This conductivity difference increases at higher temperatures and conversely, the
conductivity difference decreases at lower temperatures. This disparity results in the
thermocouples being more efficient and useful at higher temperatures. Since the conductivity
difference is small at lower temperatures and thus more difficult to detect, they are inefficient
and highly unreliable at low temperatures. The conductivity difference between the two wires,

47
along with a temperature difference between the two junctions, creates an electrical current that
flows through the thermocouple. The first junction point, which is the point at which the two
wires are connected, is placed within the medium whose temperature is being measured. The
second junction point is constantly held at a known reference temperature. When the temperature
of the medium differs from the reference temperature, a current flows through the circuit. The
strength of this current is based upon the temperature of the medium, the reference temperature,
and the materials of the metal wires. Since the reference temperature and materials are known,
the temperature of the medium can be determined from the current strength. Error associated
with the thermocouple occurs at lower temperatures due to the difficulty in detecting a difference
in conductivities. Therefore, thermocouples are more commonly used at higher temperatures
(above -125°C) because it is easier to detect differences in conductivities. Thermocouples are
operable over a wide range of temperatures, from -200°C to 2320°C, which indicates its
robustness and vast applications. Thermocouples operate over this wide range of temperatures,
without needing a battery as a power source. It should be noted that, the wire insulation might
wear out over time by heavy use, thus requiring periodical checks and maintenance to preserve
the accuracy of the thermocouple. To determine the temperature of the medium from the current
strength, the emf or voltage values of the current and of the wire materials at the reference
temperatures must be known. Often, the measured temperature can be found by using standard
thermocouple tables. However, these tables are often referenced at 0°C. To correct for this
different reference temperature, equation (3) can be used to calculate the temperature from a
given current.

Application

Steel industry

Monitor temperature and chemistry throughout the steel making process Heating
appliance safety

Thermocouples in fail-safe mode are used in ovens and water heaters to detect if pilot
flame is burning to prevent fire and health hazard Manufacturing

Used for testing prototype electrical and mechanical apparatus Process plants

48
 Chemical production plants and refineries use computer programs to view the
temperature at various locations. For this situation, a number of thermocouple leads are brought
to a common reference block.

Pyrometers

Unlike the thermometer, RTD and the thermocouple, pyrometers (non-contact

temperature sensors) measures the amount of heat radiated, rather than the amount of heat
conducted and convected to the sensor. Various types of pyrometers, such as total radiation and
photoelectric pyrometers, exist. Below is a schematic of an optical pyrometer

These pyrometers differ in the type of radiation they measure. There are many factors
that influence the amount of radiated heat detected, thus there are many assumptions that must be
made regarding the emissivity, or the measure of the manner in which heat is radiated, of the
object. These assumptions are based upon the manner in which heat is radiated as well as the
geometry of the object. Because temperature is dependent on the emissivity of a body, these
assumptions regarding the emissivity introduce uncertainties and inaccuracies in the temperature
readings. Therefore, because of the error associated with them, pyrometers are not often used in
industry

49
 UNIT-6
CONCLUSION
Current sensor development is tending toward increased complexity in sensor systems. The
greater flexibility and lower production cost associated with advanced, integrated electronic
technology allows computer processing that once required large and sophisticated signal
processing systems to be reduced to a microelectronic chip; for example, smart sensors have
transduction, signal amplification, filtering, and other processing on a single substrate. However,
from the perspective of the end user, the sensor system now appears simpler even with its
increased functionality and internal complexity.

The principal technical drivers for sensor development may come from enabling/supporting
technologies other than materials technology. Most recent advances in sensors have not
originated from the synthesis of new transduction materials (except perhaps for chemical
sensors) but from innovations in low-cost, large-scale manufacturing of interconnections,
microelectronics, and micromachining. Many advanced sensor techniques, such as photon-
scattering and laser acoustic technologies, require materials developments to support particular
implementations, not the sensor transducer.

Networking of large sensor systems can provide improved spatial and temporal sampling in low-
cost, low-maintenance systems. A network of sensors distributed throughout a large structure can
provide data to a central processor that monitors performance or aids in locating and
characterizing structural defects. In other cases, such as chemical sensing, the individual outputs
from an array of sensitive but only moderately selective transducers can provide a composite
indication that is both sensitive and selective with regard to a target chemical species.

Sensor research and development lends itself to dual use and commercialization efforts. Sensors
are an enabling technology, applicable to a wide spectrum of uses. To be effective, it requires
identification of potential uses and assessment of the degree of suitability. For example, sensor
systems developed for structural health monitoring of an aging military aircraft or for other
vehicle monitoring applications can be exploited in some form by the commercial aircraft and
automotive industries. Chemical sensors used for detection of chemical warfare agents have
numerous possible non-DoD applications in areas such as environmental and health monitoring.
Also, infrared sensors, traditionally developed for military applications such as reconnaissance,

are finding uses in materials manufacture, intrusion detection, and chemical detection systems as
they become affordable.

Few programs have existed to develop sensors solely for the sake of advancing sensor
technology. Historically, sensor research and development efforts have been funded as an
adjunct to large application programs that required sensors. A concentrated effort to support the
advancement of sensors and the development of new or improved sensor materials will require
50
implementation of an effective research planning process that addresses the needs of a broad set
of users with related applications.

There is a need for a generally accepted framework to describe both sensor application
requirements and sensor performance capabilities. The establishment of a common set of
descriptors for use by sensor users and suppliers and for researchers in the diverse disciplines
associated with sensor development was identified by the committee as the most important step
in facilitating the identification of sensor materials R&D opportunities and in accelerating the
development and use of advanced sensor technologies.

Experience in establishing centers of excellence for sensor development provides useful

guidelines for improving sensor R&D strategy. Four characteristics appear to be essential: a
multidisciplinary approach with emphasis on teamwork; capabilities ranging from an initial
proof of concept, exploratory and developmental research through engineering prototypes; focus
on selected sensor technologies for a broadly defined range of applications in line with the core
competencies of the organization (i.e., not attempting to cover the entire field of sensor
technology and the associated diversity of sensor materials); and strong linkage to industry to
guide the general relevance of the research.

51
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. RAJPUTR.K,2015,”A TEXT BOOK OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING ,’LAKSHMI

PUBLICATIONS, BANGALORE
2. BABU AK. SHERMA SC,2018, “AUTOMOBILE MECHANICS,”KANNA
PUBLISHING, DELHI

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