Laplace Transforms

Definition 2. Step Function

The Laplace transform of a function, f(t), is defined as The unit step function is widely used in the analysis of process
control problems. It is defined as:

where F(s) is the symbol for the Laplace transform, L is the

Laplace transform operator, and f(t) is some function of time, t. Because the step function is a special case of a “constant”
Note: The L operator transforms a time domain function f(t)
into an s domain function, F(s).

Inverse Laplace Transform, L-1: 3. Derivatives

The inverse Laplace transform operator, L-1,
converts an s-domain function back to the corresponding time

domain function:
Similarly, for higher order derivatives:

Important Properties:
Both L and L-1 are linear operators. Thus,

where:
where: - x(t) and y(t) are arbitrary functions
- n is an arbitrary positive integer
- a and b are constants

Similarly,
Special Case: All Initial Conditions are Zero

Suppose ,
Laplace Transforms of Common
Functions
1. Constant function Then
Let f(t) = a (a constant).
4. Exponential Functions Transfer Functions
A. Relate _________ input to _____________ output.
Consider where b > 0. Then B. Represent an _________________ relationship in s domain.
C. Can be _________________ to give the total system behavior.
D. Convenient to use with ____________ diagrams.
E. Require initial conditions to be _____________. (use _________
variables)
F. Additive property (_______ process)

5. Rectangular Pulse Function

It is defined by:

G. Multiplicative property (_______ process)

H. _______________ is the limit of G(s) as s approaches 0 (for a unit
step change) when the ____________ exists
I. Find the gain for the following transfer functions:

Response of First Order Systems

The Laplace transform of the rectangular pulse is given by

6. Impulse Function (or Dirac Delta Function)

The impulse function is obtained by taking the limit of the
rectangular pulse as its width, tw, goes to zero but holding the First Order Functions
area under the pulse constant at one. • Time Domain

• Laplace Domain
Input Functions (i.e., X(s)) Response to Sine Wave

Time Delays (ϴ)

In time domain:
• Replace t with (t-ϴ) and multiply by S(t-ϴ)

Response to Step
In Laplace domain
• Multiply by e-ϴs

Second Order Systems

Standard Form

Response to Ramp Corresponding Differential Equation

Origins of Second Order Equations

1. Multiple Capacity Systems in Series

become
 Response of 2nd Order Systems to Step Input ( 0 < ζ < 1)

2.Controlled Systems
3. Inherently Second Order Systems
• Mechanical systems and some sensors
• Not that common in chemical process control
Examination of the Characteristic Equation

Response of 2nd Order System to Step Inputs

Overdamped Sluggish, no
oscillations
Critically Faster than
damped overdamped, no
oscillation
Underdamped Fast, oscillations occur

Ways to describe underdamped responses:

• Rise time
• Time to first peak
• Settling time
• Overshoot
• Decay ratio
• Period of oscillation
Relationships between OS, DR, P and τ, ζ for step input to 2nd
order system, underdamped solution

INTERPRETING BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Block Diagram: a pictorial representation of functions performed by
Response of 2nd Order System to Sinusoidal Input each component of a system and that of flow of signals.
Each block is characterized by an input–output description as
• Output is also oscillatory shown in the figure below.
• Output has a different amplitude than the input
• Amplitude ratio is a function of ζ, τ
• Output is phase shifted from the input
• Frequency ω must be in radians/time!!!
(2πradians = 1 cycle)
• P = time/cycle = 1/(ν), 2πν= ω, so P = 2π/ω
(where ν= frequency in cycles/time)

Block diagram is consisting of blocks, arrows, take (pick) off points

and/or summing points.
Basic Elements of a Block Diagram Reference Input R(s): is an external signal applied to a feedback
control system to command a specified action of the plant. It often
represents ideal plant output behavior.
Controlled Output C(s): is that quantity or condition of the plant
which is controlled.
Actuating Signal E(s): also called the error or control action, is the
algebraic sum consisting of the reference input R (s) plus or minus
(usually minus) the primary feedback B(s).
Manipulated Variable M(s): (control signal) is that quantity or
condition which the control elements G1(s) apply to the plant G2(s).
Disturbance U(s): is an undesired input signal which affects the value
of the controlled output C(s). It may enter the plant by summation with
M (s), or via an intermediate point, as shown in the block diagram of
the figure above.
Forward Path: is the transmission path from the actuating signal E(s)
Components of a Block Diagram to the output C(s).
Feedback Path: is the transmission path from the output C(s) to the
feedback signal B(s).
Summing Point: A circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a
summing point. The (+) or (−) sign at each arrowhead indicates
whether that signal is to be added or subtracted.
Branch (pick/take off) Point: A branch point is a point from which the
signal from a block goes concurrently to other blocks or summing
points.

Block diagram of a closed‐loop system with a feedback element

Plant: A physical object to be controlled. The Plant G2(s), is the

controlled system, of which a quantity or condition is to be controlled.
Feedback Control System (Closed‐ loop Control System): A
system which compares output to some reference input and keeps
output as close as possible to this reference.
Open‐ loop Control System: Output of the system is not feedback to
the system.
Control Element G1(s): also called the controller, are the components
required to generate the appropriate control signal M (s) applied to the
plant.
Feedback Element H(s): is the component required to establish the Definitions:
functional relationship between the primary feedback signal B (s) and G(s) = Direct transfer function =Forward transfer function
the controlled output C(s). H(s) = Feedback transfer function
G(s) H(s) = Open-loop transfer function
C(s)/R(s) = Closed-loop transfer function = Control ratio
C(s)/E(s) = Feed-forward transfer function

Block Diagrams & Their Simplification

The Characteristic equation of the system is defined as an

equation obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the
transfer function to zero.
- The Characteristic equation for the above system is: 1 + G(s)H(s) =
0

BLOCK DIAGRAM SIMPLIFICATIONS

Table 2: Basic rules with block diagram transformation

Multiple‐Inputs cases
For a linear system, we can apply the superposition principle to solve this
type of problems, i.e. to treat each input one at a time while setting all other
inputs to zeros, and then algebraically add all the outputs as follows:
1. Set all inputs to zero except one
2. Transform the block diagram to solvable form
3. Find the output response due to the chosen input action alone
4. Repeat Steps 1 to 3 for each of the remaining inputs
5. Algebraically sum all the output responses obtained in Step 3