Tenth Edition TN ie ATAU Donnell HuntTenth Edition Farm Power and Machinery Management Donnell Hunt of Ulin (WAVELAND)For information about this book, contact, ‘Waveland Press, Inc 4180 IL Route 83, Suite 101 Long Grove, IL. 60047-9380 (847) 634-0081 [email protected] \warw.waveland.com Copyright © 2001 by Domell Hunt Reissued 2008 by Waveland Press, Ine Vo-digit ISBN 1-57766-573-2 13aligit ISBN 978-1-57766-573-1 All rights reserved. No past of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher Printed in the United States of America 765432CONTENTS 0. vi Preface Acknowledgments Economic Performance 1 Machine Performance 2. Power Performance Operator Performance Costs 4 Cost Determination Operations 5. 6 10 UI 12 1B 14, Tillage Seedbed Preparation Cultivation |. Seeding Machines Chemical Application Grain Harvesting Forage Harvesting Ferm Processing Materials Handling Special Crop Machines Power ‘The Farm Tractor Equipment Selection 16 11 18, Machinery Selection Power Selection Used Equipment Laboratory Exercises Appendices Answers and New Problems IndexPREFACE Farm Machinery Management is the section of farm management that deals with the optimization of the equipment phases of agricultural production. It is con- cerned with the efficient selection, operation, repair and maintenance, and re~ placement of machinery. As North American agricalture hes developed, it has become increasingly dependent on mechanization, With the technology available today, one farm provides the food and fiber needs of 128 people. Additionally, these farmis exported more than 25% of the total value of the production of com, wheat, and soybeans, Such performance would be impossible without augmenting human strength and energy with farm machinery. The costs of owning and operating machinery is often exceeded only by the cost of lind use. A typical Com Belt grain farm, 400 ha [1000 a}, can have machinery (no labor) costs of $200¥ha [$80/a]. Machinery investment costs can be $I200/ha [S500/a}. Potentially, there is opportunity to improve farm profits by reducing machinery costs. The measure of the worth of a management decision is assumed to be dollar profit, While it is recognized that many farmers use personal preference, comfort, and convenience as deciding factors in machinery management, such emotional responses ate ignored in this presentation unless there is an apparent economic benefit. The philosophy adopted is that a farm is 2 factory that markets several products, and the management goal is to maximize profits. The machines on the farm are merely tools of production and have costs that subtract from gross income. But present and future concerns for the environment and for conservation of natural ‘ause activity for farm machinery that may not be strietly economic. In 1997 more than 13,000,000 ha [33,000,000 a] were enrolled in U.S. government conservation programs, The objectives of this textbook are to analyze the factors thet comprise machinery management, to explain the function of the various machines and mechanisms as they affect economic operation, and to indicate approaches and procedures for making managementdecisions, Farm machinery operation pracicesare ever changing andare ralated to both the crop and the geographic area, Ibis impractical 9 complesely cover the subject in a textbook. It is hoped that instructors using this text can augment the book with material specitic for students’ needs. ‘An understanding of agricultural practices, college algebra, and trigonometry should he adequate preparation for using this text. Concepts of economics and physics are developed as needed. Metric units are used to conform with policy pronounced by the Congress Customary units are retained in brackets following the SI (Systeme Internationale d°Unites) units since it is anticipated that people engaged in agriculture will be using both systems. Units such as litres, kilomedtes per hour, hectares, and revol= lions per minute are not recommended by SI but are used because of their particu-lar utiliy for machinery management. The units have been chosen to reflect the precision of the measure- ment. For cxample, tillage depth is reported in centimetres since a field measurement can seldom be determined more closely than a whole centimetre. 4. description of the SI system of units, abbreviations, and a table of c Appendix J The subject matter may be of direct value oaly to mmon conversions is inckaded in the present oF potential farm operator or farm man- ager. However, the management principles and the machinery operating details should be useful to stu dents preparing for careers in agricultural educa Gon, agricultural mechanization, oragricultural busi nicss and lo the agricultural engineer who might serve as a machinery manager on a large commercial farm, Students of machinery management ee encouraged to procure and study the many excellent informational sales brochures produced by the equipment manufactures that are available at dealerships, Detailed explanations and illustations, wsually in color show the equipment in much greater detail than can be included in this text ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A compilation of machinery management fects would be impossible without the cooperation of many farm equipment companies, governmental bodies, andtech- nical associations who have supplied data and illus- trations, Thi e groups contributed information for this volume. Acrovent Fan and Equip. Co. Ag Leader Technology Agco Corporation ASAE (American Society of Agricultural Engineers) Behlen Manufacturing Co. Robert Bosch, Ine Burch Plow Co, Campbell Industries, Ine, Cane Machinery and Engineering Co. Case IH Caterpillar, {ne Century Engineering Corp. Deere and Co, Delco Remy Dis:, General Motors Corp. Bver-Tite Manufacturing Co. Farmhand, Ine Flexi-Coil FMS/Hervest Gandy Co, Geki Co. Great Plains Manu Herd Co, Hypro Div. Lear Sigler John Blue Co., Ine, Kuhn Farm Machinery, Lt suring, Ine LML Corp. M & W Gear Co, Nebraska Tractor Test Laboratory New Holland North America Ine. Portable Elevator Prairie Agricultural Machinery Inst Schumacher Company, LC ‘The Snow Co. Society of Automotive Engineers Spraying Systems Co. ‘Texico Ine! Tire and Rim Association Transland Aircraft Vegors Enterprises US. Department of Agriculture US. Internal Revenue ServicePart ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE Optimum farm machinery management occurs when the economic performance Of the total machine system has been maximized. Admittedly many farm machines ‘re operated for tradition’s sake, for pleasure, and even for Uerapeutic valve however, the successful commercial farm, composed as it is of many enterprises for which machines are only tools of production, will operate its machinery in a businesslike manner 1o produce goods at a profit. The performaace of a machine system is profitable only when it can add value to products and processes beyond the system's cost of operation, A minimum cost ‘would appear to be an optimum economtic goal, but overall profit maximization is the true goal of business and on the farm this does not necessarily cccur with @ minimum cost system of operations. Profit for the total business should also be Foremost at the individual machine level, ‘This may dictate that an individual ma- chine operate at other than its possible minimum cost, Good machinery manage: ment, then, requires that the idjusted and combined in @ manner so tht their overall performance returns the sreatest profit to the farm business The economic performance of a machinery system is measured in terms of dollars per unit of output, Examples are $120 machinery cost/ha of corn har: vested, $40/1 of soybeans grown, 75e/ky of beef marketed, ete. (See Appendix L for abbreviations of units) In these terms maximum system performance occurs when the production cost per unit is lowest Jividual operations in a machine system must be ‘The three components of economic perfirmance 1, Machine performance 2. Power performance 3. Operator performance “ * as if there Sometimes these items are referred to inaccurately as existed an ultimate value on which some fractional performance could be based. It2 Part Performance should be manifest that zero cost is the only theoreti cal limit to the potential economic performance of ine systems, and there is no way to express thy efficiency of a machine system in percentages since the output-input ratio is in terms of economic mec sures to physical Faciors The dimensional units of machine, power, and Ine bor performances are in quantity per time. These three performance figures add to become an economic per formance figure when the quantity per time is die vided into the cost per time of each component. For example, a machine system produces St of forage/tir with a machine cost of $10/hr. The systems requires, 1.5 work-hours and 1.1 tractor-hours at $8 and respectively. The economic performance of the sys tem is: S10 the | $81.5 = SHO the SS br St hr 94 See Laboratory Exercise 1, Problem Solving, to become familiar with the unit factor procedure for ‘making calculations. Hardware, energy, and human labor and manage- ‘ment are the components of farm machinery systems ‘The economic performance of these components are ‘examined in the next three sections.Chapter MACHINE PERFORMANCE Measures of agricultural machine performance are the rate and quality at which the operations are accomplished. Rate is an important measure because few inus- tries require such timely operations as agriculture with its sensitivity to season and to bad weather. Completeness is that portion of quality describing a machine’s ability to operate without wasted product. As most agricultural materials are frag ile and many are perishable, the amount of product damage or reduction in prod uct quality due to a machine’s operation is another important measure of machine performance, Farm operators are very aware of the need for complete and speedy ‘operations but they often ignore the economic penalties resulting from crop and soil damage. Quality as well as quantity must be considered when evaluating ma- chine performance. A rate of machine performance is reported in terms of quantity per time. Most agricultural field machine performance is reported as area per hour, Harvesting ‘machine performance is sometimes quoted as bushels per hour; quintals per hour; tons or tonnes per hour; and in the case of balers, bales per hour. Processing equipment performance is usually expressed as bushels or tonnes per hour. Such led machine capacity performance figures are properly Capacities Cape, wien expressed onl as reper Svein uss: note alien calor ofa sachin’ rus peormanee, particularly with havea ing machines, Dt Feseacetin‘cropiyiel4 ed crop condos can mea that oon wishing may hae4 Part! Economie Performance low area per hour capacity but a high mass per hour capacity when compured with an identical machine in & different field, In this case a valid comparative capacity would be mass per bout The concepts of weight and mass must be under stood for confidence in expressing machine capaci ties and crop yields in both customary and SI units ‘Mass is to be thought of as the substance of a body that resists acceleration and isattracted to the mass of the earth. A body will accel idly toward the center of the earth unless restrained. Tais restraining force is equal to the body’s weight The relationship between mass and weight is f= mac where F = force acting on the body, 1m =mass of the body. and sulting acceleration in units of distancels When the acceleration is caused by the earth's grav tational attraction, the term, ac, is labeled ard the force, f, is called weight. At sea level, g is consilered to be 32.2 fis in customary units and 9.807 m/s? in SI units. The value of g decreases slightly with eb evation above sea level Unless measured with a beam balance seales, the weight of a body will vary at different places over the earth; therefore, the SI system uses mass units rather than weight units for measuring quantities of agricultural proxiuets, Kilograms, quintals (100 kg), aand tonnes (1000 ke—also megagram) are common ‘commercial trade units. These masses are commonly determined, however, by measuring their weights. Balance beam scales (no springs) are to be used for legal trade, ‘The customary system traditionally determined grain quantities with a volume term, the bushel. In recent years the bushel has come io mean a quantity Of produce weighing a designated number of pounds depending on the crop and its moisure content. Some produce and most forages are measured in hundred weight, cwt (100 Ih in the United States, 112 Ib in England), aad intons, T (2000 lin the United States, 2240 Ib in England) ‘Combines, potato harvesters, and similar machines that separate desired material from undesirable ma: terial need aspecial capacity comparison term. Rather than a report on the weight of material harvested, the weight of material hangled is the proper capacity measure. The tem throughput has come to mean the time rate of processing a total mass of material through a machine. As an example, the kilograms per hour throughput of a combine is assumed to include the total mass of grain, chaff, straw, and weeds that enter the header, Even throughput is not always a constant base for comparison, as it varies with crop moisture conditions. Throughput capacity ratings should be ac companied by a material moisture report Calculations of machine capacity involve measur ing areas or masses and umes, The computations are y if attention is paid to units. The units for area in this text are hectares, abbreviated as ha. and acres, abbreviated as a. Asan example ease, throe types of machine eapscity are computed below —field capacity, material c ity, and throughput capacity rinined that a Sem [164-fl] widdh-of-cut combine is traveling 1.5 m/s [4.9 fils] In one minute's time 50kg [110 Ib} of grain are collected in the grain tank and 60 kg [132 Ib] of material are discharged ut of the rear of the machine Wis det Machine Capacities 1. Field capacity ha _LSm Sm) Tha 10,000? Thr wos oat a 6008 BS00 hr bros 2. Material eapacity sooo 8t — SOke 60min hr min” br 6609 18 = HOW, 60min "min hr 3. Throughput capacity 160 min (6 “Chemin T000Ke hr 7067 2atIb, 1 60min ein” 2001S ar The capacities just cakulated are dheoretical ca pacities as distinguished irom effective capacities. Itis usually impossible to operate machines continu- ously or t their rated width of action; therefore, their effective or actual capacities will be substantially less than their theoretical or potential capacities, Time Efficiency ‘Time efficiency is « percentage reporting the ratio of the time a machine is effectively operating 10 the ‘otal time the machine is committed to the operation Any time the machine is not actually processing the field is counted as time waste, Rather strict defini- tions are required as to what should really be counted as time waste chargeable against the machine. The following list describes the time elements that in- volve labor, that are associated with typical field op- erations, and that should beincluded when computing, the capacities or costs of machinery related to the various farm enterprises, 1. Machine preparation time at the farmstead (in- cludes removal from and preparation for storage, also shop work) 2.Travel time to and from the field 3. Machine preparation time in the field both before and after operations (includes daily servicing, preparation for towing, ete.) 4. Theoretical field time (the time the machine is ‘operating in the crop atan optimum forward speed and performing over its full wicth of action) 5.Turning time and time crossing grass waterways (machine mechanisms are operating) 6. Time to load or unload the machine's containers not done on-the-20 7.Machine adjustment time if not done on-the-go (includes unplugging) 8. Maintenance time (refueling, lubrication, chain tightening, ete. if not done on-the-go—does not include daily servicing) 9. Repair time (the time spent in the field to replace or renew parts that have become inoperative) 10, Operator’s personal time Notallof these time elements ere commonly charged against machine operations. The operator’s personal time, 10, is a highly variable quantity and is usually unrelated fo the operating efficiency of the machine; consequently, tis often ignored as atime waste charged against the machine. Similarly, 1, 2, and 3 are often excluded from consideration. The remaining elements, 449, are the items included in the term field efficiency. Specifically, field efficiency is the ratio ofthe time in 4 to the total time spent in the field (4-9). Field efficiencies are not constant values for specific ma- chines but vary widely. Table 1.1 tists the ranges for some of the common farm machines. TABLE 1.1, Range In Typical Flela Ettciencies and implement Operating Speeds Operating Speeds ‘Operation Equipment id iiciences, © ———_kewbe (MPH Tillage tnokiboard plow 68-74 Biss disk harrow 0-77 B7-621 1§-00K oF apike-ooth Narrow B71 field cultivator, chise! plow B73] ‘Cutivaion row crop cukivater (19-3. roary toe 9.20 (36-124) Seeding row planter with Fever (3-621 rin dnl with fetizer [0-621 broadcaster [43-62 potato planter 13) Harvesting ‘mower-conditioner (30-5.5) rate 7-561 baler, rectangular [30-6.21 baler round 5:19 (30.13.0) fonage harvester, shea bat 6-10 (37-63) combine 38 (19:50) corn picker 36 [19-37] ‘winarower,swather o-10 [87-02 potato harvester 36 (19-371 Eton, spindle picker 8319-31) ‘Miscetineows Sprayer T3621 anhydrous ammoria applicator G7s61 roury sak chopper, mower 137-61 fertilizer spreader yrighted ma Chapter 1 Perlormance6 Part! Economic Performance With a field efficiency established, an equation for effective Field capacity can be determined: Swe ap effective eapaeity, havi [aftr] speed, kewl [mifhe] rated width of implement, m {it} jeld efficiency as a decimal constant, 10 [8.25] Because traditional land measure is not expected to change, American farmers may be faced with op- eraling metric machines in fields haying areas ex pressedin acres. An approximate equation in the same forn as Eq, 1.1 gives the customary capacity of a mesric machine as athe = Sw ef. ‘An expression for effective material capacity can be derived from Eq. 1.1 by incorporating @ yield per I this term should be ‘area term in the num toms per hectare, the machine capacity will be ex: pressed in tons per hour, etc. aa where M y = yield, unisvarea naterial capacity, unitshr The suggested time increment in the St system is thesecond, and elocitiesare fo he reported as metres per second. However, farm machine speeds have tre ditionally been reported on an hourly basis as in the ‘customary unit, miles per hour, itis anticipated that the hour unit will persist as the more practical unit for agriculture and thus the field speeds reported in this book will be kilometres per hour. To calculate speeds in metres per second, the kilometres per hour speed is divided by 3.6. ‘A more precise mathematical statement of field ca pacity for normally operated machines (without break- downs or unexpected stoppages} can be developed ‘without reference to such an all-inclusive and general term as field efficiency. Eq, 1.3 applies when only turning time, swath overlap, andstch area-related times as filling seed boxes, unloading grain tanks, or ute hitching yieid-collecting wagons detract from machine performance, A rectangular field with headlands is assumed, Swhey (DL4DSwLE, +(e2)St aay where CS, w have the same units a in Bq 1.1 E, = effective swath coverage, decimal of rated width unproductive time, heft [fa length of field, m (ft) uraiag time, stuen constant, {0 (8.25) constant, 2.778 (12.1) D L © As can be intuitively deduced, Eq, 1.3 shows that fields, quick tums, wide machines, fast speeds, hort loading and unloading times all contribute h machine capacities. Factors alfecting field eft . Theoretical capacity of the machine Machine maneuverability Field pa Field shape eld size Yield (if a harvesting operation) Soil and crop conditions System imitations exaneppe Each of these factors is discussed in tur, Theoretical Capacity Field efficieney decreases with increases in theo- retical capacity. One can feel intuitively that a minute wasted with a large machine represents more loss in potential production than the same minute lost with & smaller miachine, An example case was the study by K. K, Barnes, T: W. Casselman, and D.C. Link Cowa State University). They found that increasingthe width of a 4row implement by 50% will increase the ef fective field eapocities by only 35% fo: and by only 40% for cultivators. Field capicity of an implement also depends on ity travel speed, and one can expect a drop in field efficiency when the implement’s operating speed is eased. Increased field speeds will decrease the actual working time required but if the time losses remain essentially the same, mathematically the field efficiency will be less, Such a result suggests that as far as speed considerations go, itis not good man- agement to try 10 maximize field efficiency—i.c., one should not use slow speeds to keep the aumerical value of field efficiency high. As high field and ma- terial capacities are possible with fast ground speeds, the good operator will test and judge the crop and soil conditions and then operate as fast as possible ‘orn planterswithout having the quality of the operation suffer to any great extent, Field speeds may be limited by any of the Follow- ing factors: 1, Overloading the machine's functional units 2. Inability of the operator to steer the machine ac- curately 3. Loss of funtion and structural damage to then chine due to rough ground surface 4. Need fo handle materials gently (slowly) Machine Maneuverability Farm machines need to be easily maneuvered both in the field and on the road to the field, Field ma- chines need 10 be designed to permit them to make shor! turns at the ends of the field and while follow- ing crop rows planted on the contour and in curves, Considerable time and space are required to turn Jarge machines at a headland (Fig. 1.1). Yet the total field turning time for large machines is slightly less than for smaller machines if the large machine can negotiate a turn within the same multiple or fraction of its width as the smaller machine, because the large machine makes fewer turns than the smaller machine in equivalent Fields, The turning radius of implements is an important Factor affecting the time lost in end travel and at cor- ners. The automotive and farm equipment industries generally define turning radius as the radius of the circle within which the vehicle can make its shortest turn, Such a definition really reports the radius of the path of an extreme part of the vehicle, R, and usually does not describe the outer radius, 1, of the Fig. 141. Mancuversbilty is important for efficient use of large machines. machine’s working head (as illustrated for a self propelled combine in Fig. 1.3) In this presentation the term suming radius will refer to the outer radius of the effective path of the implement when in its sharpest turn, and it shall be designated r with the implement engaged and r, with the implement disengaged. The Former is usually sub- stantially larger than the latter. The radius, r, | of most concern to the machine operator in irregular or contoured fields, The radius, r, may be greater than R for a row planter if the effective width of the planter is wider than its frame, or it may be much less as in the ease of a side- ‘mounted tracior mower. Square Corners Few tillage or seeding machines can make square tums. With most cutter bar mowers the tuming radius is short enough to permit square corners. The suc~ ceeding raking, windrowing, and baling operations, however, ususlly follow a rounded comer pattern Trailed harvesters can make an essentially square comer if the hitch will clear the tractor wheels in a tight turn, Fig. 1.2 indicates the paths of various points of a tractor and a trailed, offset harvester as they negotiate a corner. This diagram assumes that the op erator can start the turn by instantly pivoting the trac- ‘or about its right rear wheel; hold this pivot until impending fouling oceurs between the tire and the Jimplemeat tongue, point A: continue the turn from point A to point B holding a near-rub position be- tween the tite and tongue; pivot about the left rear wheel of the tractor from points B to C; and then continue in a straight line at right angles from the original direction of travel. For the implement shown, the tun must start about 06 m [2 fi] before the cut- ‘er bar cuts out of the crop. Note that the corner re- maining is not exactly square and a small area is missed by the left divider of the cutter bar, Also note thatthe tractor front wheels are driven to the edge of the sanding crop at B and as the outer edge of the cutter bar swings from A to C it will back over a portion of the uncut crop. Diagrams such as Fig. 1.2 and [.3 are about the only way of predicting the turning ability of farm implements. One may assume that turns are applied instantly, Such an assumption is not unrealistic for slow-moving implements and implements equipped with quick-acting power steering, Fach part ofan implement ina tur instantaneously rotates about a common point called a turning center. 7 Chapter 1 Performance8 Port Economie Performance The location of this turning center may change quite rapidly as the turn progresses. In Fig. 1.2 the turning center for the implement at the start of its tarn is, located by the intersection of a line along the implement’s axle and a line from the pivot point of the tractor through the drawbar pin. As the turn progresses to point A the turning center gradually moves to the left It goesof the diagram and goes to infinity when the drawkar pin is about halfway to point X. As the turn progresses farther the turning center comes from infinity on the right and is located at point X, when the drawhae pin is at point X, From points A t0 B the tractor and implement have a fixed angular arrangement, consequently, the turing cer- ter is a fixed point at the intersection of lines along theaxkes of the tractor and the implement. This Fixed turing center is located approximately at the posi- tion of the left end of the cutter bar when it First starts the turn, When the tuming center is not fixed, very small incremental plottings of the position of the points of interest are necessary to obtain accuracy, The loc tions of these points are determined by compass arcs from the instantaneous turning center and the arbi- tracily advanced position of a significant point. Ia Fig. 1.2 the drawbar pin was used as the significant point from which all other points were determined. Self-propelled (SP) implements, particularly those with rear wheel steering, have some unique turning problems, Some self-propelled windrowers have the ability 10 pivot about the midpoint of their drive ax- les, as the direction of retation of their drive wheels cca be reversed. A square comer is easily produced, Self-propelled combines with a minima taming ra- dling equal to 1. 1Stheir widih of action are not capable oF maintaining a square comer, as shown in Fig. 1.3. The paths of the left and right divider points of the cutter bar are indicated by heavy, dark lines. (It is assumed that any partof the crap bracketed by these points will be harvested.) Avter the combine has cut through the comer of the crop and pivoted until the divider points areat points A and A, the operator must instantly turn therear wheels ai points wanda from fall right to full left. The remainder of the turn is accomplished hold- ingthe left divideralong the edge ofthe standing grain while the right divider pivots into the standing grain, Even with 5.0 an extreme maneuver the cutter bar is tunable to assume a full-width cut until itis beyond point C. On the next round the combine will have to proceed the additional distance x before making the pivot anal will be short by the distance 2y of taking the required wieth of cut atthe new point C. Consequently, the corner becomes progressively sharyer exch round and aditional time will be required when finishing the field ‘A compacison of the time fost between the 31/2. rad [270°] left turn and the 7/2-rad [90°] right turn shows that the a/2-rad [90°] torn of Fig. 1.3 will be the most efficient. As given in the development of Eq. 1.13, the unproductive distance traveled by the ‘outside divider point for a 37/2-rad [270°] tuen is 2, = w+ 3n/2f,, The same distance fer the r/2-tad [90°] tum is w+» + (o-l)y + Rr, where n equals the num- ber of the round. As in Fig. 1.3 where ty = 1-15w, the distance for the 3n/2-rad [270°] tum becomes 6.7 and for the 1/2-rad [90°] turn becomes 4.84W whenn= 2, x= 0.2w, and y = 0.03w. Ifthe travel speeds for the two turns are essentially the same, one could make approximately 64 rounds before the time for the /2-rad (90°) turn would be as much as that for the 3n/2-rad [270°] ft turn. At such a time only three or four extra passes would be required to even, up the corner. Remember that the x and y distances, in Fig. 1.3 are the shortest possible. Ifthe operator is, tunable to produce a turning radius of 1.15w, the effi- ciency for the 1/2-rad [90°] tum will descend to that of the 3n/2-rad [270°] tur, Carved rows and fields planted on contour lines sestrict machine use. Fig. 1-4 shows a vehicle with wheel spacings twice the row spacing, s, negotiating a curve keeping a clearance, c, between the row and the center of the wheel. The vehicle wheelbase, L, must be no greater than (s! + 2 Rs ~ 2s - 4Ro)"® to make thecurve successfully. Tractors or self-propelled implements with tricycle configuration are slightly more adept in these turns ‘Transport of machines over roads should be rapid, convenient, and safe. Some wide implements are made more mancuverable by folding 10 smaller widths (Fig. 1.5). Very large and heavy implements use thetractor’s hydraulic power to do the folding. Other designs re- adjust the hitch to permit tailing wide implements in a lengthwise manner (Fig. 7.3). Fig. 1.4. Limiting-rew curvature for vehicle with 26 wheel spacing 8 Chapter 1 Machine Performance Fig. 15. Implement folded for transport. Fig. 18. Twolve-hattom malihoard plow's width reduced by one-third for rosd travelaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CONTINUOUS. TURN STRIPS AT EACH END) CORNERS GRGUITOUS, TUAN STRIPS AT CORNER DIAGONALS | i HEADLAND PATTERN, ROW BOUNDARIES HEADLAND PATTERN, FROM BACK FURROW GRGUITOUS, 270° TURNS FROM BOUNDARIES OR CENTER PATTERN, STRAGHT ALTERATION PATTERN, Fig. 17. Common fold machine rattome for rectangular Field GREUTOUS, SOUARE CORNERS. Chapter Performance12 Part Economie Performance Headland Pattern Laying out the most efficient namber of lands for the headland pattern is a common plowing problem, If the lands are made too large, excessive headland travel results, Ifthe lands are made too small, exees- sive time is used to finish off the numerous dead furrows. Maximum efficieney will lie somewhere be- tween these extremes, ‘The variables 1o be considered are effective width of plow, m [ft] length of furrow, 19 [11] speed of plowing, knv/ar [MPH] elfectivespeed of headland travel, knvbr [MPH] width of feld, m [ft] length of field, [tt conscant, 1000 [5280] f s s x L 1t is assumed that both back-furrowed and dead- furrowed lands are of equal size and one additional trip across the field is required to finish a deal-fur- rowed land. (Finishing a land includes plowing some of the sil back into the exposed furrow to partially level the soil surface.) The procedure for a 2-back: furrowed Field or a 3-land field is illustrated in Fig, 18. As shown, the back-furowed lands have heen completed and the dead-furrowed land remains. Computation of pattern efficiency (PE) requires the ealeulation of time spent for plowing, for idle travel, and for finishing the dead furrows. The time required or plowing the headlands is not considered in the determination of number of lands, as this time constant regardless of the number of lands used. Fig. 18, Headland pattrn, Average headland travel is Wi6 for 2-back-furrowed, Slane pattern. Number of kick furrowed lands = n, number of dead furrowed lands =~ 1, and total number oF lands Qn ‘Time in hours for one tip (aso time to finish a dead furrow) =!) S,] Number of tips to complete lands = Wh Total hours for plowing lands = f Wi[(c3) 8, ¥] Average distance for turning one en of land = width With of land = Wi2a— 1 12 and w Average time for turninzend =————" * en Fas, oval turning time for lands = 22a-DDS w aw 3)8, w PE for Jandy =————S"75, iW W DE + (DS,w* 2n-1)€3)S.w ” Rearranging, the pattern efficiency (PE) fer Une lands becomes (4n-2) OVS, G-DIWS + WS, +40 PE = —6n+2) WS, aay ‘The last term in the denominator of Eq. 1.4 may be omitied with an error of less than 2% for n= but the error rises rapidly if'n is greater than 10, A plot of Eg, 1.4 for the example values is shown in Fig, |.9 where length of the plowed land is f. The peak efficiency for this field of 12 ha [29.65 al ap. pears to be zbaut 5 hack furrows or 9 lands, Rather than plotting a curve for each field situa tion, the optimum number of lands, as specified by the number of back furrows, can be expressed by Eq, 1.5. (See Appentix B.) — [ws, "Vans, ad Using Fa, 1.5 on the example data in Fig. 1.9 asives the optimum number of back furrows as 5.24, ‘Yer, because of the fatness of the curve near its peak,little loss in pattern efficiency exists with signifi- cant Variation in the number of back-Turrowed lands. Eg, 1.6 gives the range in back fuse permissible reduetion in pattern ef where the new symbols are ni, = double answer defining the range Z = scceplable field efficiency. less than the ‘optimum In the example date of Fig. 1.9, the pattern effi- ciency is optimum at n = 5.24 and is computed to be approximately 0.95. If a 2% drop in efficiency is, accepable, then Z = 0.93 and the range in the num- her of back-furrowed lands is 3.0-10 according to Eg, 1.6. For this example itis seen that the number of lands is not critical if the extreme values are avoided. Excessive wheel traffic on the soil in the headlands, especially near the ends of the back fur rows, can be considered at this point. The upper end of the range should be used if seil compaction is, troublesome. An easier computation is for the optimum width of the lands, Eg. 17. Genormor reso avon | OWING SPEED - 6.4 xn / 0 END TRMEL SPEED~ Bim /mr Fig. 19. Headland plowing pattem efficioney as funetion af number of lands For the daia in Fig, 1.9, the optimum land wideh is found by Eq. 1.7 to be about 32 m, This width needs to be adjusted slightly to 38 m so thata whole umber of lands, 9, will be scheduled. On the other hand, 32 m is exactly 16 trips by the plow. The best management scheme would hay plow trips in-@ whole number of lands ‘One-way oriented iniplements other than moldboard plows, such as side-mounted cutterbar mowersandof- set pull-type harvesters, can be modeled with some modification by Eg, 1.5 and 1.6. For tarvesting imple ments there is no dead-furrow finishing time, but ex- awhole number of iratime (and erop damage) may occur 28 the land are ‘opened with the initial travel to break-through the standing crop. [fone can equate the extra time to break through t that gained by not requiring a finish trip, Bg, 1.5, 16, and 1,7 ate applicable without modifica tion, In such an instance, 2 is the number of break- throughs required. Headland patterns are also used for self-propelled machines, The width of the lands is determined by the lengths ofan easy turn on the headland! an is shown i Fig.1.7 as an overlapping alternation pattern To enable comparisons of patterns, the time for plowing the headhinds must be added to Eq. 1.4. The headlands arereally 2 additional lans and are treated as back-furrowed lands with the average end travel equal to (1/2XL -f)/2. Since the idle travel distance is small, the end travel speed might be slowerthaa the assumed headland travel speed S, wpw aw Plowing time to finish headland (Let Total time turningat headland ends=—"——* FIs, Adding these two items to Eq. 1.4, the complete pattern efficicney, PE, becomes Us) Circuitous Pattern, Diagonal Tum Strips The circuitous pattern with diagonal turn strips is, another popular putter for plowing. For proper op- eration the turn strips must be exaet biseetors of the 0 Chapter + Machine Performance4 Part Economic Performence square corners of the field. A strip equal to the width of the turn strips, s, is let in the center and is fin- ished with the turn strips. It is assumed that turni speed. finishing speed, and plowing speed are equal. The total plowing time for this pattern is com- puted by dividing the width of the plow, w, into the net ares of the field to get a total furrow distance: mirisigsne (1 total time lost in turns= @) time towurn 6 tura strip ends “Jee ait anaywi time to finish dead furrows (3S, LW pe=—___-W____ LW 2s W-s/2 +1828 wW wl i) Itis assumed thatthe turn strip, s, will be a whole multiple of w to avoid inefficient finishing wavel. The time to lay out the diagonal turn strips is omit- ted. ‘These turn strips should be marked off with a shallow furrow before starting to plow the field. Po- tentially, the time for this marking process is about the same as the dead-furrow finishing time. Continuous Pattorn The efficiency of the continuous pattern depends greatly on quick turns at the headlands. E. S. Renoll (Auburn University) suggests that headlands should be smooth and wide enough to permit an easy turn in a few seconds. Narrow headlands will increase the turning time if the forward speed musi be slowed to accomplish short turns, but they will require less time to process when field operations are being concluded. ‘A headiand of 2w width provides adequate room for high-speed turns yer limits finishing travel to two passes. Wide maneuverable machines can usually make @ pivot tum on a headland (Fig, 1.1). Unlike other ve- hicles, farm tractors and self-propelled implements have individual wheel brakes toassist in making sharp turns The time loss for a continuous pattera, using a two-way plow, involves only the turning time, t, at the headland, Since this turn requires little travel and may involve stopping and backing, the time loss is best expressed as secondsperturn. The headlands are finished in a continuous pattern also. route trig (Wott) LW ‘Tota time for plowing = EW Pane (3) (1.10) Lw LW #35, (W +L = 173600 Notice that the pattern efficiency is not affected by the width of the plow, w. Cirouitous Pattern, Rounded Corners, ‘The circuitous patern would appear to have the preatest field effici acy as the operation is continu ous (Fig. 110). However, an unprocessed, crescent- shaped area is left at each turn, Fig. 1.11 illustrates dk Fig. 1.10. Aeral view of continuous feld patternaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.6 Port Performance 0.414, an extra pass is required before continuing round 5 from this comer, Note that the extra passes rust staet their curvature a distance of 2.42w prior to the previous point where curvature commenced. The extra puss will overlap some portion of the pre- ious round except atthe center ofthe crescent where the full width of the implement will be utilized ‘The time wasted in the circuitous rounde pattern will be considered to be only that lost in mak: ing the extra passes at the comers. If the implement |s capable of a shorter turning radius when disen- gaged, 2s with a moldboard plow, the time for extra passes may be shortened. Pig. 1.12 indicates 4 as a short turning radius with the implement disengaged. Assuming theavetage speed of travel fortheextra pass is S,, te total time lost for W/2-rad [90°] corners equals ‘The pattem efficiency for the rounded comer pat tern is approximated by Faq. 1.12. L Lehi radberow PE (1.12) Circuitous Pattern, 31/2-rad [270*}Turns The circuitous patiern with 31/2-rad [270°] turns js usually started at the center of a land when plow ing so that the turns will be on unplowed rather than plowed ground. As faras field effiieney is concerned it is immaterial where the operation commences if ‘one assumes that turning on the plowed ground is as Fast as on unplowed ground, Fig. 1.13 shows the geometry of a 32/2. turn, pad [270°] : Time fora turn =| 2) -w+2Qn) 9-45 (c3)8, Inthe e S, isthe speed of the outermost part of the width of action. Itshould be realized thai the aver age speed ofthe implement is less than S, The pattera efficiency for the 37/2-rad [270°] tum patter is given by Bq. 1.13 PE, D (1.13) Obviously some additional time will be required to locate the position and length of the initial back furrow. While these times are not included in Ea 1.13, adequete time spent initially will reduce the finishing time at the edges of the field. This pattern is good plowin, tous types that throw soil away from the center ofthe field. Table 1.2 compares the plowing patiern el cies for a square field of 16 ha [40 a] in area, Pat- terns thet require the leastturning time exhibit higher field efficiencies. The alternation pattern and the cit~ ccuitous pattern with square corners are omitted as they do not apply to moldboard plowing. The con tinvous pattern cin be realized for moidbourd plow ing with a two-way plow Tillage implements other than mokdboard plowsmake Zod use ofthe continuous pattern if their turning radi are no greater than the effeetive width of the imple ment, Good use is also made of the rounded comer, circuitous pattern as the extra pass problem occurring in plowing may be replaced with diagonal finishingtips, Wit these implements the efficiency for the rounded comer pattem can be greater than for plowing. The ‘only wasted time is that spent finishing the diagonals where previously processed ground is reworked. (Fig. LU) with the circu = Fig. 1.13, Geometry of 21 /2-rae [2704 turns y= 20TABLE 1.2, Plowing Pattern Comparisons, Square Fields Patten EF] [Cireniows S= 10m [28 A) ua | Siagonal | tara strips | sitcus—«niPzal (90)] comers io rounded f= 3m (98 i ai Foo m [126 8 Ciresiwous y= 6m (196 so J None i= W = 00 on (1312S, = 6 eS MPU nd Row crops may be planted in any of the plowing patterns, but the continuous partern is most used be= cause of the need to supply the planter at the head lands and because the rows are commonly spaced from 4 boundary. Ifthe rounded corner pattern is used for planting, the pattern efficiency is 100%, but the missed crescent-shaped areas will reduce the effec tive area of the field Both row erop cultivation and harvesting patterns erdent on the prior planting pattern, The alter- natien patterns ae possible only with tractor-mounted or self-propelled equipment and continuous or head- lands planting patterns. ‘The alternation pattern effi can surpass other types of headland patterns ‘when the easier tuen permitted hy processing altemate sets of rows resulls in ess time for turning. When the yield of a field is lange, consideration for the problems in harvesting should override plant ing pattern considerations. Ideally the harvesting pat- tern should be such that the first half of the travel is, away from the Field gate an! the Last half toward the sate. Thus each binful or wagon load is released at a point requiring the least field travel for transporta- tion equipment ‘One: cotimam harvesting patern follows planting patterns that use « headland. IF the size of the field and the crop yield are balanced, the harvester makes, a whole aumber ef rounds per unloading and always, empties 2 full load on the headland nearest the gate Such ideal conditions are rare For lage fields. consideration should be given to dividing the fields into lands. For example, if com is yielding 8 uh [127 buval,a4-row eon combine with & 1.64 [63-bu} grain tank is filled after only 500 m {1640 ft] of travel, Lands 250 m [820 ft] in length are needed, Fig. 1.14 illustrates the division of a field into hinds of efficent length, Tae turn strips may be left open, planted to an carly mturing crop, o planted to the main erop and harvested first. An allerrative to dividing the fields into nds isto we larger wagons snr use extension sides on the grain tank “The circuitous pattern with diagonal tum strips should not be overlooked és a possible planting pat tern for row crops because of its potential benefits for harvesting. After the diagonal torn strips are har vested the field is opened to effective wse af trans- port equipment. The harvesting stars in the center of the Feld, The trarspor equipment is thus able to go to the center of the field and proceed directly to & meet with the harvester, Such a pattern eliminates traveling around the Feld tothe fr se to pick up & load. which is a 1 in 4 chance if harvesting starts fromthe boundary, Crops having high tonnage yields suet as silage crops and sugar beets wall prcit mo: from this patern For solidly planted erops such as small grains and hay crops the circuitous pattern with square corners is worked from the outside in. The ability to keep the TTATTH | || | | HHH i Fig. 114. Fiold divided by turn stip to improve harvesting pattern efficiancy. | i i | Chapter 1 Performance8 Part Economic Performance comers square is of prime importance in keeping the patiern efficiency high: etherwise, the field will not finish oat evenly and extra time will be spent in pro- cessing the odd-shaped areas remaining. Id Shape ‘The field efficiency for irregularly shaped fields is expected to be significantly less than for reetangu- Jar fields because of excessive turing ume. Even it thefrregular fields are straight sided the ratio of tan. ing time to operating time will be high. All the patterns illustrated in Fig. 17 a patterns for plowing irregul ossible fields, The continuous patiern used with a two-way plow has the greatest efficiency for contour work and other irregular shapes. If the headlands panern is used, the head Janils should be selected to be as perpendicular o the back furrows as possible. The 3n/2-rad [270°] cireui- tous type pattern is almost impossible to start from thecenter of an irregular field, but the pattern can he used if started from the boundaries. The actual de- ress of turn will probably range widely oneach side of 3n/2-rad [270°] Figure 1.15 indicates a combination of the turn strip and rounded comer patterns for mold board plowing a very irregular field. This pattem follows principles listed here that were established by Leo “ity, Lowa) in 1922. 1, When comersare more than t/2-rad [90°]. a rounded comer pattem s followed and maintained unless the sharpens to less than r/2-rad [90°] as in the lower right-hand corner of Fig. 1.15, where upon a turn strip is established. Fig. 1.15. Turn strip plowing patern for inegular fio 2. Uniformewidth tum strips are marked off with « shallow plow Furrow cn each side of the bisector of the comer angles. In comers where the angles The mail adiress is P.O. Box 1050, Humboldt, Saskatchewan, SOK 2A0 Canada, An annual PAMI subscription entitles one to the Institute's publications. Current subscription fees are $20 for Canadian residents outside Manitoba and Saskatchewan and $25 Canadian for U.S, residents, Caution should be observed when applying thend results of machinery tests to specific farm situations a Bl ‘There are wide variations in erops andl soils and some Traneck a ‘ariations between individual machines of the some Mochine 3 ‘model, But intelligent use of test results such as those Performance from PAMI help reduce the uncertainty facing ma- LA_A_ A chinery managers when they seek to select machines, ELAPSED TIME (s) for field work. 2 ‘The USDA National Tillage Machinery Labora- tory at Aubum, Alabama, is a facility for research and performance testing of tillage implements, trac- tion, and transportdevices. Much ofthe workis done with an instrumented test car on rails that straddles large bins containing soils ranging from sand to pre- dominately clay. Tests of full-sized tillage tooling (plows, disks, etc.) and of traction devices, such as the crawler tracks in Fig. 1.23, have influenced trac- tor and implement design since 1936. Pro POWER (KW) FEED MATE (in) Fig. 122. Rectangular baler power measurements by PAM TABLE 1.4. Mechanical History PAMI est of Rectangular Baler SE f ‘Operating Equivalent tem ‘Hours Bales Drive taia ‘tp clutch began 10 slip ‘excessively. readjusted to specifications at 58: 887,580; 11.900 Feeder carriage rller-to-track tw specifications a o 8.840 Lost feeder carriage roller ap replaced at 9 ‘Sle play on feeder carriage became excessive, slime aed to side wear blocks at of 12,660 Plunger Bent plunger face extension straightened at s 690 replaced at 2 5.160 Phinger and knife-to-knite clearanses checked and adjusted to specications a 2 5,160 ‘Broken left twin 690 ‘Broken hale chute chain sugport bracket replaced at 1 13,460 Cracked bale chute frame at base of 5,460 Copyrighted material