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Deepak Jawale

Stationary Waves

Stationary Waves : When two identical progressive waves (i.e. waves having same amplitude,
same period and same wavelength) travelling through medium along same path but in exactly
opposite directions, interfere with each other then resultant wave formed is called as stationary
wave or standing wave.
e.g. When progressive wave is incident normally on the surface of denser medium, it is
reflected from the surface. Incident and reflected waves are exactly identical. When these waves
interfere, stationary waves are produced.

Stationary waves are of two types :-

1) Transverse Stationary Waves :- These waves are produced due to interference of two
identical transverse progressive waves travelling along same path but in exactly opposite
directions.
2) Longitudinal Stationary Waves :- These waves are produced due to interference of two
identical longitudinal progressive waves travelling along same path but in exactly
opposite directions.

Theory of Stationary Waves OR Formation Stationary Waves (Analytical Treatment)

Consider two identical progressive waves i.e. waves having same amplitude a,
same period T and same wavelength  travelling through a medium along the same path but in
exactly opposite directions are represented as
 t x
y1 = a sin 2     --- (1)
T 
t x
y2 = a sin 2   +  --- (2)
T 
The resultant displacement is given by
y = y1 + y2
 t x t x
y = a sin 2     + a sin 2   + 
T  T 
  t x t x 
y = a sin 2     + sin 2  +  
 T  T  
C+ D CD
using formula sin C + sin D = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 
 t x t x   t x t x 
T + T +   TT 
y = 2 a sin 2    cos 2   
 2   2 
   
 2 t   2 x 
y = 2 a sin   cos  
 T    
 2 t   2 x 
y = 2a sin   cos    cos (– ) = cos 
 T    
 2 x   2 t 
y = 2a cos   sin   OR y = 2 a cos (kx) sin (wt)
    T 
 2 t 
y = A sin   --- (3)
 T 
 2 x 
Where A = 2 a cos   --- (4)
  
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Equation (3) shows that resultant motion is also S.H.M. having same period T.
Equation (3) does not represent progressive wave because it does not contain the term
t x
   . Hence this wave can not move forward or backward. Hence it is called as stationary
T 
wave or standing wave
 2 x 
Amplitude of stationary wave A = 2a cos   is variable and changes with position x of
  
particle.
i) Amplitude of stationary wave is maximum (i.e. A = + 2a)
 2 x 
where cos   = + 1.
  
 2 x 
i.e. where   = 0, , 2, 3 ---
  
i.e. where x = 0, /2, , 3/2, ---

Distance between two successive antinodes =  
2

=
2
Particles situated at these points vibrate with maximum amplitude (+ 2a). These
points of maximum amplitude are called as antinodes. The distance between any two successive
antinodes is /2. Hence antinodes are equally spaced.
ii) Amplitudes of stationary wave is minimum (i.e. A = 0)
 2 x 
where cos   =0
  
 2 x 
i.e. where   = /2, 3/2, 5/2, ---
  
i.e. where x = /4, 3/4, 5/4, ---
3 
Distance between two successive nodes = 
4 4

=
2
Particles situated at these points do not vibrate at all i.e. their amplitude is zero.
These points of zero amplitude are called as nodes. The distance between any two successive
nodes is /2. Hence nodes are equally spaced.
From above discussion it is clear that nodes and antinodes are alternately
produces in stationary wave.
The distance between node and adjacent antinode or antinode and adjacent node is
/4.

Pressure nodes and pressure antinodes :- In the case of longitudinal stationary waves, nodes
are points of zero displacement but at these points, the pressure varies between maximum and
minimum values. Such points are called as pressure antinodes. At the antinodes, the amplitude is
maximum and the displacement varies between maximum and minimum values, but there is no
change of pressure. Such points are called as pressure nodes.

Properties of Stationary Waves :

1) Stationary waves are produced when two exactly identical progressive waves travelling
through a medium along the same path but exactly in opposite directions interfere with
each other.
2) Due to stationary wave, particle at some points of medium vibrate with maximum
amplitude. These points of maximum amplitude are called as antinodes.
3) Due to stationary wave, particles at some points of medium do not vibrate at all. These
points of zero amplitude are called as nodes.
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4) In stationary wave, nodes and antinodes are alternately produced. The distance between
two successive nodes (or antinodes) is /2.
5) The distance between node and adjacent antinode is /4.
6) In a single loop particles of medium vibrate with same period except particles at nodes.
Amplitude of vibration increases from nodes to antinodes.
7) Phase does not change from particle to particle. Particles in one loop are in same phase
while particles in adjacent loop are in out of phase.
8) Stationary wave is periodic in space and periodic in time.
9) Stationary waves do not transfer energy through medium.

Distinguish between Progressive Waves and Stationary Waves

Progressive Waves Stationary Waves
1) Progressive waves are produced 1) Stationary waves are produced when
due to disturbance in medium. two identical progressive waves
travelling through a medium along the
same path but in exactly opposite
directions interfere with each other.
2) These waves move away from 2) These waves can not move.
their origin.
3) Each particle of medium vibrates 3) Particles of medium vibrate with
with same amplitude. different amplitude except particles at
nodes. Amplitude of vibration
increases from nodes to antinodes.
4) Phase changes from particle to 4) Phase does not change from particle to
particle. particle. Particles in one loop are in
same phase while particles in adjacent
loop are in opposite phase. i.e. phase
changes from loop to loop.
5) Energy is transferred through 5) Energy is not transferred through
medium due to progressive waves. medium due to stationary waves.

Mass per unit length of wire or linear density of wire (m) :-

mass of wire
Mass per unit length of wire =
length of wire
M
m =

units S.I.  Kg/m
C.G.S.  g/cm

Dimensions [M1L–1T0]

Velocity of transverse wave on stretch string :-

If m is the mass per unit length of string and T is tension applied to string,
velocity of transverse wave of the string is given by
T
v=
m

Vibrations of stretched string :-

Fundamental frequency or first harmonic

Second harmonic or first overtone

Third harmonic or second overtone

Consider a string stretched between two rigid supports. If a string is plucked at

some point between two rigid supports, transverse waves are produced along the length of string
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and are reflected from rigid supports. Incident waves and reflected waves interfere and stationary
waves are produced along the length of string between two rigid supports. Two ends of string are
fixed, hence nodes are formed at the two ends. With these boundary conditions, string vibrates
with integral number of loops called as modes of vibration of string. The first three modes of
vibration of string are as shown in figure a), b) and c) respectively.

Let,
  Vibrating length of string
T  Tension applied to string
m  mass per unit length of string
v  velocity of transverse wave on stretched string
 Wavelength of transverse wave on the string
p  no. of loops on the string

Now, if string is vibrating in p-loops then

length of string = no. of loops x length of each loop

 = px
2
2
 = --- (1)
p
Velocity of transverse wave on stretched string is given by
T
v= --- (2)
m

Frequency of vibration of string is given by

v
n=

T
n= m --- from equations (1) & (2)
2
p
p T
n= --- (3)
2 m

This is expression for frequency of vibration of string.

If string vibrates with only one loop as show in figure (a) then, p = 1
1 T
 n1 = --- (4) from equation (3)
2 m

This is minimum frequency with which string can vibrate and is called as fundamental frequency
or first harmonic.
If string vibrates with two loops as shown in figure then, p = 2
2 T
n2 =
2 m
1 T
=2x
2 m
n2 = 2n1 --- (5) from equation (4)

This frequency of vibration of string is called as second harmonic or first overtone.

Similarly if string vibrates with three loop as shown in figure (c) then it can be shown that
n3 = 3n1 --- (6)

This frequency of vibration of string is called as third harmonic or second overtone.

From equations (4), (5) and (6) we can say that a string stretched between two rigid supports can
vibrate with fundamental frequency and its integral multiples.

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Distinguish between Harmonics and Overtones :-
Harmonics Overtones
1) Harmonic is the term used to 1) Overtone is the term used to denote
denote fundamental frequency frequencies immediately higher than
together with all its integral fundamental frequency which are
multiples. actually present in given sound.

2) Fundamental frequency is called 2) Frequency immediately after

as first harmonic. fundamental frequency which is
actually present in given sound is
called as first overtone.
3) All harmonics are not necessarily 3) All overtones are harmonic.
overtone.

Laws of vibrating string

The fundamental frequency of vibration of stretched string is given by.
1 T
n=
2 m
Where,
 = Vibrating length of string
T = Tension applied to string
m = mass per unit length of string

From this formula laws of vibrating string are stated as follows.

1) Law of length :-
The fundamental frequency of vibration of stretched string is inversely
proportional to its length if tension applied to it and its mass per unit length are constant.

1
i.e. n  if T and m are constant

i.e. n11 = n22
2) Law of Tension :-
The fundamental frequency of vibration of stretched string is directly proportional
to square root of tension applied to it if its vibrating length and mass per unit length are constant.
i.e. n  T if  and m are constant.
n1 T1
i.e. =
n2 T2

3) Law of mass :-
The fundamental frequency of vibration of stretched string is inversely
proportional to square root of its mass per unit length if its vibrating length and tension applied
are constant.
1
i.e. n  if  and T are constant.
m
i.e. n1 m1 = n2 m 2

Relation between fundamental frequency, radius and density of stretched string :-

Let
  Vibrating length of string
T  Tension applied to string
m  mass per unit length of string
r  radius of string
  density of material of string.

The fundamental frequency of vibration of stretched string is given by

1 T
n= --- (1)
2 m

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mass of string x r 
2
mass per unit length of string = =
length of string 
m =   r2

Putting this value in equation (1)

1 T
n=
2 πρr 2
1 T
n=
2 r πρ

This is relation between fundamental frequency, radius and density of string.

Note :-
1 T
1) n=
d πρ
Where, d = 2r is diameter of wire.
1
2) n if , T and  are constant
r
1
3) n if , r and T are constant


Free vibrations, forced vibrations and resonance.

1) Free vibrations :-
If a body is displaced from its stable equilibrium position and released, restoring
forces act on it and body may perform vibrations called as free vibrations.
The frequency with which body performs free vibrations is called as natural
frequency of body. Natural frequency of body depends upon its dimensions and elastic
properties. Amplitude of free vibration depends upon the extent to which body is displaced from
its equilibrium position. When body performs free vibrations, it continuously loses energy due to
frictional resistance of the surrounding medium. Therefore, amplitude of vibration goes on
decreasing and finally vibrations of body are stopped.
e.g. :- a) If a simple pendulum is displaced from its equilibrium position and released, it
performs free vibrations.
b) If a stretched string is plucked at some point and released, it performs free
vibrations.
c) Vibrations of prongs of tuning fork
d) Vibrations of air column in a tube.

2) Forced vibrations :-
If a body is made to vibrate by applying external periodic force whose frequency
is different from natural frequency of body, then vibrations of body are called as forced
vibrations.
In forced vibration, body vibrates with a frequency of external periodic force
called as driving frequency. In forced vibration, amplitude of vibration remains constant.
Amplitude of vibration depends upon difference between natural frequency of body and
frequency of external periodic force. If this difference if large then amplitude of forced
vibrations is small and if this difference is equal to zero, then body vibrates with maximum
amplitude. This phenomenon is called as resonance.
Hence resonance is a special case of forced vibrations.
e.g. :- a) If a vibrating tuning fork is held with its stem in contact with a table top, then the
top vibrates with frequency of tuning fork.
b) If a vibrating tuning fork is held near the open end of tube containing air column,
then air column vibrates with frequency of tuning fork.
3) Resonance :-
If a body is made to vibrate by applying external periodic force whose frequency
is exactly equal to natural frequency of body, then body vibrates with maximum amplitude. This
phenomenon is called as resonance.
At resonance body vibrates with its natural frequency and amplitude of vibration
is maximum.

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e.g. :- a) In resonance tube when vibrating tuning fork is held near open end of tube and
length of air column in the tube is changed then for particular length of air column
in the tube, the natural frequency of vibration of air column becomes exactly equal
to tuning fork. Hence due to resonance air column vibrates with maximum
amplitude producing loud sound.
b) While crossing hanging bridge, soldiers are asked to break their steps because
if the frequency of their order steps becomes equal to natural frequency of bridge
then due to resonance, bridge vibrates with maximum amplitude and may collapse.
c) Principle of resonance is used in tuning of radio receiver at a particular frequency.

Distinguish between Free vibrations and Forced vibrations

Free Vibrations Forced Vibrations
1) If a body is displaced from its stable 1) If a body is made to vibrate by applying
equilibrium position and released, external periodic force whose frequency
then restoring forces act on it and is different from natural frequency of
body may perform vibrations called body then vibrations of body are called as
as free vibration. forced vibration.
2) Body vibrates with its natural 2) Body vibrates with the frequency of
frequency. external periodic force.
3) Amplitude of vibrations depend upon 3) Amplitude of vibrations depends upon the
the extent to which body is displaced difference between natural frequency of
from mean position. body and frequency of external periodic
force.
4) Amplitude of vibration goes on 4) Vibrations of body are continued so long
decreasing and vibrations of body are as external periodic force is applied with
stopped after some time. same amplitude.

OUR TOPPERS

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Distinguish between Forced vibrations and Resonance
Forced Vibrations Resonance
1) If body is made to vibrate by applying 1) If a body is made to vibrate by applying
external periodic force whose external periodic force whose frequency
frequency is different from natural is exactly equal to natural frequency of
frequency of body, then vibrations of body, then body vibrates with maximum
body are called as forced vibration. amplitude. This phenomenon is called as
resonance.
2) Body vibrates with the frequency of 2) Body vibrates with its natural frequency.
external periodic force different from
natural frequency of body.
3) Amplitude of vibration is usually 3) Amplitude of vibration is large.
small.
4) Vibrations of body are stopped as 4) Vibrations of body are continued for some
soon as external periodic force is time even after external periodic force is
removed. removed.

Vibrations of Air Column

A) Pipe (tube) closed at one end
Consider a pipe closed at one end. There is
air column in the pipe. When vibrating tuning fork is held
near open end of pipe, longitudinal waves can pass through
air column in the pipe and are reflected from closed end.
Hence stationary waves are produced along the length of
air column in the pipe. The particles of air at the closed end
are not free to vibrate hence nodes are formed at the closed
end. While particles of air at open end are comparatively
free to vibrate hence antinode is formed at the open end of
pipe. With these boundary conditions, air column vibrates
in different ways called as modes of vibration of air
column. The first three modes of vibration of air column
are as shown in figure a, b, c respectively.
Let   Vibrating length of air column
v  Velocity of longitudinal wave in air
In fundamental mode of vibration if n1 and 1 be the frequency and wavelength of wave then
from figure (a) we can write.

= 1
4
1 = 4 --- (1)
But v = n1 1
v
n1 =
1
v
n1 = --- (2) from equation (1)
4

This is the minimum frequency with which air column can vibrate and is called
as fundamental frequency or first harmonic.
For next higher mode of vibration if n2 and 2 be the frequency and wavelength
of wave, then from figure (b) we can write
3 2
=
4
4
2 = --- (3)
3
But v = n22
v
n2 =
2
v
n2 = --- from equation (3)
4/3

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3v
n2 =
4
n2 = 3n1 --- (4) from equation (2)

This frequency of vibration of air column is called as third harmonic or first

overtone. Similarly from figure (c) it can be shown that
n3 = 5 n1 --- (5)

This frequency of vibration of air column is called as fifth harmonic or second

overtone.
From above equations we can say that only odd harmonics of fundamental
frequency are present in the case of pipe closed at one end.

Note :- 1) From equations (2), (4) and (5) it can be shown that
n1 : n2 : n3 = 1 : 3 : 5

B) Pipe (tube) open at both ends

Consider a pipe open at both ends. There
is air column in the pipe. When vibrating tuning fork is
held near open end of pipe, longitudinal waves can pass
through air column in the pipe and are reflected from
other open end. Hence stationary waves are produced
along the length of air column in the pipe. Particles of
air at both open ends are free to vibrates, hence
antinodes are formed at both open ends. With these
boundary conditions air column vibrates with different
ways called as modes of vibration of air column. The
fist three modes of vibration of air column are as shown
in figure a, b and c respectively.

Let   Vibrating length of air column in pipe

v  Velocity of longitudinal wave in air
In fundamental mode of vibration if n1 and 1 be the frequency and wavelength of wave, then
from figure (a) we can write.
Length of air column = Distance between two successive antinodes

= 1
2
1 = 2 --- (1)
But v = n1 1
v
n1 =
1
v
n1 = --- (2) from equation (1)
2

This is the minimum frequency with which air column can vibrate and is called
fundamental frequency or first harmonic.
For next higher mode of vibration if n2 and 2 be the frequency and wavelength
of wave then from figure (b) we can write.
 = 2 --- (3)
But v = n22
v
n2 =
2
v
n2 = --- from equation (3)

v
n2 = 2
2
n2 = 2 n1 --- (4) from equation (2)
This frequency of vibration of air column is called as second harmonic or first
overtone.

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Similarly from figure (c) we can show that
n3 = 3 n1 --- (5)
Hence from above equations we can say that all harmonics of fundamental
frequency are present in case of pipes open at both ends.
Note :- 1) From equations (2), (4) and (5) we can be shown that
n1 : n2 : n3 = 1 : 2 : 3

End Correction :-
It is found that antinodes is not formed
exactly at the open end of tube but it is formed at a little
distance beyond it. This distance is called as end correction.
Experimentally it I found that end correction
is approximately equal to 0.3 d.
Where d is inner diameter of tube.
End correction, e = 0.3 d
In case of tube closed at one end, the
fundamental frequency of vibration of air column by taking
end correction into account from figure (a) is given by
v
n1 =
4 ( + e)
v
n1 = --- (1)
4 ( + 0.3 d)
In case of tube open at both ends, the fundamental frequency of vibration of air
column by taking end correction into account from figure (b) in given by.
v
n1 =
2 ( + 2e)
v
n1 = --- (2)
2 ( + 0.6 d)

Q. How the frequency of vibrating wire is affected, if the load is fully immersed in
water?
Ans. By immersing the load in water, the apparent weight of the load decreases and hence
the tension in the wire decreases. Since the frequency of vibrating wire is directly proportional
to the square root of the tension, the frequency decreases. Since the frequency of vibrating wire
is directly proportional to the square root of the tension, the frequency decreases.
Let w1 = Weight of the load in air
w2 = Weight of the load in water
If T1 and T2 are the respectively tensions in the wire T1 = w1 and T2 = w2.

By definition,
Density of Solid
Relative density of a solid =
Density of Water

=
w
Weight of the body in air
=
Loss in weight of the body in water
T1
=
T1  T2
1 T T
= 1 2
 T1
1 T T 
=1– 2  1 =
 T1 T2  1
Since n  T
n1 T1 n1 
 =  =
n2 T2 n2 (  1)

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