MODULE 6.

CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION:

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE

Teacher Induction Program

Teacher Education Council, Department of Education

 Melchora B. Lamorena, M.A.T. Chem
Writer

Aurora A. Franco, Ed. D.

Reviewer

Bernadette S. Pablo, M. Ed.

Editor

All rights reserved. This module may not be reproduced in any

form without the permission of the Teacher Education Council,
Department of Education.
 TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM

MODULE 6.4
Curriculum and Instruction:
The Teaching of Science
Dear Inductee,

Welcome to the DepEd family!

The significance of science to our lives cannot be overemphasized. In a world

that is growing increasingly dependent on the development of science and
technology, scientific literacy has become an important goal for all students. As a
science teacher, you play a very significant role in preparing our children to become
lifelong learners, a quality that will enable them to meet the challenges in this fast
changing world.

Unfortunately, quite a number of teachers, especially the new ones, find

science a difficult subject to teach. Some even have the notion that science is
confined in the laboratory and cannot be taught effectively without using
sophisticated science equipment. This module is intended to help you become more
confident in presenting science lessons to your students in more meaningful ways.

Lesson 1 focuses on the nature and foundations of science teaching. It gives

emphasis to the “what’s”, “why’s” and “how’s” of science teaching.

Lessons 2 and 3 present a repertoire of strategies and techniques that you

can use in teaching science effectively. These lessons are anchored on the fact that
students learn science concepts most effectively through a balance of hands-on
activities and solid content knowledge.

Lesson 4 focuses on how you can assist students in conducting science

investigative projects. This lesson is based on the belief that a working knowledge of
how to solve problems scientifically will enable our students to become better critical
thinkers and wise decision- makers in the future.

Lessons 5 and 6 deal with assessment. These lessons present several

assessment tools you can use to guide you in your teaching and in determining the
quality of learning that has taken place.

Each lesson in this module usually has the following parts: Introduction,
Objectives, Text, Learning Task or Activity, and Self-Check Questions. Answers to
the self-check questions are found at the end of this module.

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 You will learn best from this module if you do the following:

1. take the pretest before going through the module;

2. do all the exercises and activities;

3. try out the suggested strategies in your actual teaching;

4. keep the products of the activities you do as part of your portfolio; and

5. take the posttest after you have finished all the lessons.

Please do not write answers to the SCQ’s and activities in the module.
Record/ write answers in a notebook/journal. This is a part of your formative
evaluation. The Teacher Education Council (TEC) shall provide the booklet for
summative evaluation

It is hoped that through this module, your experiences as a beginning teacher

will be as pleasant and fulfilling as possible.

We wish you the best of luck and many happy long years in your teaching
career!

The Authors

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Preassessment 1

LESSON 1 Foundations of Science Teaching and Learning 6

• 1.1 What to Teach 7

• 1.2 The Learners: A Second Look 9
• 1.3 Implications to Teaching 13
• 1.4 Management Tips 15

LESSON 2 Teaching Strategies 17

• 2.1 Constructivist Learning: A Closer Look 18

• 2.2 Constructivist Strategies 20

ƒ 2.2.1 Discovery Approach 20

ƒ 2.2.2 Inquiry Approach 23
ƒ 2.2.3 Reflective Teaching 28
ƒ 2.2.4 Integrative Teaching 30
ƒ 2.2.5 Cooperative Learning 32

LESSON 3 Other Teaching Strategies 35

• 3.1 Lecture and Student Recitation 35

• 3.2 Role Playing and Simulation 37
• 3.3 Field Trips 37
• 3.4 Concept Mapping 39

LESSON 4 Incorporating Research in the Classroom 44

• 4.1 The Scientific Method 45

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LESSON 5 Classroom Assessment 48

LESSON 6 Scoring Authentic Assessment Through Rubrics 58

Bibliography 63
Appendices 65

A. Science Process Skills 65

B. Sample Lesson Using 5-E Learning Cycle 66

C. Doing Reflective Learning in the Classroom 70

C.1. Sample Lesson on Reflective Learning for Elementary Science 72

D. Sample Lesson on Integrative Learning in the Classroom 74

E-1. Sample Lesson Using Cooperative Learning (JIGSAW II) 76

E-2. Sample Lesson Using Cooperative Learning 80

STAD – Student Teams Achievement Divisions

E-3. Cooperative Learning for the Elementary Level (JIGSAW I) 82

F. Other Types of Concept Maps 84

G. Doing an Investigative Project in the Classroom 87

H. Analytic Rubric 99

I. Performance Task 101

J. Example of a picture or diagram assessment 105

Answer key to Preassessment and Self-Check Questions (SCQ) 106

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TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM PREASSESSMENT

PREASSESSMENT
Directions: Write the letter of the choice that best answers the question.

1. Why do we have to choose a strategy that will match our students’

expectations, perceptions and learning styles?

a. Students always want to play games.

b. It will be easy for us to finish the syllabus.

c. We have insufficient facilities and equipments to carry the task.

d. It motivates students to actively participate in activities.

2. There are a lot of low-achievers in Mrs. Teodora’s science class. What

strategy should she avoid using?

a. Independent research
b. Direct instruction
c. Drill practice
d. Discussion
3. Which strategy can be used to develop among students the ability to learn and to
share work together for the attainment of a common goal?

a. Question and answer

b. Demonstration
c. Cooperative learning
d. Group discussion

4. In which of the following situations will demonstration be most appropriate to

use?

a. There is danger in the use of some materials.

b. The lesson calls for the use of many materials.

c. The teacher wants to develop students’ interest in science.

d. The students are noisy and inattentive to the lesson.

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5. In which phase of the lesson do the children learn through their active involvement?

a. Exploration
b. Evaluation
c. Concept extension
d. Concept explanation
6. Mr. Caparas teaches biology in a fishing community. The place is a coastal area.
Which life cycle can be best taught in said area?

a. The life cycle of mosquitoes.

b. The life cycle of lapu- lapu.
c. The life cycle of butterflies.
d. The life cycle of the garden snail.
7. Which of the following can be considered as a limitation of the use of the
inquiry method as a strategy in teaching science?

a. It involves the use of sophisticated science equipment

b. It involves abstract mathematical concepts

c. It is difficult to anticipate the results.

d. It leads to confusion.

8. Which of the following statements is true?

a. Inquiry allows students to learn many skills and concepts at a time.

b. Students develop a sense of failure when using the inquiry method.

c. Inquiry is too demanding on the part of the teacher

d. Inquiry is self-directed and spontaneous.

9. Which activity can be used to clarify ideas and assist the development of logical
thinking?
a. Puzzle solving

b. Games

c. Experiment

d. Drill

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10. Field trip is one of the strategies teachers employ in teaching science. What is
the first step that a teacher should do in conducting a field trip?

a. Visit the place

b. Discuss the dangers

c. Discuss the intended result

d. Name the things to bring for the trip

11. You want to develop the process skills of your students. What will you do?

a. Enumerate the steps of the scientific method.

b. Provide students a hands-on activity.

c. List the different process skills.

d. Define process skills.

12. Students need experience with real phenomena in a real world. What activity can
the class undertake for this purpose?

a. Experimentation

b. Inquiry session

c. Project Making

d. Field trip

13. At the end of the chapter on radical numbers, the teacher gives an examination.
What type of evaluation does the teacher employ?

a. Aptitude test

b. Diagnostic test

c. Formative test

d. Summative test

14. Mrs. Cruz is to teach biology in her school. She wants to know the entry
knowledge of the students in the subject. What should she do in order to get
the information?

a. Initiate a whole class discussion

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b. Administer a summative test

c. Give a diagnostic test

d. Give a formative test

15. Why is a rubric considered as the most appropriate way of scoring performance
assessment?

a. It is the fad today.

b. It is easy to prepare and maybe re-used.

c. It shows the good and bad points of the students.

d. It communicates to students how to evaluate their own work.

II. Below are concepts/ ideas taken from the different lessons in this module. Using
concept map, show how these concepts/ ideas are related. (10 points)

Science teaching/ learning Traditional assessment

Content Performance- based assessment

Process skills Portfolio assessment

Scientific attitudes Journal writing

Constructivist approaches Multiple Choice

Inquiry approach Matching type

Cooperative Learning Rubrics

Discovery approach

Reflective teaching

Learners learn and develop as a whole person

Learners learn at different rates

Learners have different learning styles

Assessment

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24 – 25 Excellent (E)

21 – 23 Very Satisfactory (VS)

19 – 20 Satisfactory Plus (SP)

17 – 18 Satisfactory (S)

15 – 16 Moderately Satisfactory (MS)

0 – 14 Needs Reinforcement (NR)

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TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM LESSON 1: FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENCE
TEACHING AND LEARNING

LESSON 1
FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENCE
TEACHING AND LEARNING

INTRODUCTION
Science teaching is a complex endeavor. It may bring frustrations and
disappointments. However, it can also bring satisfaction and successes that may
outweigh the difficulties. Being new in the teaching profession, you may not feel
confident handling your classes. Fear not! This is normal for new teachers like you.

To give you confidence, you must be prepared. Being prepared means not
only having adequate knowledge of the scientific discipline but also sufficient
knowledge of the nature of your pupils/students and what it takes to teach science.
It is important to bear in mind that what you choose to teach in science and how you
teach it will be influenced by your views of both science and the children. This
lesson will give you a better understanding of science teaching and how students
learn science best.

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OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

ƒ discuss the nature of science teaching;

ƒ discuss the relevance of knowing the students’ characteristics to effective

science teaching;

ƒ identify the learning styles of your students; and

ƒ manage science classes effectively.

READ

1.1 What to Teach

One of the dilemmas new science teachers commonly have is deciding what
to teach. Are you experiencing this problem too? To gain a better understanding of
what you should teach in science, let us first define what science is.

As defined by Dr. Rosalyn Yalon, a Nobel Laureate in Medicine, science is….

“…. not simply a collection of facts. It is a discipline of thinking about rational

solutions to problems after establishing the basic facts derived from observations. It
is hypothesizing from what is known to what might be and then attempting to test the
hypothesis….logical thinking must come first; the facts can come later.

In the light of this definition, we can say that science teaching has three
interacting facets, namely: knowledge, process skills and attitudes.

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Knowledge is sometimes labeled as the products of science. It generally

refers to facts, concepts, principles, laws, and theories.

Process skills are the empirical and analytic procedures used by scientists in
solving problems. Competence in using these skills provide children with the ability
to apply knowledge not only to science and other subject areas in the classroom but
also to their daily lives outside the classroom. Once your students learn to use the
science process skills to solve problems, you can be sure that they will become
lifelong learners. For this reason, the science process skills have been called life-
long learning skills. Appendix A lists some of the science process skills that you
should try to develop among your students.

Scientific attitudes refer to the general predispositions that characterize the

work of scientists. Some of the important attitudes students will have to learn and
demonstrate in science include curiosity, honesty, objectivity, openness,
perseverance, skepticism, and withholding judgment.

Clearly, as a science teacher, you should not only be concerned with what
science is all about. You should also see to it that your students develop the different
basic process skills and scientific attitudes.

SCQ 1.1

1. Aside from the factual knowledge, what else should science teaching include?

2. Why are the science process skills considered life-long learning skills?
are

3. As a science teacher, which do you think should be given more emphasis—

the acquisition of factual knowledge or the development of science process
skills? Why do you think so?

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1.2 The Learners: A Second Look

To make science meaningful to your students, you need to know their

characteristics. Knowing them will give you ideas on how best they can learn.

In your pre-service education, you have studied these characteristics. The

succeeding discussion will focus on the characteristics of learners which are relevant
to science teaching.

1. Learners learn and develop as a whole person. The learners’

cognitive, affective, physical, social and emotional areas are intricately intertwined.
Learners cannot grow in one area without affecting the other areas. As a teacher,
bear in mind that you are responsible for the development of the whole individual,
not just one or two particular areas of his/her development.

2. Learners grow through the same predictable stages but at different

rates. This means that children of the same age group may not exhibit uniform
characteristics. Some may be more intellectually or socially advanced than the
others in the same age group. You, as the teacher, should make allowances or
provisions for the differences that may be found among your students.

3. Learners learn best through active involvement with concrete

experiences. Research studies show that the use of hands-on activities can result in
significant improvements in academic performance and attitude of students towards
science. Hands-on approaches to teaching science is consistent with the philosophy
of learning and instruction called constructivism.

According to the constructivist’s point of view, learners are not passive

recipients of knowledge; rather, they are active constructors and re-constructors of
their own understanding. Constructivists view learning as creating new knowledge
and deriving meanings by combining incoming information with what they already
know.

4. Learners are curious and eager to learn. When the teacher fits the
learning environment to learners’ interests, needs and their levels of maturity, they
become highly motivated. Their curiosity and desire to learn are enhanced. Learners
learn best what is meaningful to them. They learn best in an environment that is

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TEACHING AND LEARNING

natural, relaxed and free of competitive elements rather than in settings that are
highly structured and tightly organized.

5. Learners have different learning styles. Learning styles are preferred

ways that different individuals have for processing and responding to environmental
stimulus (Kuchuck and Eggen, 1997). Learning styles are also referred to as
cognitive styles. Each student has his/her own learning style.

Some of your students may learn best through visual mode, others are
primarily aural, tactile or kinesthetic learners. Some like to work alone rather than
with others; some like to be given tasks that are structured for them rather than to be
asked to develop their own structures.

To have an idea of the learning styles of your students. You may use the
Perceptual Strength Inventory devised by Dunn and Dunn (1987). You may try it on
yourself first.

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TEACHING AND LEARNING

ACTIVITY 1.1
What is My Style?

Instructions:
Use the following the following codes to answer this activity .

N- Never (1) O-Occasionally (3) A-Always (5)

R-Rarely (2) F-Frequently (4)

Read each of the sentences carefully. Under column A, write N for never if
the statement does not reflect your style, A for always if the statements reflects
your style , and so on. Under Column B, give the numeric value for each choice.
Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper
A B
___ ___ 1. I like to listen to verbal instructions.
___ ___ 2. I learn best by seeing, reading and watching.
___ ___ 3. Using my hands - feeling or touching - is my style.
___ ___ 1. I form the sounds of words to recall them.
___ ___ 2. I need to construct and use strong visual image associations
to learn.
___ ___ 3. I like to play with objects while learning.
___ ___ 1. I remember information by hearing myself say the words
___ ___ 2. I need to create a picture on paper or in my mind to remember
It.
___ ___ 3. I learn by taking notes while listening.
___ ___ 1. I read aloud instead of silently talking to myself.
___ ___ 2. I like to create pictures to match with the words.
___ ___ 3. I underline ideas while listening.
___ ___ 1. I memorize information or associate my memories with songs.
___ ___ 2. I need to see the words rather than the images.
___ ___ 3. I need to highlight pertinent information.
___ ___ 1. I take active part in discussions.
___ ___ 2. I daydream to imagine what things look like.
___ ___ 3. I doodle, fold a paper, play with a pencil a ball pen or paper
clip while learning.
B. Once you have completed your preferences in Column A, and have written the
values for each of your responses in Column B, get the sum of all the values
assigned for each answer and write the score on the summary.

Score Your learning style

Sum of 1’s ___ Auditory = ___
Sum of 2’s ___ Visual = ___
Sum of 3’s ___ Tactile/Kinesthetic = ___
The biggest sum indicates your preferred learning styles
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TEACHING AND LEARNING

Based on the Perceptual Strength Inventory that you have accomplished,

what is your learning style? Administering the inventory to your students will give you
an idea of their preferred learning modalities. While some students may have two or
more preferred learning modalities, each has a distinct perceptual strength. Table
1.1 gives the characteristics of learners according to each type of learning modalities
espoused by Dunn and Dunn.

Table 1.1 Characteristics of Learners According to Dunn and Dunn’s Learning

Style Inventory

Type of Learner Characteristics

Looks at all study materials

Uses charts, maps, filmstrips, notes and flashcards
Visual Practices visualizing or picturing words/concepts in their
head
Writes everything for frequent and quick review
Uses tapes
Finds it easy to learn by listening
Fills gaps in notes with taped lectures
Listens and takes notes
Auditory Reviews notes frequently
Sits in lecture hall or classroom where he/she could hear
well
Summarizes and recites aloud after reading something
Traces words as he/she reads text
Writes facts to be learned several times
Keeps a supply of scratch paper for writing facts
Likes being active and involved
Learn while in motion
Plays with objects while learning
Kinesthetic/Tactile Highlights pertinent information
Often takes down notes either during a lecture or when
reading new or difficult text
Doodles or folds a paper, plays with a pencil or ball pen
while learning

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1.3 Implications to Teaching

With the characteristics of learners in mind, your teaching will be more

effective if you do the following:

ƒ Present science as a way of finding out rather than as a body of facts to be

memorized.

Allowing learners to discover and to organize the information

equip them with problem-solving and decision-making skills. It also
results in knowledge that is more easily remembered and recalled
than rote learning.

ƒ Emphasize learning by doing

A number of researches show that learners learn better when

they are personally involved in physical or hands-on activities. The
science process skills, for example, can only be taught through
experiencing science. These skills are not developed by reading,
listening to lectures, watching demonstrations, videos or movies or
working with the computer. The thrill of science can only be fully
realized through direct involvement of the learner.

ƒ Encourage interactions among learners

Give opportunities for students to work together in groups.

Students who work together learn more from each other. They also
develop their social and communication skills in the process.

ƒ Adapt science experiences to the learners’ developmental levels

Learners differ on how they operate mentally. Therefore, you

must arrange experiences that fit what they can do. Providing
experiences that are appropriate to your students’ developmental level
will result in better learning and achievement. It will also give students
a feeling of success.

ƒ Use a variety of approaches in teaching science

As discussed earlier, students have different learning styles. To

be more effective, you must be aware of their learning styles and you

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must consider them in choosing which teaching methods to use.

According to Dr. Rita Dunn, Director, International Learning Styles
Network, “Students can learn any subject matter when they are
taught with methods and approaches responsive to their learning
styles.” This implies that for your teaching to be more effective, you
should be sensitive to your students learning styles. How you deliver
your lesson relates proportionally to how your students store, process
and retrieve information. Better performance will result when you
match your teaching styles to the learning styles of your students.

SCQ 1.2

Directions: Encircle the letter of the option that best answers each of the following
questions.

1. Carlos is a grade 6 pupil. He loves to draw and learns better if the printed
material he reads is accompanied with pictures or illustrations. He frequently
writes what has been read. What is Carlos’ learning style?

a. Auditory

b. Visual

c. Tactile/Kinesthetic

d. Cannot be identified using the given data

2. Omar prefers to sit in front. He takes notes every time he listens to a lecture.
He usually recites aloud after reading something. What is Omar’s learning
style?

a. Tactile /Kinesthetic

b. Visual

c. Auditory

d. Aesthetic

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3. Your student is a kinesthetic learner. Which activity would you give him/her?

a. Watch a debate.

b. Perform an experiment on air pressure.

c. Listen to a radio program “Ating Alamin”.

d. React verbally to a hypothetical item about height and air pressure.

4. Your students are mostly visual learners. Which of the following class
activities is most appropriate to use in teaching the concept of food chain?

a. Play a cassette tape about a food chain in a forest park.

b. Bring them to the park and identify existing food chains in different
areas of the park.

c. Let them write a journal about food chain in a forest park.

d. Let them do a rap about food chain in a forest park.

READ

1.4 Management Tips

One of the major concerns of new science teachers is the management of

science classes to ensure that optimum learning takes place in the classroom. Here
are some tips which you might find useful.

1. Decide whether the students will work individually or in groups ahead

of time.

2. When students are working in groups, make certain that no member is

excluded in the activity.

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3. Rotate responsibility so that each member of the group has equal

opportunity.

4. Circulate among the groups as they work and discuss; listen to the
students’ contributions and assess their thinking skills as well as their
ability to work cooperatively.

5. Require the students to keep their noise to a minimum as they work.

Absolute silence, on the other hand, will hamper their learning.

6. After giving instructions, watch to see that students begin their work. If
they appear not to understand what is expected of them, ask all
students to stop working so you may give additional instructions.

7. If instructions are somewhat complex, give them in short segments.

Write the steps on the board or on a transparency on an OHP so
students can refer to them as they work.

8. Always give time for questions from the students.

9. Be prepared to provide additional activity for those who finish early to

keep them occupied.

10. Plan ahead for each lesson to have the materials on hand and ready
for distribution when needed.

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TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM LESSON 2: TEACHING STRATEGIES

LESSON 2
TEACHING STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION

As discussed in Lesson 1, you may have diverse students with individual

preferences for learning; therefore, you have to employ different teaching strategies.
Your choice of teaching strategy should take into account such factors as the skills to
be developed for a particular class session, learning abilities and learning styles of
your students, available facilities, and time allotment for the lesson.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe some constructivist approaches in teaching science;

2. decide which strategy is appropriate for your students; and

3. prepare lesson guides using some of the strategies presented in this module.

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TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM LESSON 2: TEACHING STRATEGIES

READ

Lesson 2.1 Constructivist Learning: A Closer Look

Contemporary science instruction has become highly constructive in nature. It

has shifted from an emphasis on acquiring content knowledge to the process of
constructing scientific understanding. As previously discussed, the major
theoretical point of this learning theory is that learners generate their own
understanding. Learners come to school not as a blank slate but as beings with
preconceptions or prior knowledge about the natural world.

Let us see how constructivism works by illustrating its theoretical

underpinning.

Principle # 1: Learning is a search for meaning which starts with issues

around which students actively try to construct meaning.

Here are two examples of issues/situations around which students may

construct meanings.

a. A newly opened cold bottle of soft drink is more pleasant tasting than one
that has been opened before storage in the refrigerator.

b. A newly opened cold bottle of soft drink is more pleasant tasting than a newly
opened bottle of soft drink at room temperature.

If you ask your students who have not learned about Henry’s Law and
Claysius Clayperon’s Equation to explain the above situations, you will probably get
answers such as:

“ A newly opened cold bottle of soft drink has spirit”

“ A newly opened soft drink at room temperature has no spirit”

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Principle # 2: Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts.

Parts are understood in the context of wholes. Meaning requires

understanding wholes as well as parts; parts can be understood in the
context of wholes.

Thus, when you take up topics on gases, your students will

learn some principles about them. Eventually, they would use specific
principles about gases to explain the pleasant taste of a newly opened
cold bottle of soft drink.

Principle # 3: In order to teach effectively, teachers must understand the

mental models used by students to perceive the world and the
assumptions they make to support those models.

The prior mental model of the students regarding the pleasant

taste of a newly opened bottle of cold soft drink is that it has ‘spirit’.
From their knowledge about gases and soft drinks, the students would
learn that

1. soft drinks are carbonated beverages;

2. carbon dioxide is added to the mixture at high pressure;

3. some gases are polar while others are non-polar;

4. polar gases dissolve easily in water;

5. some non-polar gases with low molecular mass such as

carbon dioxide dissolve and react with water;

6. the product of this reaction is acid. This is the acid that

makes soft drink pleasant in taste; and

7. pressure and temperature affect solubility of these gases in

water.

So, do not get offended by the answer “spirit”. Using constructivist

approaches will help students reconstruct their prior knowledge based on their
new experiences and thus, make their own meaning. You can be sure that
they will not say “spirit” next time.

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Principle # 4: The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his/her

own meaning. Thus, learning must be measured.

Owing to this fact, assessment should be made part of the

learning process to provide information on the quality of the students’
learning.

Going back to our example on soft drinks, you can ask this
question after the lesson to find out if your students have reconstructed
their ideas.

Which of the containers filled with water has more oxygen?

Explain your answer

a. Bottle of water at 15° C

b. Bottle of water at 20° C

c. Bottle of water at 45° C

If they have reconstructed their idea, they would choose letter a. Their
explanation could be: Bottle with water at 15 °C has the lowest temperature. The
lower the temperature, the more oxygen dissolves in water (Clasius-Clayperon
Equation).

Lesson 2.2 Constructivist Strategies

There are several strategies that can be used to probe, reconstruct and
assess the learner’s understanding of science concepts, principles, laws and
theories. The following discussion will focus on some of these strategies.

2.2.1 The Discovery Approach by Jerome Bruner

You can increase the motivation of pupils to learn science if they are to
experience something different from their day to day activities. In using discovery
approach, the teacher decides, in advance, the concept, process, law or piece of
scientific knowledge which is to be “discovered” or un-covered by the pupils. The
lesson proceeds through a hierarchy of stages which may be associated with
Bruner’s levels of thought. These stages are the following:

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a) Enactive level

At this stage, the students perform hands-on activities directly related

to what is to be discovered. The sample activity in Box 1 illustrates the enactive
level.

Box 1

Get an empty bottle or an Erlenmeyer flask. Attach a balloon to the

bottle and secure it with a rubber band. Apply heat as shown in the illustration.

Observe what happens to the balloon. Record your observations.

b) Ikonic level

After the students have done the hands-on activity and gain some
experiences, the teacher directs the thinking of the students using
experiential situations to the mental images or models of the objects
used upon which the discovery is to be based. Box 2 gives an option
you can do after an activity or experiment.

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Box 2

1. Let the students organize the data and present them to the class

2. Conduct post-laboratory discussion with the students to make the abstract

science concepts concrete to the students. You may ask questions such as

2.1 Describe what happened to the balloon when the bottle was heated.

2.2 Why did this happen?

2.3 Given the illustrations below, how will you explain the difference in the
size of the balloons?

Heated at 30 °C 40 °C 50 °C

Explain the size of the balloon under different specified temperature.

Expected Answer:

The biggest balloon is at 50 o C, because the air inside it has expanded more
than the air in the other two balloons.

c) Symbolic level

At this point, the students are guided to replace mental images with
symbols to increase generality and abstraction which eventually results in

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the discovery planned by the teacher in advance. Box 3 shows how you
can do this.

Box 3

In the experiment about the balloon, there are two important variables
involved - volume of gas inside the balloon and temperature.

You can conduct further discussions on the effect of temperature on

volume of gases. You can use graphs and other related examples which will help
you lead the students to the mathematical equation showing the relation between
V
volume of gas and temperature, T = K. This means that volume of gas is
directly proportional to temperature.

After the mathematical formula had been derived or established, you can
give sample problems, exercises and homework.

ACTIVITY 2.1

1. Get your resource book in science class.

2. Choose a topic close to your line of interest.

3. Develop a lesson showing the three stages of the discovery approach, and
use it in your class.

4. Include this output in your portfolio together with your reflections on your
experiences in doing this activity.

2.2.2 Inquiry Approach

This approach teaches students to handle situations they meet in the physical
world. To use the inquiry approach in the teaching of science, you need to prepare
activities that will allow students to develop the following skills:

a. recognizing problems;

b. asking questions;

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c. applying laboratory procedures; and

d. providing consistent descriptions, predictions and explanations.

There are many strategies for the inquiry approach in the classroom. All inquiry
strategies share common features. These are the following:

a. Students do hands-on activities such as experiments.

b. Students are focused on learning some analytical skills and applying the skills
gained in the hands-on activities in another situation.

c. The students understand scientific constructs or concepts being developed

during the hands-on activities.

We shall demonstrate the two ways of using inquiry as a tool for constructivist
learning - the 5-E Learning Cycle and the Discrepant Event as springboard.

A. The 5-E Learning Cycle

The 5-E Learning Cycle is a model that promotes scientific inquiry.

Each “E” represents part of the process of helping students sequence their
learning experiences to develop a connection between prior knowledge and
new concepts. The teacher serves as a facilitator as students construct new
knowledge based on thoughtful inquiry and decision making. The 5-E’s are as
follows:

1. Engage

The students engage in a task to make connections between the past

and present learning experiences.

2. Explore

The students perform a task to get directly involved with key concepts
through guided exploration of scientific, geographic, economic, and other
data set.

3. Explain
The students give details about the science concepts being developed
in the task. Through readings and discussions, the students develop
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understanding of the major science concepts and verify answers to questions

or problems posed in the engage stage.

4. Elaborate

The students simplify the science concept/s in the lesson, e.g. stating
the concepts in their own words, and applying new found knowledge to a
different situation.

5. Evaluate

The students take a test, quiz, or any authentic assessment instrument

to determine how much they benefited from the lesson or activity.

ACTIVITY 2.2

A sample lesson using the 5-E Learning Cycle is found in Appendix B.

Try it in your class and answer the questions below.

1. How did you find the lesson?

2. What difficulties did you meet?

3. How can you overcome those difficulties?

B. Discrepant Event as Springboard for Inquiry Learning

Have you seen or heard of an iceberg in Manila Bay? An iceberg in

Manila Bay is a discrepant event. Why? Manila, Philippines is close to the
equator and the temperature never reaches the freezing point.

What is a discrepant event? Why use it to teach science? A discrepant

event is an unexpected, surprising, or paradoxical event (FriedI, 1997). It creates
a strong feeling in the student e.g. feeling of wanting to know. This feeling creates
a condition favorable for inquiry learning. Its use in science capitalizes on the
curiosity of students and it leads them to better understanding of science.

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There are three steps to follow when using the discrepant event strategy.
They are as follows:

1. Set up a discrepant event.

Present the event to gain attention, increase motivation, and

encourage the students to seek ways of solving the unexpected. Some
examples of discrepant events are shown below.

Examples of Discrepant Events

Dancing salt Making ice disappear
The appearing coin Changing liquid to gas to liquid
The four seasons Melting ice below freezing point

2. Students investigate the event to solve the discrepancy.

Give students the minimum materials as well as simple procedures to

start the investigation. The students can go beyond your instruction. However,
they should be advised to present their procedure for your approval first.

3. Students solve the discrepancy.

After the students have resolved the discrepancy, evaluate the students.
You can do this by asking the students to do the following:

a. Prepare a summary of the lesson.

b. Relate the concept to a similar situation.

c. Cite applications of the concept in the real world.

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SCQ 2.1

Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. Carla wanted to find out the relationship between the amount of gases that
goes into solution and pressure through an experiment. Which of the
following strategies is most appropriate?

a. Inquiry learning through a discrepant event

b. Inquiry learning through 5-E learning cycle

c. Discovery learning

d. Cooperative learning

2. If the teacher uses inquiry learning through 5-E learning cycle, at what
phase can the students simplify the concept in their own language and be
able to apply it to another situation?

a. engage b. explore c. explain d. elaborate

3. In which phase of the lesson do the children learn through their own
involvement and action?

a. Exploration

b. Evaluation

c. Concept extension

d. Concept explanation

4. Do you feel that a discrepant event helps students reconstruct their ideas
about science concepts? Why do you say so?

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READ

2.2.3 Reflective Teaching

In 1930, John Dewey defined reflection as a proactive, on-going examination

of beliefs and practices, their origin and impact. The practitioners of reflection
engage in a cycle of observation and self-evaluation in order to understand their own
actions and the reactions they prompt on themselves and learners. Reflection can be
seen as consciously thinking about analyzing what has been done and what one has
done or is doing (Salandanan, 2000).

Reflecting on how you developed a science concept a week or two days ago
is important to the improvement of the next teaching session. It makes you a better
facilitator of science learning. In turn, students acquire meaningful experience of
forthcoming science lessons.

How are your students benefited by reflective teaching? Reflective practice

helps students do the following:

ƒ frame a problem, detach from it and analyze it critically;

ƒ bridge the gap between theory and practice;

ƒ understand and influence their own thinking;

ƒ recognize the depth and range of transferable skills learned; and

ƒ become life-long learners.

Reflective teaching can be carried out in several ways. Salandanan (2000)

suggested four strategies--journal writing, portfolio, self analysis, and on-the-spot
observation of students’ response.

1. Journal writing allows the students to reflect or process their thoughts about
science concepts. Journals may be in the form of workbooks, diaries, logs,or
progress profiles. Journals make students look back over their recent
learning. In doing so, they can identify their strengths, weaknesses, new
levels of understanding about the lesson at hand, and review their attitude
towards the latest science concepts learned. The journal entry includes a

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description of the learning event, outcomes of the event, worthiness of

outcome and causes of failure or success.

2. The portfolio is a personal record which includes honest to goodness

account of experiences - thoughts, behavior and reactions. This record gives
insights to students’ learning for a particular science topic. Portfolios may
contain a collection of students’ work such as homework, projects, written
pieces, graphic organizers, tests, reflections, and other artifacts.

3. Self-analysis is a record of incidents, problems and issues that transpired

while doing a science task/lesson. If the student did right, he would say “I
should remember to do this in another situation”. If he failed, he could ask
“What went wrong”, “I could have done this”, and “There is room for
improvement” or “Better luck next time”.

4. The fourth strategy for reflective teaching is on the spot observation of the
students’ responses. As a teacher, ask yourself the following questions so
that you can reflect on the lessons just conducted:

ƒ Were the students motivated to participate in the activity?

ƒ Did the students take part in the discussion?

ƒ Did the students share their views animatedly?

ƒ Were the students given equal opportunity during the

recitation/discussion?

ƒ Was the topic related to the world of the students?

ƒ Would the students be able to apply the science concepts discussed to

their everyday life?

Do not rely solely on the natural process of reflecting on experience. Instead,

you should actively find ways to make reflection a habit. By doing so, you ensure
your continuing development as a professional teacher.

Reflecting on your own past performance is one form of feedback. Keeping a

reflective diary about your own experiences with your class, students and
colleagues, helps you to reflect and learn from experience.

(http:www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/reflection/you/html).
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A sample lesson using reflective teaching is shown in Appendix C. Choose a

topic and prepare a similar lesson guide. Include this output in your portfolio.
Include with it a short reflection about this lesson.

ACTIVITY 2.3

1. Make a poster of your conception of reflective teaching.

2. Explain your poster.

3. Can you use reflective teaching with a class of 75 pupils? Explain your
answer.

4. Of the four strategies presented in this lesson on reflective teaching, which

one would you like to use in your class? Why do you like it?

* Include this output in your portfolio.

READ

Lesson 2.2.4 Integrative Teaching

This is a teaching strategy which puts together the parts of a whole in order to
arrive at a holistic, complete and more accurate view of reality (Corpus and
Salandanan, 2003). It is infused by the multiple intelligences, the varied learning
styles and the daily experiences of the learners. It empowers learners to become life-
long learners and active makers of meaning.

Integrative teaching is a three-level strategy – the facts level, the concept

level and the values level. Students pick up fragmented terms or facts at facts level.
Here, the students move to the concept level when they view and organize the
isolated, fragmented and meaningless facts into concepts. Then, the knowledge
acquired is applied to the learners’ life at the values level.

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Integrative teaching involves the practice of recognizing and articulating

relationships among subject matters and applying learning from one context to
another. It also involves building bridges between the academe and the wider world,
between public issues and personal experience.

Integrative teaching relies on connections built between academic setting on

campus and other settings in the business community, farms, government, churches
and host of other partners.

Advantages of Integrative Teaching

ƒ makes content more meaningful because the content is presented the

way it is in the real world

ƒ is student-centered, involves active learning with the teacher acting as

facilitator of learning

ƒ allows learners to form their own representations of complex topics and

issues

ƒ offers multiple ways for learners to demonstrate the knowledge, skills

and attitudes learned

ƒ gives opportunities for students to work in a context where

interdependence and cooperation are crucial for getting things done

ƒ helps learners develop a variety of social skills

SCQ 2.2

1. What are the features of integrative teaching?

2. Describe the three levels of integrative teaching?

3. How will students benefit from the use of integrative teaching?

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ACTIVITY 2.4

A sample lesson on integrative teaching is given in Appendix D. Using it

as a model, choose a topic and prepare a lesson plan showing how you will
teach the lesson using integrative teaching.

1. How did you feel when you tried the sample lesson on integrative teaching?

2. What difficulties did you meet?

3. What suggestions can you make to improve the lesson?

4. Include your output for this activity in your portfolio.

READ

2.2.5. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning is “the instructional use of small groups through which

students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning.”
Cooperative groups are not the same as students working cooperatively in groups.
In cooperative groups, each member has a valued role in the learning process and
everyone is responsible for each other’s learning. Students take time to reflect on
their personal contributions to the group, on how members perform, and on how the
group may improve.

There are four basic components of cooperative learning. They are as

follows:
ƒ Positive interdependence

This principle emphasizes that the success or failure of the group

depends on the success or failure of each member. Thus, each member of
the group learns to share and work together to attain the shared goal.

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ƒ Individual accountability

This implies that each member of the group is not only responsible for
their own learning but also in helping their fellow students to learn.

ƒ Equal participation

This means that each member has his/her own role, work or load to
achieve the goal of the group. No member should be allowed to dominate
anybody in the group either socially or academically.

ƒ Simultaneous interaction.

This means that students share and openly express their views and
suggestions in a group.

Here are some tips that will help you implement cooperative learning
successfully.

ƒ Be sure to monitor the group and their activities, taking care to ensure that the
groups are functioning as groups and that one student is not dominating the
work.

ƒ Give credit to the teams for their collective work, not the work of one
individual.

ƒ Rotate the roles among the members of the group.

• Create a new group every now and then.

ACTIVITY 2.5

1. Think of one lesson where you can use cooperative learning.

2. Enumerate the steps you are going to follow.

3. Try–out the lesson in one of your classes and write your insights about your
experience in using cooperative learning. Include this output in your portfolio.

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There are different strategies for implementing cooperative learning. Some of

them are shown in Appendix E. Why not try at least one of them?

SCQ 2.3

Answer the following questions briefly:

1. Can you consider all students working cooperatively in groups as cooperative

groups? Explain your answer.

2. Cite some advantages of using cooperative learning.

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LESSON 3
OTHER TEACHING STRATEGIES

INTRODUCTION
Other than the teaching strategies discussed in Lesson 2, there are other
strategies you can choose from. Remember, there is no one best strategy. Your
choice as to what strategy to use depends on the factors cited in Lesson 2. Can you
still recall them?

OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

ƒ describe other teaching strategies; and

ƒ prepare sample lessons using some of the strategies discussed.

Lesson 3.1 Lecture and Student Recitation

You can use the lecture method to explain, demonstrate, and present
information on the topic to be taken up. It is not necessary for the teacher to do the
lecturing all the time. For example, if your lesson is on diversity, you may invite an
expert on biodiversity from the National Museum, Department. of Environment and
Natural Resources or from a nearby university. Lectures may vary in form. Table 3.1
lists variations of the lecture. Demonstration teaching, practice and drills, and review

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are considered variations of the lecture because they are expository in nature. These
strategies are all teacher-centered.

Table 3.1 Different Forms of Lectures

Learning/teaching What it is How to use it

strategies
Teacher explains, Teacher uses direct delivery to help
Lecture and
demonstrates, students acquire information; asks
student recitation
presents, asks questions to elicit responses from
questions and student students. Students give responses
answers that provide basis for judging how
much the students learn.

It is similar to lecture Teacher demonstrates an action or

but allows students to skill before the students do the action
Demonstration observe real things themselves. Demonstration by the
and how they work. teacher or a student provides model
of action and establishes expectations.
This strategy is used when the activity
is dangerous or when the materials
are limited.

It goes over the This is done to consolidate, clarify

instructional material, and emphasize what the students
process or skills just learned.
learned. Drill involves
Practice or drill
repeating the
information until it
becomes permanent
memory.

This is re-learning or This is done in the form of summary at

re-teaching and it is the end of the lesson, quizzes, games,
Review intended to reinforce outlines, discussions, and questioning
what was previously sessions.
learned.

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Lesson 3.2 Role Playing and Simulation

Everyday we encounter situations where people are in conflict or faced with a

dilemma of some sort. Take the need to have a supply of wood for construction
material as an example. This means trees have to be cut from the forests. However,
our forest cover is getting smaller. So, we are faced with a dilemma, “Are we going to
ban logging completely?” or “Are we going to practice selected logging?” Role
playing can be used to dramatize the situations. Majority of the class members
observe and analyze the components of enactment. After the role play, discussion
follows.

An alternative to this is a simulation wherein students are placed in a situation

that models a real life phenomenon. For example, Barangay A has a population of
ten thousand ((10,000). One pressing problem of the barangay is a build up of
mountains of garbage. If a person produces three (3) kilograms of garbage everyday
how soon can a barangay accumulate a mountain of garbage with a bulk of
20,000,000 kilograms of garbage?

Lesson 3.3 Field Trips

The field trip is a vehicle by which science can be learned and taught. Krepel
and Duvall (1981) defined field trip as "a trip arranged by the school and
undertaken for educational purposes, in which the students go to places where the
materials of instruction may be observed and studied directly in their functional
setting”(Michie, M., 1998). Biology teachers and students could observe organisms
in their native habitat to describe behavior and other biological functions of living
organisms. Chemistry teachers can bring their students to industries to observe or
experience actual processes which are simulated or discussed in classrooms.
Physics teachers can bring their students to theme parks like Enchanted Kingdom to
discuss physics in the playgrounds. Science teachers can also carry out field work
which indicates formal exercises to be conducted in the field. It is a subset of field
trip. An example of formal exercises to be conducted in the field is the relation
between dissolved oxygen and the depth and water temperature of a lake, river, or
ocean. Another is the distribution of planktons at different times of the year. Field
trips are valuable for cognitive and affective development of the students.

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There are many places where you can take your students for a field trip.
Some of these places are the science museum, science centers, zoos ( Manila Zoo,
Malabon Zoo, Avilon Zoo, Island Cove Animal Santuary in Cavite, ) aquariums,
planetariums, field study or nature centers, farms ( hydroponics in Tagaytay City),
and universities with special facilities such as seed banks and gene banks at the
University of the Philippines in Los Banos, Laguna,

Field trips provide the opportunity for hands-on, real world experiences,
improved quality of education, motivation and development of positive attitude
towards the subject, improvement of the socialization between students as well as
development of rapport between teachers and students.

Planning a Fieldtrip

The following are the steps that you should take when planning a field trip:

1. Look at the course syllabus.

2. Match topic with facility to be visited.

3. List the objectives of the field trip.

4. Prepare activities.

5. List places to be visited.

6. Inquire through the phone, e-mail, or visit the place.

7. Make arrangements with the chosen venues.

8. Give formal notice to the school administrators. Present the following papers
to the department head, principal, dean, director, guidance councilor,
president and other school officials concerned:

a. three places for them to decide on

b. safety measures

c. expenditures

d. transport

e. food arrangement

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9. Send letters to parents which include parent’s permit forms and fieldtrip
rules. Both forms are to be signed and returned to teachers on or before a
specified date. Without them, the students should not be allowed to join
even if they have paid for the fieldtrip expenses.

10. A week before the fieldtrip, conduct an orientation. During the orientation,
the students must be informed about what to bring and what to wear. If
students have medical problems, clearance from the doctor is important.
Without such clearance, the teacher has to prepare alternative activities for
these students.

11. If the fieldtrip involves field work, then students must bring with them
procedures of activities.

12. Pack the laboratory equipment and chemical reagents needed in the field
activities a day or two before the scheduled trip.

13. Prepare the itinerary of travel and distribute it to students a day before the
scheduled trip.

SCQ 3.1

1. Using a Venn diagram, compare and contrast review and drill.

2. Before conducting a field trip, the teacher should orient the students. What
should you include in the orientation?

Lesson 3.4 Concept Mapping

A concept map is a special form of a web diagram for exploring knowledge

and gathering and sharing information. Concept mapping is employed to develop
connections among concepts in the unit. A concept map consists of nodes or cells
and links. The nodes contain the concepts and are usually enclosed in a box or
circle. The links are represented by arrows. The labels in the links explain the

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relationship between the nodes. The arrow describes the direction of the relationship
and is read like a sentence.

A concept map may be used to:

ƒ develop an understanding of a body of knowledge;

ƒ explore new information and relationships;

ƒ access prior knowledge;

ƒ gather new knowledge and information;

ƒ share knowledge and information generated; and

ƒ organize structures or processes such as written documents,

constructions, web sites, web search multimedia presentations.

How would you help students make a concept map? Here are some tips.

1. Identify major and minor concepts of the topic under study.

2. Organize the concepts from most important to less important.

3. Tell them to write the major idea at the center of the paper.

4. Write the next major ideas as the next layer. Connect these ideas
to the major idea with lines and proper linking words.

As an assessment tool, the concept map will give you information on how the
student relates the identified concepts from the lesson. This way, you can be sure
that students understand the lesson. A concept map about matter is shown on the
next page.

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Notice that the concepts are linked by lines and there are link words between
concepts to show the relationship. A concept map can be a group work or an
individual activity. You will find other examples of concept maps in Appendix F.

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ACTIVITY 3.1

My Concept Map

Materials: An article or a reading material about the thinning of the ozone layer.

What to do

1. Get a reading material in science.

2. Identify major and minor concepts of the topic under study.

3. Organize the concepts from important to less important.

4. Write the major idea at the center of the paper.

5. Write the next major ideas in the next layer. Connect these ideas to the major
idea with lines and proper linking words.

3.5 Games

Children love to play games. Games can teach children to work together as a
well-coordinated team. It develops coordination skills which are necessary to perform
delicate jobs. Basketball can be used to teach motion in physics. Billiards can be
used to develop functional understanding about momentum. Tug-of-war is a good
analogy for developing concepts about balanced or unbalanced forces either in
physics or chemistry.

Puzzles, cartoons, humor, magic, and jokes can also be used in the science
classrooms. They make science learning fun and enjoyable for learners.

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SCQ 3.2

Directions: Write the letter of the best answer.

1. There are a lot of low-achievers in Mrs. Teodoro’s science class. What

strategy should be avoided?

a. Lecture Method
b. Drill practice
c. Discussion
d. Independent research
2. This is a strategy where the students are provided the opportunity to learn
an event by observing some of their classmates performing the activity in
front of the class under the direction of the teacher.

a. Project-based learning
b. Demonstration
c. Exposition
d. Lecture
3. In which of the following situations is demonstration likely to be used as a
strategy in a science class?

a. The teacher wants to develop students’ interest in science.

b. The lesson calls for the use of recycled materials.
c. There is danger in the use of some materials.
d. The activity is quite long and complicated.
4. For what purpose can a concept map be used?

a. as an advanced organizer
b. as an assessment tool
c. as a summary
d. all of the three

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TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM LESSON 4: INCORPORATING RESEARCH IN
THE CLASSROOM

LESSON 4
INCORPORATING RESEARCH IN
THE CLASSROOM

INTRODUCTION
Secondary schools may be classified into science high schools and general
secondary schools. The students in the science high schools are required to do
research. Thus, research I and II are part of the curriculum. The students in general
secondary schools do not have research courses. However, they are encouraged to
do research in the form of investigative projects so they can participate in the Intel-
DepEd (formerly Intel-DOST-SEI Science Fair) and Association of Science
Educators in the Philippines Science Fair.

Doing an investigative project or conducting research in science classes is

actually the application of the scientific method. This lesson will help you to assist
students conduct investigative projects.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

ƒ identify research problems from a body of collected facts;

ƒ formulate hypothesis/hypotheses to explain the identified problem/s;

ƒ design simple investigation to test the hypothesis/ hypotheses; and

ƒ prepare an investigative project proposal.

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READ

4.1 What is the scientific method?

The concern of science is the natural world. Its goal is to discover the
underlying patterns in it and then use this knowledge to make predictions about what
should or should not be expected to happen given certain facts or circumstances.

How does one discover patterns in the natural world or develop new scientific
facts? There is no simple way to do it. However, there are guidelines one can use.
We shall take a look at these steps through the discovery of Lyme disease, a
disease first observed in Lyme, Connecticut, U.S.A.

Step 1. Look for and accumulate facts like a detective

Several decades ago, a scientist by the name of Allen C. Steere noticed that
some people were suffering from a non-contagious disease. He noted that the
affected adults and children were diagnosed to be suffering from rare rheumatoid
arthritis. It is rare for children to get the disease. So, he collected more facts. Some
facts collected about the disease were :

1. Most victims lived in heavily wooded area.

2. The disease was not contagious.

3. The symptoms appeared in summer.

4. Victims remembered a strange bull’s eye rash occurring several

weeks before the symptoms appeared.

Step 2. Develop a working tentative answer to explain the collected facts

From the facts collected, Allen C. Steere thought that the disease was
caused by a microbe mostly transmitted by the bite of an insect or tick. What he
stated was just a tentative explanation. This tentative explanation to the problem is
called hypothesis. It guides you in planning what experiment to conduct or what
facts to collect. Steere used inductive reasoning because he collected facts to
formulate the tentative explanation. However, you can also use deductive reasoning
to formulate hypothesis by starting from a general idea to specific ideas/facts.
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Step 3. Design an experiment to test the tentative explanation.

Steere tested his hypothesis by getting blood samples from victims. He was
not able to find the microbe that could have been transmitted by the tick. In 1977, a
victim saved the tick, Ixodes dammini that bit him. The tick was submitted to tick-
borne diseases expert, Willy Burgdorferi. The expert isolated a spirochete (a
bacterium) from the tick. The same bacterium was isolated from the blood of victim.
The new spirochete was named Borrelia burgdorferi.

Step 4. Accept, modify or reject hypothesis on the basis of extensive testing.

The data collected by Burgdorferi supported the hypothesis that the tick-borne
disease is due to a microbe transmitted by tick. The rare rheumatoid arthritis is called
Lyme disease, after the place where it first occurred.

The hypothesis about the Lyme disease became a scientific theory. A

scientific theory is a well-tested and widely accepted view that scientists agree on
because it explains certain observable facts.

Some concepts in science are formulated into scientific law. A scientific law is a
generalization about the behavior and nature from which there is no known deviation
after observation or experiment.

It is narrower in scope than a theory and it can be expressed mathematically.

Some examples of laws are Newton Laws of Motion, Charles’ Law, and the
Universal Law of Gravitation.

The process just described is called the scientific method. The scientific
method is not a standard recipe for studying the natural world. This is an investigative
strategy wherein the students learn to apply theories they learned in science classes.
It is also a strategy which develops the ability of students to work independently and
creatively.

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For a detailed discussion on how to conduct science investigative projects, you

may read Appendix G. This will be very useful to you when you become a project
adviser of students conducting science investigative projects. Who knows, you might
produce winners in international science fairs.

ACTIVITY 4.1

Helping students do an investigative project

1. A student wants to conduct an investigative project that has something to do

with a rice field. If you are the teacher of the student, how will you help this
student?

2. Following the steps discussed in the module, write the steps that you are going
to follow to help the said student in conducting an investigative project.

ACTIVITY 4.2

Finding topics in the science text as a starting point for an investigative

project

1. Look at your book in science and list down at least 5 topics where you can
incorporate scientific research.

2. Advising students how to conduct an investigative project will require extra

effort and time from you. Are you willing to be a science project adviser?
Explain your answer.

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LESSON 5
CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

INTRODUCTION

While instruction is going on or after teaching a science concept, you may want
to gather information about a student’s understanding of the science concept just
discussed in the class. You may also want to find out how the planned lesson went
and how well you have implemented it. How will you do all these? Well, you can
conduct a classroom assessment of student achievement. Assessment is an
information-gathering and a decision making process which includes observing
students as they work, listening to their answer during discussions, and examining
the results of the teacher-made and standardized tests (Kauchak and Eggen, 2001).
What do you assess in your students? How will you go about in assessing them?
You will know the answers to these questions as you go through Lesson 5.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to do the following:

ƒ differentiate assessment, measurement, and evaluation;

ƒ differentiate formative assessment from summative assessment;

ƒ compare and contrast traditional and authentic assessment

ƒ describe the different forms of authentic assessment; and

ƒ explain the merits of authentic assessment.

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READ

Assessment may be formative or summative in nature. You do formative

assessment when you ask questions while discussion is going on. You do summative
assessment when you give a test at the end of the topic. If you want to know the prior
knowledge of the students about the topic as well as their strengths and weaknesses,
then you can administer a diagnostic test to determine where to start your instruction.
Assessment has two components – measurement and evaluation.

Measurement includes all Evaluation refers to the decision

information the teacher gathers teachers make on the basis of
concerning student measurement. Assigning grades is
performance. the most common form of evaluation.

What are the sources of assessment

information?

Authentic assessment (Kleinheider, 1996)

ƒ Performance-based Assessment
Traditional Assessment ƒ Portfolio
ƒ Fill-in-the blanks ƒ Concept Mapping
ƒ Matching type ƒ Creative Assessment
ƒ True or false type ƒ Journals and Oral Interviews
ƒ Multiple choice type ƒ Problem Tests
ƒ Short –answer question ƒ Diagrams or Picture Types of Tests
type ƒ Practical Assessment
ƒ Self-evaluation

Traditional Assessment versus Authentic Assessment

Traditional assessment has the following characteristics.

ƒ It focuses on knowledge and recall of information. .

ƒ It tends to reveal only whether the student can recognize, recall or "plug in"
what was learned out of context (Grant, 2003).

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ƒ It provides little insights into the way learners think.

ƒ It relies on indirect or proxy 'items'--efficient, simplistic substitutes from which

we think valid inferences can be made about the student's performance
(Atherton, 2003).

ƒ It is usually limited to paper-and-pencil, one- answer questions.

ƒ It asks the student to select or write correct responses, but does not provide
reasons for their choice.

ƒ It does not assess student’s ability to apply their understanding to real world
problems (Kauchak & Eggen, 2001).

ƒ It provides rare opportunity to plan, revise and substantiate responses even

when there are open-ended questions.

ƒ It standardizes objective "items”; hence, it has one right answer.

ƒ It is easy for teachers to check.

One commonly used traditional assessment tool is the multiple choice test.
A multiple-choice test item consists of a stem and options. The student has to
choose from a number of options. In most forms, one of the options is the correct
answer and the others are distractors. This test is effective for testing knowledge
and memory and for problem-solving in convergent subject areas. It is easy to
administer to large number of students. However, have in mind that a good multiple
choice question is difficult to prepare. Knowledge of a topic that is to be assessed by
multiple–choice test may encourage students to memorize discrete items of
information, rather than develop an overall understanding of the topic (Atherton,
2003).

Traditional assessment is not the only way to gauge the achievement of the
students. There are many classroom situations in which you may need to use non-
paper-and-pencil tests to gather information about your pupils’ achievement. Some
of these are the development of different science process skills, manipulating a
microscope, measuring, and social skills such as cooperation, courtesy and
leadership. To gather appropriate information about such performances, you need
to observe and judge each of your pupil’s/student’s actual performance or products.
Assessment in which pupils/students create an answer or a product that
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demonstrate their knowledge and skills are called performance-based

assessment. This kind of assessment is a form of authentic assessment.

Performance-based assessment is concerned primarily with the student’s

ability to translate knowledge into observable performance or products. It has the
following characteristics:

• is concerned primarily with the pupil’s/student’s ability to translate knowledge

into observable performance or products;

• requires pupils/students to manipulate equipment, to solve a problem, or

make analysis;

• gives insights of pupil’s/student’s conceptual and procedural knowledge;

• can be used to chart the progress of each member of the class;

• provides rich evidence of the level of performance skills; and

• is time-consuming to construct and administer but produces rating forms that

can be repeatedly used with the same or new pupils/students.

SCQ 5.1

1. Using a concept map, compare and contrast traditional and performance-

based assessment.

2. Why do most teachers still use the traditional forms of assessment?

Performance comes in many forms – oral contribution in a class, laboratory

work, event task, and extended task. The latter forms of performance tasks are
described below.

In event task, students are given a set of materials with minimal instruction.
The students are told to make predictions first before they perform the activity.
An extended task is an activity that allows students to connect the science concepts

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learned in the classroom to the home environment. The situations on the next page
demonstrate the difference between an event task and an extended task.

Event Task Extended Task

You just learned that compounds are If you eat a lot of green mangoes, you
either acids, bases or salts. Many of experience stomach indigestion.
these substances are present in food.
Which of the following substances is
the probable remedy?
The tongue contains taste buds.
Draw the tongue.
a. coffee
b. milk
Predict which part of the tongue is
c. tea
sensitive to acidic, basic and salty
d. antacid
food.
Explain your answer.
Taste the acidic, basic and salty food.
Note the part of tongue that senses
What is the scientific basis of your
these foods.
answer?
Does your prediction agree with the
Present your work through a poster,
results of the activity? Submit the
flow chart, or a narrative report.
results of the activity in journal form.

Your assessment may be based on observations of student’s performance or

samples of various performances done by the student (Atherton, 2003). How can
you obtain observations about your students’ performance? You have several
options. These include:

1. Systematic observations

These are observations obtained when you make notes describing learner’s
performance according to preset criteria (Eggen, 2001). Box 5.1 shows a typical
systematic observation to determine if the student has developed the skill in using a
balance.

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Box 5.1 Example of systematic observation

Teacher observes how the student uses the balance using the following
indicators:

1. Holds the balance with both hands.

2. Holds the balance with one hand and swings it.

3. Places the balance on the table with a bang.

4. Places the balance on top of the table carefully, 3 cm from the edge of table.

5. Calibrates the balance.

6. Places a piece of paper on top of the pan of the balance and gets its mass.
7. Puts the object to be weighed on top of the paper and gets the total mass of
the object and the paper.
8. To get the mass of the object, subtracts the mass of the paper from the total
mass of the paper and object.

Note:

Observations 2 and 3 manifest bad practice. It may be deducted from over all
rating.

2. Checklist

The use of a checklist enables you to describe the dimensions that must be
present in an acceptable performance and extend systematic observation. A
checklist is useful for observing behaviors. An example of a checklist is shown Box
5.2.

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Box 5.2 A sample checklist

Tick the skill exhibited by the student in using the balance

______1. Holds the balance with both hands.

______2. Places the balance on top of the table carefully, 3 cm from

the edge of table

______3. Calibrates the balance

______4. Places a piece of paper on top of the pan of the balance and gets
its mass

______5. Records the mass of the paper

______6. Puts the object to be weighed on top of the paper and gets the
mass of the paper and object

______7. Records the mass of the paper and object

______8. Calculate the mass of the object by subtracting the mass of the
paper from the total mass of the paper and object.

3. Rating Scale

This observation instrument can be used to gather observations just like a

checklist. However, rating scales are better to use since there are written
descriptions or dimensions and scales of values on which each dimension is rated.

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Box 5.3 Example of a Rating Scale

Tick Column 3 if you feel the student has done it very well, 2 if the student has
done it well and 1 if the student has done it haphazardly or not well

Rating Scale
Observable Skills of students 3 2 1
1. Holds the balance with both hands.
2. Places the balance on top of the table carefully, 3 cm
from the edge of table

3. Calibrates the balance

4. Places a piece of paper on top of the pan of the
balance and gets its mass
5. Records the mass of the paper
6. Puts the object to be weighed on top of the paper
and gets the total mass of the paper and object
7. Records the total mass of the paper and object
8. Calculates the mass of the object by subtracting the
mass of the paper from the total mass of the paper and
object.

ACTIVITY 5.1

Observation Instrument

1. Choose a skill that you want to assess among your students.

2. Using the samples given in this lesson, prepare the following observation
instruments which you can use in your class:

a. systematic observation b. checklist c. rating scale

3. Include them in your portfolio.

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Portfolio

A portfolio is another assessment tool that you can use to gather information
about your students. Students put together the materials they have produced about a
science concept, e.g. heat transfer in a student portfolio.. The student portfolio
includes products such as worksheets, pictures, assignments completed, data
sheets, written conclusions, experiment reports, maps, stories, plans, tapes, videos,
and other written materials related to the work completed for a unit or course. The
portfolio is highly individualized and students can use it to evaluate themselves and
gain a realistic picture of what they have accomplished in a unit, quarter, semester or
year. According to Atherton (2003), the portfolio

ƒ can be used for other types of assessment such as interview with

student and conference with parents;

ƒ illustrates specific requirements for grade completion;

ƒ can be used as a means of summative evaluation of the student's

learning;

ƒ reflects the nature of the curriculum and the student's success; and

ƒ enhances social skills of the pupils/students.

Anecdotal Records

These are written accounts of significant individual student events and

behaviors that the teacher has observed. It provides information about the learner,
the date of observation, name of the teacher observing, and a factual description of
the event. These records can provide you with quick, written refresher of the
progress, problems, and activities of students.

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SCQ 5.2

1. Which of the following is administered at the end of the unit?

a. survey test

b. summative test
c. diagnostic test

d. periodic test
2. Which of the following is a means of knowing whether the student
understands the science concepts?

a. Listening to student’s responses to a question asked during discussion

b. Examining the result of the test given at the end of the discussion

c. Observing while the student is doing an experiment

d. all of the above

3. Which of the following is a manifestation of evaluation?

a. Mr. Reyes rates the portfolio of Omni using a checklist.

b. Mr. Reyes puts together the works of Eric.

c. Mr. Reyes gives comments on Eric’s work.

d. None of the above

4. Which of the following is used to visualize relations between ideas?

a. portfolio
b. journal writing
c. concept mapping
d. creative assessment
5. Ms. Cruz would like to find out if Paolo could use the platform balance
accurately. Which would be the most appropriate assessment tool that
Ms.Cruz could use?
a. performance-based assessment
b. creative assessment
c. journal writing
d. oral interview

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ASSESSMENT THROUGH RUBRICS

LESSON 6
SCORING AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
THROUGH RUBRICS

INTRODUCTION

. If you use authentic assessment, you should also use an authentic way of
scoring the work of your students. One authentic way of scoring evidence of student
learning is through the use of a scoring rubric. What is a scoring rubric ? A scoring
rubric is a scoring guide that uses criteria to differentiate between levels of student
proficiency (MacMillan, 2001). The use of a scoring rubric is an innovation for
assessing the accomplishment of student learning at its highest level, with
progressively lower levels further and further from the ideal achievement (Nott, et.al,
1992). It is used to prepare students for the assessment and to assign final grades.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to do the following:

• give criteria to be used in preparing rubric;

• differentiate the different forms of rubrics; and

• make your own rubric.

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READ

Scoring Rubrics

A scoring rubric has several components. It includes one or more dimensions

on which the work of the students is rated, as well as definitions and examples to
clarify the meaning of each trait or dimension. The scoring rubric rating scales may
be numerical, qualitative or a combination of the two. Qualitative rubrics may have
scale points with labels such as:

• Not yet, developing, achieving

• Emerging, developing, achieving

• Novice, apprentice, proficient, distinguished

• No evidence, minimal evidence, partial evidence, complete evidence

A rubric has a uniform set of precisely defined criteria or guidelines that will be
used to judge student work. Examples of criteria are:

1. has knowledge of places where to collect rocks

2. knows what tools to bring for rock sampling

3. identifies rocks through physical and chemical properties

There are many forms of rubric. A rubric with two or more separate scales is
called an analytic rubric. If a rubric uses only a single scale, it is a holistic rubric.
Table 6.1 is an example of a holistic rubric. You can find an example of an analytic
rubric in Appendix G.

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Holistic Rubric by Barbara Schaner (www.gsu.edu/~mstnrhx/457/rubric.htm)

The student's project has a hypothesis, a procedure, collected

data, and analyzed results. The project is thorough and the
Proficient-3points
findings are in agreement with the data collected. There are
minor inaccuracies that do not affect the quality of the project.
The student's project may have a hypothesis, a procedure,
col\lected data, and analyzed results. The project is not as
Adequate-2points thorough as it could be; there are a few overlooked areas. The
project has a few inaccuracies that affect the quality of the
project.
The student's project may have a hypothesis, a procedure,
Limited - 1 point collected data, and analyzed results. The project has several
inaccuracies that affect the quality of the project.

Table 6.2. Holistic Scoring rubric for acid/base experiment

Score Accomplishment
3 pts Understands the procedure before coming to the laboratory. Notes
the color of the unknown solutions and indicator Transfer a specific
volume of the solution to a test tube with the use of pipette.
Introduce indicator drop by drop until the solution changes color.
Reads the pH of the solution by matching color change with the
accompanying color chart of pH paper. Records observation in
tabulated form. Draws appropriate generalizationr
2 pts Reads the procedure of the activity before borrowing glasswares
from the resource center. Does not use the glasswares properly.
Makes correct observation. Draw appropriate generalization with
guidance from the teacher.
1 pt Does not read the procedure. Has little idea about the experiment.
Depends on classmates on what to do next. Can collect correct
observation but unable to draw conclusion without help from teacher
or classmates.

Now, let us see if you can make your own rubric. Please do Activity 6.1

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ACTIVITY 6.1

My rubric

1. After going through this lesson , examine the sample rubrics provided in
this lesson and in Appendix G

2. Get one class activity that you want your students to do in class, e.g.
volcano model, and make a rubric for the particular task.

A good rubric helps teachers define excellence and design ways for the
students to achieve excellence. It communicates to students how to evaluate their
own work. It tells parents and other school stakeholders how students are evaluated
in the schools. The procedures used to judge students’ work in school is
documented to enable learners, teachers and parents to be aware of the learner’s
progress.

SCQ 6.1

1. What is a rubric?
.
2. What are the advantages of using rubric for assessment?

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ASSESSMENT THROUGH RUBRICS

Congratulations! You have finished all the lessons in this module. Are you
ready to take the post test? If you feel you need to take another look at some of the
lessons, then you may do so. If you feel you are ready, please answer the post test,
which will be administrated by your TIP Coordinator.

Good luck! We wish you success in your teaching profession.

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TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Abraham, M.R. and M.S. Cracolice. (1994). “Doing Research On College Science
Instruction,” Journal of College Science Teaching, Vol. XXIII (3): 150 -153

2. ATHERTON J S (2003) Learning and Teaching: Forms of Assessment On-line

UK: Available:
http://www.dmu.ac.uk/~jamesa/teaching/assess_form.htm Accessed: 18 August
2004

3. Brown, T. L..,H.E. LeMay Jr, and B.E. Bursten. (1994). Chemistry: The Central
Science. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey , U.S.A.: Prentice Hall.

4. Burden, P.R. And D. M. Byrd. 1994. Methods for Effective Teaching. London:
Allyn and Bacon

5. Carpio, M.W. 1994. “Easing into Constructivism : connecting Meaningful Learning

with Student Experience,” Journal of College Science Teaching, Vol. XXIII (4) :
210-212.

6. Chiappetta, E. L. 1997. “Inquiry- Based Science: Strategies and Techniques for

Encouraging Inquiry in the Classroom,” The Science Teacher, Vol. 64(7): 22-26.

7. Clough, M.P. 1992. “Research is Required Reading: Keeping up with Profession,”

The Science Teacher , Vol. 59 (7):37- 39.

8. Cothron , J.H, R.J. Rezba , and R.N. Giese. 1989. “What To Keep In Mind During
Experimental Design,” The Science Teacher, Vol. 56 (8): 33 - 35

9. Cothron, J.H, R.J. Rezba, and R.N. Giese. (1993). Students And Research:
Practical Strategies For Science Classrooms and Competitions. Dubuque;
Iowa: Kendall / Hunt Publishing Company.

10. Cross, P. A. & P. Faulkner. The Learning Style Inventory:Convergent validity

Study in an Applied Career Setting Updated: 2005-03-14 http://www.psc-
cfp.gc.ca/ppc/learning_style_inventory_e.htm downloaded on March
29,2005

11. Dunn, Rita and Kenneth Dunn (1987) “Dispelling Outmoded Beliefs About
Student Learning” Educational Leadership pp. 44-59.

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TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM BIBLIOGRAPHY

12. Grant, W. (2004). “The Case for Authentic Assessment “ ERIC Digest., From the
ERIC database

13. Fay ,G. Jr. M. (1991). “The Project Plan, “The Science Teacher, Vol. 58 (2): 40 –
42

14. Dougherty, M.J. (1997). Formative Assessment : Using an instructional model to

improve conceptual learning, The Science Teacher, Vol. 63 (6) : 29-31.

15. Edwards, C. H. (1997). “Promoting Student Inquiry : Methods for developing the
Essential Skilll for Inquiry-Based Investigating,” The Science Teacher , Vol. 64
(7): 18-21

16. Friedl, F. E. (1997). Teaching Science to Children: An Inquiry Approach. San

Francisco: The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.

17. Kleinheider, J. K. (1996). “Assessment Matters,” Science and Children. Vol. 33

(4): 23-25 and 41.

18. Klepper, N.H. (1990). “Lifetime Legacy: The Successful Field Trip,” The
American Biology Teacher , Vol. 52 (4) 245-248.

19. Kauchak, D. P. and Paul D. Eggen: 1998. Learning and Teaching : Research-
Based Methods. London: Allyn and Bacon

20. Leonard , W. H. (1993).” The Trend Toward Research On The Teaching /

Learning Process,” Journal Of College Science Teaching, Vol. XXIII (2) : 76 –
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21. Liu, K. (1995). “Rubrics Revisited,”: The Science Teacher , Vol. 62 (7) : 51.

22. Radford, D.L., L.L. Ramsey and W. C. Deese. 1995.”Demonstration

Assessment,” The Science Teacher, Vol. 62 (7) : 52-55

23. Salandanan, G. S. 2000. Teaching Approaches and Strategies. Quezon City:

Katha Publishing Company, Inc.

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Teacher, Vol. 57 (7): 45 – 48.

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TEACHER INDUCTION PROGRAM APPENDICES

APPENDICES
Appendix A

Science Process Skills

Science Descriptions Examples

Process
Skills

Observing Gathering information about an object Taking note of what happens

or event by using the different senses. when an ice cube on a saucer
is left on the table.

Inferring Making a conclusion based on Explaining why the ice cube

reasoning or past experiences to melted when left on the table
explain observations

Formulating Stating a tentative and testable Beer enhances the growth of

Hypothesis answer to a problem orchids

Identifying Recognizing factors that may affect

variables the result of an experiment Listing factors that are thought
to, or would, influence the rate
of dissolving
Making Identifying choices and choosing a
decisions course of action based on justifiable Analyzing the cost and effects
reasons of the different methods of
disposing garbage and using
justifiable reasons for making a
choice from the alternatives
Making Concretizing information through the
Models use of graphics illustrations or other Constructing a model of an
multi-sensory representations atom, constructing a three-
dimentional model of a cube
Measuring Making quantitative observations by
comparing objects to a standard Determining the dimensions of
a rectangular box
Predicting Making forecast of future events
based on observed information Stating that a 50 ml of water will
require more time to boil than a
20 ml of water.
Using Applying mathematical rules on
Numbers formulas to calculate quantities or Computing the average time for
determining relationships from basic different amounts of water to
measurements boil

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Appendix B
Sample Lesson Using 5- E Learning Cycle

Objectives

After performing the planned activities, the students should be able to:

1. prepare acid-base indicators from plant pigments;

2. identify acidic and basic substances using the plant pigments;
3. give examples of acids and bases found at home and their uses; and

4. practice safety precautions in handling and using acids and bases.

Subject Matter
Acids and Bases
Engage
Recall the following:
1. Compounds are classified into acids, bases, and compounds.

2. Some acids and bases are strong; some are weak

3. Indicators such as litmus paper and phenolphthalein can be used to
identify acids and bases.
Present the situation below to your students.
Suppose you want to find out which among the substances in your home are
acids and bases. You don’t have any litmus paper or phenolphthalein. What will you
do?

Explore
Let the students do Activity No. 1 Acid-Base Indicators from Plant Pigments.

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Activity 1
Acid-Base Indicators from Plant Pigments

Materials : shampoo tea test tube alcohol

detergent baking soda test tube rack plastic spoon
milk toothpaste medicine dropper grains of sand
coffee bleaching agent mortar & pestle
plant parts such as
gumamela flower (GF)
red cabbage (RC)
periwinkle flower (PF)
balete fruit (BF)
purple camote top ( PCT)

Procedure:
1. Collect colored parts of plants as listed.
2. Cut it into pieces and place it into the mortar with some grains of sand.
3. With the use of a pestle, grind the plant parts.
4. Add 25 mL 95 % ethanol. Mix well with the use of a spatula or plastic spoon.
5. Prepare standard solution (hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide) from
pH 1–14. Get 14 test tubes and label them 1–14. Transfer 1 mL of each
solution into each test tube. Add 3-5 drops extract of plant part in each of the
test tubes. Note the color of extract in each solution. Record your observation
in a table as shown below.
Plant Color Change of Plant Extract at Specific pH of the Standard Solution
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
GF
PF
PCT

6. Prepare a 2 % aqueous mixture of each substance to be tested and transfer

one mL of the mixture into a test tube. Place the test tube in a test tube rack.
7. Using a medicine dropper, add 3-5 drops of the plant extract into the test tube.

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8. Note the color change as soon as you drop the plant extract. Get the pH of
the solution by comparing it to your standard (Step 5).
9. Repeat steps 6 -8 for each substance listed under materials.
10. Once you have tested all the substances, prepare a table as shown below.

Name of Color change with the plant extract Sour Base

substances (Acid) (bitter)
Shampoo
Milk
Detergent
Tea
Coffee
Baking soda
Bleaching agent
Toothpaste

Explain
Which of the household substances are acidic? Which substances are basic ?
You can answer the questions by comparing the color change of the extract in
solutions found in the second table with the color change of extract in hydrochloric
acid solution/sodium hydroxide solution. From these two tables you can deduce that
milk, tea, coffee and bleaching agent are acids. Shampoo, detergent, baking soda
and toothpaste are bases.

Elaborate

Present the situation below to the students

Some of us suffer from indigestion or stomach problem in the morning. Our

parents would tell us to drink milk, coffee, or tea. Is this a good advice or
practice?

One cause of indigestion or stomach problem in the morning is hyperacidity.

At first coffee, milk or tea may help. In the long run, the problem will worsen.
Why? Tea, milk and coffee are acidic.

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What is the best remedy for indigestion? You are supposed to take antacids.

Antacids are basic substances. When taken, it combines with acid to produce
neutral substance. So you are relieved of discomfort in the stomach.

What do shampoo, detergent, and toothpaste have in common? The three

products are cleansing agents. The toothpaste reacts with acids produced in the
mouth by microorganism when they feed on sugary foods left between the teeth.
If these acids are not removed, plaques will grow, and will result in tooth decay.
Shampoo removes greasy dirt from the hair while detergent removes the dirt from
dirty clothes and greasy plates.

Evaluate

You may use a pencil and paper test (traditionals) or performance-based

assessment (authentic). Below is an example of performance-based assessment.

You are given the following solutions:

5 % table sugar solution
5 % table salt solution
ampalaya or bitter gourd extract
fresh calamansi/lemon juice
tongue spatula or depressor
Instruction
1. Draw a human tongue. You may copy the drawing of a tongue from a
book.
2. Dip the spatula in the sugar solution.
3. Touch any part of your tongue with the spatula dipped in sugar
solution. Note the part of your tongue that is sensitive to sweet taste.
4. Mark the part of the tongue that sensed the sweet taste.
5. Gurgle with clean water to wash your tongue.
6. Repeat steps 2-5 for salt solution, ampalaya extract and lemon juice.
7. Which part of your tongue enables you to detect sour, bitter, salty or
sweet - tasting foods?

There are many ways to evaluate the performance of the students in this activity.
You can rate them on how they performed the activity, how they organized the
data, and how they drew the tongue.

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Appendix C

Doing Reflective Learning in the Classroom

Topic: The use of radioactive substances

Objectives:
1. Give examples of useful radioactive substances.
2. Indicate the use of the radioactive substances given.
3. Consider the risks and benefits derived from the use of radioactive
substances.
4. Manifest values such as awareness, safety, and cooperation.

Working group: Group students into three, each consisting of 4-5 students.
Each group is given a study material such as the one shown in the box.

Study material: Useful radioactive material

A radioactive substance can be used to study reaction mechanism. A good

example of this is Oxygen–18. The radioactive oxygen in the form of water or carbon
dioxide was used by Calvin to find out the source of oxygen gas released by plants during
photosynthesis.

Radioisotopes are also used to determine the age of artifacts or fossils. Carbon-14,
Uranium-238 and Potassium-40 are commonly used in radioactive dating techniques.
These are also used to determine the structure of substances. The energy released
during reactions involving the nucleus of radioactive substances is harnessed to generate
electricity.

The most profound application of radioactive substances is as diagnostic or

therapeutic tool in medicine. Sodium-24 is injected into the bloodstream as salt solution to
trace the flow of blood and detect constrictions or obstruction in the circulatory system.
Iodine-131as sodium iodide is given as drink to a patient and is used to test the activity of
the thyroid gland. Iodine-123 is used to image the brain. Solution of Technetium –m99 ,
introduced into the patient as drink or intravenous injection, provides images of the organs
such as the heart, liver or lungs.

The application of radioisotopes in medicine, agriculture, industry and research has

benefited mankind. However, radiation has created problems, too. It damages tissues and
can cause cancer.

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What to do: Give time for each group to do the assigned tasks.

Group 1 Members express their ideas about the risks and benefits of
radioactive substance through journal writing. If anyone in the group has been
exposed to radioactive substance, let them recount their encounter.
Group 2 Members tell the many uses of radioactive substances through a
poster or drawing. A representative of the group explains poster to
the class.
Group 3 Members prepare a role play about accidents involving radioactive
substances.

Abstraction about the lesson/topic

1. Class discussion

a. Give examples of radioactive substances.

b. Give the characteristics of radioactive substances.

c. Enumerate the uses of radioactive substances.

d. Cite the dangers of radioactive substances.

e. React to the following:

e.1. preserving food through irradiation

e.2. buying irradiated food

e.3 undergoing radiation therapy if the doctor prescribes it.

2. Lesson summary

Values Integration: Use of questionnaire

1. How many times do you think should an individual normally

undergo X-ray exposure per year?

2. Who should decide whether an individual should undergo X-

ray exposure?

3. Will you be willing to undergo radiation therapy if you have

cancer? Explain your answer.

Assessment: The output of the student will be assessed and scored through rubrics.

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Appendix c.1.
A Sample Lesson on Reflective Learning
for Elementary Science

Objectives:

At the end of the period, the students should be able to:

1. count the number of calories of the food they have eaten for the last 24
hours;
2. compute for the daily required number of calories based on their weights
and activity; and
3. evaluate if they eat the right kind of food everyday.

Subject Matter:
Calorie Counting

References:
Food Pyramid
Nutrition Guide
Textbook in Science

Planning:

1. A day before this lesson, tell the students to do the following:

1.1. List down the food they have eaten for
- Breakfast
- Morning Snack
- Lunch
- Afternoon snack
- Dinner
1.2. Note the quantity of each food taken

What to do in the class:

1. Post the Nutrition Guide on the Blackboard

2. Tell the pupils to:

2.1. List down the activities they frequently do and classify them into active,
moderately active and very active.

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2.2. Compute their daily calorie requirement according to the following formula:

Calorie needs of inactive person = weight x 12

Calorie needs of moderately active person = weight x 16

Calorie needs of very active person = weight x 20

Example:

A basketball player weighs 120 lbs. His calorie requirement can be

computed by multiplying his weight by 20. Thus,

120 lbs x 20 = 2,400 calories

2.3. Given the following data, let the pupils determine their calorie intake

Food item Calories * Food Item Calories *

1 cup rice 60 6 pcs. biscuits 10

1 pc. banana 30 1 serving of meat 65
1 pc. hotdog 20 1 reg. sized fish 30
1 cup veg. 25 1 pc. hamburger 70

2.4. Let the pupils answer the following questions in their journal

a) Did you exceed your required number of calorie intake?

b) What do you think will happen if you often exceed the required
number of calories?

c) Will a person need the same number of calories everyday? Why do

you say so?

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Appendix D
Sample Lesson on Integrative Learning in the Classroom

Topic: Charles’ Law

Learning Objectives:

After performing the planned activities, the students should be able to:

1. describe the relationship between temperature and volume of gas at

constant pressure.

2. state and explain Charles’ Law with the use of a graph.

3. Solve problems involving Charles’ Law.
4. identify situations where Charles’ Law is applied in our day to day
activities.

Motivation: “Name dropping madness”

Teacher: “I have pictures posted on the board. From the first letter of the word
associated with the picture, form a word or words that has/have something to do with
gases

Note: Pictures should be posted so that the letters are jumbled.

ACTIVITY

1. Get three balloons of the same size. The balloon should be a sphere when
inflated with air.
2. Get three clean glass bottles and three small basins.

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3. Attach the balloon to the mouth of the glass bottle e.g. coca cola bottle.
Secure the balloon with a rubber band.
4. Stand each bottle in a small basin.
5. Pour hot water into the first basin, very cold water into the second basin, and
lukewarm water into the third basin. Observe.
6. With a string, measure the circumference of the balloon. Get the radius of the
balloon from the circumference.
7. From the radius of the balloon, compute the volume of gas inside the balloon.
8. Graph data and interpret the graph.
Post-activity
1. From the graph, describe how the volume of the gas inside the balloon varies
with the temperature.
2. What principle is shown in the activity?

3. Express mathematically the relationship between the volume of gas inside the
balloon and the temperature.
4. Solve some problems about relationship between gas volume and
temperature.
Concepts Learned:
• Gases expand when heated.
• The volume of a fixed amount of gas increases with temperature
Integration Activities
Let each group perform the following activities:
Group I – Compose a jingle/rap on Charles’ Law
Group II – Write a poem about Charles’ Law
Group III – Write a letter to a friend about Charles’ Law
Group IV – Draw a poster showing the applications of Charles’ Law
Note: A rubric may be used to rate each presentation.

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Appendix E- 1
Sample Lesson Using Cooperative Learning
(Jigsaw II)

Objectives:

At the end of the period, the students should be able to

1. describe the different layers of the atmosphere;
2. locate the ozone layer;
3. give the importance of the ozone layer;
4. discuss how people’s activities affect the ozone layer; and
5. suggest ways by which the ozone layer can be protected

Planning

1. Topic: The Importance of the Ozone Layer

2. Assign a topic to each group. The topics may include the following:
a. layers of atmosphere and the location of the ozone layer;
b. graph of temperature variation with altitude;
c. action of ultraviolet radiation on oxygen and ozone;
d. depletion of ozone layer
d.1. substances that deplete the ozone layer
d.2. mechanism of ozone layer depletion;
e. effects of the depletion of ozone layer; and
f. people’s action to protect ozone layer.

3. Resources
a. encyclopedia
b. newspaper
c. time magazine
d. Chemistry by Brown and LeMay
e. Internet materials
4. Expert worksheet or chart
a. Chemical Composition of Ozone
1. What elements make up the ozone?

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2. What is its chemical formation?

b. Chart of the layers of atmosphere
1. Where do we find the ozone layer?
2. How high is it from the ground?
3. How thick is the ozone layer?
c. Graph of temperature vs. altitude

1. Describe the temperature at the following layers:

a. troposphere
b. stratosphere
c. mesosphere
d. thermosphere

2. Explain the observed temperature range at the following

layers:

a. troposphere
b. stratosphere
c. mesosphere

d. Role of Ozone Layer

1. Give the importance of the ozone layer to Planet Earth.

2. Describe the manner by which ozone layer performs its function.

e. Condition of ozone layer

1. Describe the condition of the ozone layer.
2. What are the factors that destroy the ozone layer?
3. How is ozone layer damaged?
4. Name the consequences of a depleted ozone layer in the
atmosphere.
f. People’s action to minimize damage to ozone layer
1. Find out what has been done to preserve the ozone layer.
2. As a student, what can you do to help preserve the layer?

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How to do it:

1. Divide the class into groups of 6 members each.

This will be their “mother “group.
2. Assign a number (1-6) to each member of the group. Each member gets a
topic to master. An example is shown below.

Student 1:A. Chemical Composition of Ozone

1. What elements make up the ozone?
2. What is its chemical formation?
B. Chart of the layers of atmosphere
1. Where do we find the ozone layer?
2. How high is it from the ground?
3. How thick is the ozone layer?
Student 2 : Graph of temperature vs. altitude
1. Describe the temperature at the following layers:
a. troposphere
b. stratosphere
c. mesosphere
d. thermosphere
Student 3: 2. Explain the observed temperature range at the following layers:

a. troposphere
b. stratosphere
c. mesosphere

Student 4 : d. Role of Ozone Layer

1. Give the importance of the ozone layer to Planet Earth.
2. Describe the manner by which the ozone layer performs its
function.
Student 5: e. Condition of the ozone layer
1. Describe the condition of the ozone layer.
2. What are the factors that destroy the ozone layer?
3. How is the ozone layer damaged?

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4. Name the consequences of a depleted ozone layer in the

atmosphere.
(Student 5 is the leader and fast learner)
Student 6: f. People’s action to minimize damage to the ozone layer
1. Find out what has been done to preserve the ozone layer.
2. As a student, what can you do to help preserve the layer?
3. Ask the students with the same number to group together. The
new groups are the “expert” groups.
4. The members of the “expert” group share information and put
information together.
5. Then, ask the members of the “expert” group to go back to their
“mother’ group and discuss with their members the topics they
have mastered. All share their expertise.

Evaluation

1. Make a concept map about the ozone layer.

2. Answer the teacher-made test items:

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Appendix E- 2
Sample Lesson Using Cooperative Learning
(Student Teams Achievement Divisions)
Note to the teacher:
STAD is the most basic cooperative- based team learning. It uses teams
with 4-5 members of mixed abilities to master basic skills or topics. Students may use
a variety of methods to master the materials such as quizzing each other and
answering worksheets. This is usually done after the teacher has given a lecture or
has made a presentation on a topic.

Objectives:

After performing the planned activities, the students should be able to:
1. give examples of dietary fibers;
2. discuss the importance of dietary fibers to our health;
3. state the consequences if they miss dietary fibers in their meals regularly; and
4. enumerate diseases caused by the lack of dietary fibers in their daily meals.

What to do:
1. Review the different food groups and their role in our body.
2. Give a lecture on dietary fibers. Use pictures of food rich in fibers,
consequences of not eating high fibers, and diseases suffered by people who
do not eat high fiber foods.
3. Set up Teams
4. Provide teams with worksheets containing questions about
4.1 the different food groups
4.2 the examples of food for each group
4.3 the importance of each food group in our body
4.4 the food group rich in fibers
4.5 the importance of fibers to the body
4.6 the diseases caused by the lack of fibers in the diet
5. Let each team work on their worksheet.
5.1 Every member of the team answers the worksheet individually.

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Sample Worksheet
1. Below is a list of food we usually eat. Add at least six more items to the list.
Ham pasta
Cooked rice boiled sweet potato
2. Group the food in the list into processed and unprocessed food.
3. Which food samples contain fibers?
4. Why do we need to eat food rich in fibers?
5. Give your own list of foods rich in fibers.
6. What are the consequences of not eating foods rich in fibers?
7. Give your own experiences when you did not eat foods rich in fibers.
8. Do you have relatives and friends suffering from diseases due to absence or lack
of fibers in their diet?

5.2. Members ask each other to develop mastery of the subject matter in pairs,
triad, and so on.
6. Team is given a quiz.

Quiz
I. Direction: Encircle the letter that best answers the question
1. Which of the following is a processed food?
a. cassava b. boiled banana c.fried banana d. pandesal
2. Which of the following foods have lots of fibers?
a. slice of guyabano c. slice of pineapple
b. sweet potato d. all three have fibers
3. What kind of food groups are present in cassava?
a. lipid c.carbohydrate
b. protein d. all three are present
II. Answer as directed
1. Why do we have to include dietary fibers in our diet?

7. Calculate improvement points to recognize individual and team with highest

improvement points.

Key to correction

I
1. d 2. d 3. c
II
1. dietary fibers in our diet act as a broom in the large intestines. They also
prevent undigested matter from being well-dehydrated and hardened to avoid
constipation.

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Appendix E.3

Cooperative Learning for the Elementary Level

(Jigsaw I)

Objectives:

At the end of the period, the students should be able to do the following:

1. identify plant parts;

2. give the function/s of each plant part;and
3. indicate the uses of plants to
a. man
b. other living things
c. environment

Topic : Parts of the plant

Planning

1. Draw the parts of the mongo plant on a white cartolina.

2. Cut the plant parts into 5 pieces each.
3. Place the cutouts of each plant part in separate envelopes.
4. Seal the envelopes.

Note. If the class is composed of 25 pupils or less, only one set per
plant part may be prepared. Prepare two or three sets per plant part for
a class bigger than 25 pupils/students.

Resources

a. encyclopedia
b. textbook in Science and Health

Materials

a. Crayons
b. Paste/glue
c. Bond paper

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Implementation

1. Divide the class into groups of 5 members each. Each group is composed of 5
pupils.
2. Give an envelope to the leader of the group.
3. Let the leader distribute the cutouts to members of the group.
4. Instruct all the groups to put together the pieces to form a figure. Give the
group 2 minutes to come up with the figure
5. Give corresponding points to the group that completes the task in less than two
minutes.
6. Ask each group what plant part they formed.
7. Tell each group to do the following:
a. give the unique characteristics of the part of the plant shown in the figure;
b. paste the figure on a bond paper and color the figure appropriately;
c. indicate the role of the plant part;
d. enumerate the specific use/s of the plant part to humans; and
e. identify the plant according to the shape of the plant part the group formed.
8. After completing the task, each group posts the figure on the board to complete
the whole plant and shares the work with the whole class.
9. Let the whole class identify the plant.
10. Summarize the work of the class.
11. Emphasize the roles of plants to
a. humans
b. environment

Evaluation

1. Post a drawing of a whole plant.

2. Let them do the following:

a. label the parts of the plant;
b. give the function of each part;
c. name the plant shown in the picture; and
d. give one use of the plant to you.

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Appendix F

Other Types of Concept Maps

CONCEPT

Spider map

Fish Bone map

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Network Tree

SUB HEADING ILLUSTRATIONS

Graphic Outline

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Appendix G
Doing an Investigative Project in the Classroom

How to Collect Facts

This can be done in many ways. Let us use the case of Erika, a newly hired
chemistry teacher.

Erika’s Options :
Erika’s lesson is about
household products that 1. change the
may taste sour or bitter lesson
but she cannot allow her 2. use pH meter
students to taste it 3. use pH paper
because not all of the 4. use litmus
products are edible. If paper
you were Erika, what
would you do?

Erika did not want to abandon the lesson. So, she went to the
stockroom to find out if the school had instruments to determine if
household products were either sour or bitter. To her dissapointment,
the school did not have pH meter, pH paper, or litmus paper.

Erika looked at the school ground. She thought of investigating the vegetation
in the school ground. We shall do an activity, entitled “Erika’s Trail” to get facts for
her needs.
Activity1. Erika’s Trail
What to bring: pencil
notepad
What to do
1. Move around the school ground.
2. Note the plants with brightly colored leaves and flowers.
3. Get the names of these plants. For the moment, local names will do.
4. List these plants in your notepad.

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Guide Question:
1. Why can Erika use the plants for her lesson?
2. What are the plants that may help solve Erika’s problem?
3. What parts of the plants can Erika use for her lesson?
You have learned one way of getting facts. Books, journals, newspapers, and
surfing through the net help you get facts for an investigative project. You may also
look at the recommendation part of the investigative projects of other students.

Identification and statement of the problem

From Activity I, you learned how and where to get facts. You are now ready to
learn the most important step of the scientific investigation – the identification and
statement of the problem. Below could be the list of plants from your campus trail
which might help Erika. These plants contain pigments which can be used as
alternative for pH meter, pH paper pr litmus paper.

Plant Part of the Plant

1. santan flower
2. Rhoeo discolor leaf
3. gumamela flower
4. yellow bell flower
5. bougainvilla specialized leaf

The selection of a research problem involves reading, discussing, and

conceptualizing. The process is one of successive approximations to the
problem as factors related to the problem are considered (Weirsma, 1995).

What is Erika’s research problem? How do we state the problem? We

shall first define a research problem.

A research problem is a special kind of question that arises in areas in which knowledge
is needed. It may ask questions of practical concern or it may refer to the development or
refinement of basic theory (Weirsma, 1995).

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A research problem may be stated in a question form or declarative form. The

question form is preferable because it aids in focusing the problem and is effective
when subproblems are included within the larger research problem. A subproblem is
a component of the larger research problem.

Major or larger problem

The present investigative project attempts to identify locally

available plants that contain pigments sensitive to the presence of
sour and bitter substance.

Sub problems

1. Which plant can be used as source of pigment sensitive to sour/

bitter substances?

2. What part of the plant is a good source of pigment?

How do you know that the above problem is good? A good statement of a

problem should provide the researcher with direction in pursuing the research. It

indicates the general focus. The key factors are clearly identified

The statement of the problem should be concise and should

identify the key factors (variables) of the research study

A. CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES

We learned how to select and state the research problem. This time we have
to define important terms. The first term is constant. A constant is a characteristic or
condition that is the same for all units in the study. Box 1 lists examples of constants
of the stated problem. .

Box 1. Examples of Another term we should define is variable. A

Constants variable is a characteristic that takes on different
values or conditions for different units. One
1. technique to extract descriptor of a variable is the independent variable.
the pigment The independent variable is the cause of an effect.
It is being manipulated or changed. The second
2. solvent to extract descriptor is the dependent variable. The
the pigment. dependent variable is the outcome of changing the
independent variable.

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Box 2. Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent variable Dependent variable

Kinds of plant color change of the pigment when

Part of the plant dropped into sour/bitter substance

Your variables may be classified as discrete or continuous data. It may be

qualitative or quantitative data. How are variables measured? There is a hierarchy of
measuring scales. Table 1 shows the various levels of measurement and conditions.

Table 1. Measurement scales and their conditions

Scales Conditions Examples

Nominal Measures without order: Brands of toothpastes :
indicates that 2 or more Colgate, Pepsodent, and
classifications are Closeup
different Gender : male or female

Ordinal Measures with order: Leaf quality: wilted, less

indicates that the wilted, very wilted
measurement
classifications are
different and can be
ranked
Interval (or equal unit) Measures with order and Temperature in Celsius
establishes numerically scale
equal distances on the
scale. There is a zero
value but it is not
absolute.
Ratio Contains an absolute or Height
true zero point in addition Temperature in Kelvin
to an equal unit scale

Nominal and ordinal data are qualitative data. It is a count data. Interval and
ratio data are quantitative data. They are measured data.

We shall now classify our independent variables and dependent variables

according to the above scale of measurement.

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Independent variable Scale of measurement

Kinds of plant nominal
Parts of the plant nominal
Dependent variable
Color change nominal
pH interval

Formulating Hypothesis
1. We shall now give the tentative answer to our
problem. How do we call the tentative answer to a
problem? It is called hypothesis.

A hypothesis is a conjecture or a guess at the solution to a problem

or the status of the situation, the relationships of two or more
variables or the nature of some phenomena (Daniels, 2000).

How should a hypothesis be written? There are many types and forms. We shall
look at some of them.

1. Research or substantive hypothesis

This is tentative statement about the expected outcome for the variable of
the study.

e.g. Pigments from plants can be used to determine sour

/bitter substances.

2. Statistical hypothesis
This type of hypothesis is
- a statement about one or more parameters that measures the
population under study.
- a hypothesis of no difference.
- referred to as null hypothesis.

e.g. The color change of pigments from plants in the presence

of sour/bitter substances is as good as that of Ph paper

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Borg and Gail (1989) gave four criteria that hypothesis should satisfy.
1. The hypothesis should state an expected relationship between two or more
variables.

2. The hypothesis should have a definite reason based on theory or evidence.

3. A hypothesis should be testable.
4. A hypothesis should be brief.

Review of Related Literature

Review of literature is a systematic process that requires careful and

perceptive reading and attention to detail. In the review of literature, the researcher
attempts to determine what others have learned about similar investigation. The
guiding principle in literature review should be the location of information relevant to
the study. Where does one get this information? The researcher may get this
information from preliminary studies; carefully described observations made by the
researchers and published information that suggests support for relevant
relationships that might be useful in developing the background for the study. Expert

opinions and speculations, theory and theoretical perspectives can all contribute to
the basis for the study.

The literature is reviewed for information related to the research problem, to

clarify problem, to improve the hypothesis, to suggest possible methodology for
conducting the research and to compose the introduction of the paper. It tells us what
others have done that might be useful. Review of literature provides a backdrop for
interpreting the results of the investigation.

In order not to waste time and effort, the review of literature should be done
following a sequence of activities. You should list the key terms.
With the problem on what to use in determining if household products tasted
bitter or sour, and knowing that the school had no available instruments such as the
pH meter, pH paper, or litmus paper, Erika wanted to know what other materials
could be used. She got the idea that some plants might be used to test the household
products. The key terms in Erika’s problem are listed in Table 2.
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Table 2 Key terms in Erika’s Problem

Problem: Which plant part is a good source of pigment sensitive to sour/bitter
substances?

Some of the key words or phrases relevant to Erika’s investigation

Plant part Bitter substance Solvent
Pigment PH Method of extraction
Sour substance Indicator Acidity
Sensitivity of pigment to color change Alkalinity
acids, bases

With key terms on hand, where would you get information? You could go to the library
or surf through the internet. The key terms will help you do the following activities:

• identify titles of potentially relevant reports

• identify sources of information
• locate copies of reports to be reviewed
• separate reports in order or into categories of relevance or importance,
and delete non-relevant report
• prepare abstracts of summaries for the reports containing relevant
information
• write the review of the literature
• prepare a complete bibliography

What will you do with all the literature materials you have collected? You can
use these in many ways. Use it to compose the introduction of your investigative
project proposal. Samples of an introduction of an investigative paper and review of
related studies are shown on the next page.

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Questions Sample Introduction

1. Why do you conduct the experiment? Office canteens and restaurants

(background or rationale) serve soft drinks to their clients.
Softdrinks are also regularly
consumed at home. Softdrinks are
said to cause gastric hyperacidity.

2. What do you hope to learn? The present study aims to identify

(problem) the brand of soft drinks that is acidic.
Specifically, it seeks answers to the
following problems:
Sub problem:
1. Which brand of soft drink is more
acidic?
2. How does acidity change with
decreasing temperature?
3. What do you think would happen? All soft drinks are acidic. The acidity
(hypothesis) increases with decreasing
temperature.
4. What is the relevance of the study? The results of the study may help
reduce the number of individuals
suffering from hyperacidity.

RELATED STUDIES

Soft drink is an example of carbonated beverages. Carbonated beverage is an

effervescent drink that releases carbon dioxide under conditions of normal
atmospheric pressure (Wyshak,1999). Carbonation can occur naturally in spring
water. As it passes through calcium carbonate rock, it absorbs carbon dioxide at high
pressure underground. It can also be a by-product of fermentation. Beer and
champagne are carbonated beverage, produced by microbial action on carbohydrate.
It can also be carbonated artificially by addition of carbon dioxide under pressure or
addition of chemicals, when combined with acid in the beverage, give off bubbles of
carbon dioxide. Soft drinks such as soda, pop, seltzer and cola belong to artificially
carbonated beverages (http/:www.food consumption.com).

Many curative properties have been attributed to effervescent water such as

aiding digestion and calming nerves (Wyshak, 1999). Consumption of carbonated
beverages is also associated with bone fracture .There is a correlation between bone
fracture among physically active girls and cola consumption.(Wyshak,2000).
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Carbonated beverages become attractive to consumers when they are cold.

The taste has something to do with carbon dioxide that goes into solution at low
temperature and high pressure. The dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with water as
shown below (Manahan, 1993).

Thus, water becomes slightly acidic in the presence of carbon dioxide. It is

also claimed that colas and other soft drinks are acidic due to the presence of citric
acid and phosphoric acid. It is claimed that soft drinks cause hyperacidity. Some soft
drinks contain caffeine. Caffeine in beverages leads to excretory calcium loss.

Designing your Experiment

To avoid pitfalls commonly encountered by beginners and seasoned

researchers, you must have a plan of action. This plan of action is called research
design. There are many kinds of designs. There is no blue print for a research
design. But for every problem, there is an appropriate research design.

The research design suitable to science people is the experimental research

design. It is the structure by which variables are positioned, arranged or built up into
an experiment. It includes the experimental variable (independent variable),
dependent variable and other variables. Experimental designs are often diagrammed
with symbols to indicate the arrangement of the variables and conditions. We call this
diagram as experimental research design diagram. Below is a good example of
an experimental design diagram which summarizes the independent variable,
dependent variable, constants, control, number of repeated trial, problem, and
hypothesis.

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Sample of an experimental design diagram

Problem: What are the locally available plants that contain pigments sensitive to
sour/biter substances
Hypothesis: The color change of pigments from plants in the presence of
sour /bitter substances is as good as that of pH paper

Independent variable
Kinds of Gumamela Santan Cabbage periwinkle univ.indicator
plant
Replication 3 3 3 3 3
Total replications: 5 x 3 = 15
Dependent variable: color change at specific pH
Constants : method of extraction of pigment solvent
number of drops of extract per test test solutions

After you have prepared the diagram of your experiment, translate the diagram
into a procedure. The procedure is written in paragraph form, future tense and
passive voice. Box 5 shows the procedure for the extraction of pigments from plants
which could be used as alternative of pH paper or litmus paper.

Box 5 PROCEDURE
Plant Sample
Santan flowers, specialized bougainvilla leaves and fruit of the balete tree
will be collected from the field.. The collected plant parts will be washed
thoroughly with water. The clean leaves and flowers will be cut into smaller
pieces and placed individually in a plastic bag. The exocarp of the balete tree
fruit will be removed and placed in another plastic bag
Extraction of the pigment
About two (2) grams of the cut up leaves will be weighed and placed in a
mortar. A few clean grains of sand will be added into the mortar. The pieces of
leaves will be ground with a pestle. With the use of a pipette, ten (10) mL of 95
% ethanol will be added to the ground leaves. The mixture will be mixed with a
stirring rod. The mixture will be decanted into an amber bottle. The bottled
extract will be refrigerated.
Preparation of test Solutions
Following the dilution procedure, test solutions with pH 1 – 14 will be
prepared and will be stored in individual reagent bottles.
Testing the pigments
Fourteen clean, dry test tubes of the same volume will be labeled 1-14 and
will be arranged in a test tube rack. Two (2) mL of each solution will be placed
into the test tube. About 3-5 drops of the leaf extract will be added to each test
tube. Color change in each test tube will be noted and recorded.
The same procedure will be followed with the fruit exocarp and flower
extracts.

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Investigative Project Proposal

You can now prepare your investigative project proposal. An investigative

project proposal is a declaration of your intention to do the study. What are the
components of an investigative project proposal? It includes the following:

o Cover page where one sees the title of the paper and the author

o Table of Contents
o Introduction

¾ Background of the study

¾ Statement of the problem
¾ Hypothesis

¾ Significance of the study

¾ Scope and limitation of the study
¾ Definition of terms
o Review of Literature
o Methodology
o Bibliography
o Schedule of activities
o Expected expenses

If you are a student, you can submit this to your teacher. If you are a teacher,
you can submit this to your principal or department head.
The teacher, head or principal examines the proposal and gives some
comments. Based on the comments and suggestions, you can revise the proposal.
This may require a second look before approval is granted. Once your proposal is
approved, you can start the experiment and collect data to be used in answering your
research problems. Write all data in a data notebook.

Finding Patterns of Collected Data

Data collected are raw data. It has no meaning at all. What will you do? You
have to organize the data, e.g. table form. You may construct a graph appropriate to

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the data. Use a pie chart if data are percentages or proportions. Bar graph is used
for count data. Histogram and line graphs are suitable for measured data.

Once data are organized into tables and graphs, you may now find meanings
and patterns, e.g. whether the data support the hypothesis. If there are differences in
the data collected, you have to determine if the differences are significant. You can
do this with the use of statistics. If you are not skilled in that line, you can ask help
from mathematics teachers or experienced researchers.

Communicating results of the study

With data organized and analyzed/interpreted, you can write a scientific paper
or technical report of the study. The procedure is now written in the past tense. The
procedure is followed by results and discussion of results. After the discussion of
results, you compose the summary, conclusion and recommendation of the study.
Improve the bibliography. If you have appendices, computations, pictures, and other
related materials, place them after the list of references.

The last one you will write is the abstract. It is about 250-words. Prepositions
such as of, the, a, etc are counted as one word. You will find in the abstract the
statement of the problem, samples, selection of samples, replications, procedure,
findings, conclusion and recommendation.

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Appendix H
Data Organization Table (Analytic Rubric)

Name ____________________________ Date _______________ Course/Class __________

Task/ Assignment ________________________________________________________

Organization of Table Entering the Data Clarity and Neatness of Table

Into the Table
Expert The data organization table is expertly The information in the data table columns The data table is complete, neat,
(4) designed either by computer or graphic and rows is appropriately organized and attractive, and graphically appealing.
tools and is appropriate for the types labeled. The set of data is recorded
and quantities of data being collected. within the appropriate cells. All
A key or legend for the table is measurements are labeled with the
provided if needed to interpret the correct magnitude (numerical value) and
data. Both the independent and metric unit. The data have an appropriate
dependent variables are clearly number of significant figures. The data
defined within the table and in the title. are amazingly accurate based upon the
The cells within the table are measuring equipment or instrument
appropriately scaled, consistent in being used. Data from multiple trials at
size, with the data fitting completely each level of the independent variable
and clearly within the cells. are clearly shown.

Proficient The design of the data organization The information in the data table columns The data table is neat and presentable.
(3) table is appropriate for the types and is appropriately organized and labeled.
quantities of data being collected. Both The set of data is recorded within the
the independent and dependent appropriate cells. All measurements are
variables are clearly defined within the labeled with the correct magnitude
table and in the title. The data (numerical value) and metric unit. The
organization table is appropriately data have an appropriate number of
sized and clearly displays all the significant figures. Accuracy of the data
collected data. is appropriate to the measuring
equipment or instrument being used.
Data from multiple trials at each level of
the independent variable are clearly
shown.

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Entering the Data

Organization of Table Into the Table Clarity and Neatness of Table
Emergent The design of the organization table is The information in the data table columns The data table is neat and presentable.
(2) somewhat appropriate for the types lacks organization and some labeling.
and quantities of the data being Some of the data are recorded within the
collected. There is some confusion appropriate cells. Some measurements
about the independent and dependent are labeled with the correct magnitude
variables. The data organization table (numerical value) and metric unit. Some
is inappropriately sized and some of data have an appropriate number of
the collected data are missing . significant figures, the accuracy of the
data could be improved with the
measuring equipment or instrument being
used. Multiple trails at each level of the
independent variable are lacking.

Novice Major flaws exist in the design of the Data columns and rows are not Data organization table is neither neat
(1) data organization table. The accurately labeled nor comprehensively nor presentanble.
identification of variables is unclear. completed. Data units are missing.
The size and structure of the table are
not appropriate for the types and
quantities of the data being collected.

Source: Rubrics for Assessing Student Achievement in Science Grades K-12 ,by Hays B. Lantz, Jr .Thousand Oaks,CA: Corwin

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Appendix I

Performance Task
How to Use a Pipette

Steps

1. Check the graduation of the pipette.

2. Rinse the Pipette with distilled water.

3. With a rubber pipette bulb, withdraw 2-3 ml of the solution to be measured.

Hold the pipette in a horizontal position.

Turn and tip the pipette until all inside surfaces have come in contact with the
solution. Drain out and discard this solution.

4. Hold the pipette with your left hand and position the index finger toward the
upper part of the pipette enough to cover the opening. Refer to the Fig. 1

Fig. 1

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5. With the right hand, place the rubber pipette bulb on the end of the pipette.
Squeeze the bulb to empty out the air.

Fig. 2

6. Place the pipette into the solution. Slowly release the pressure on the bulb but
maintain a seal between the bulb and pipette. This allows the liquid/solution to rise
into the pipette up to desired calibration mark.

Fig. 3

Watch the solution rise in the pipette, do not let any solution get into the
bulb.

7. Once the solution is above the desired calibration mark on the pipette, quickly
remove the bulb and press down on the end of the pipette with your index finger. Dry
the outside walls of the pipette with a tissue. Release pressure from your finger very
slightly so that the liquid level slowly drops. If some liquid leaves the pipette
decreasing the volume, repeat steps 6-7.
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Once the bottom of the meniscus has reached the calibration mark on the pipette,
press down firmly with your finger.

Fig. 4

8. Transfer the pipette to the Erlenmeyer flask and remove your finger from the
pipette. Allow the solution to drain at its own rate. Once it stops draining touch the tip
of the pipette against the wall of the Erlenmeyer.

Fig. 5

Do not blow out the remaining solution. The pipette has been calibrated with the last
drop left inside.

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Caution:

1. Do not press the bulb if its tip of the pipette has touched the liquid. This
creates bubbling and may splutter some liquid.
2. Do not release the bulb quickly. This may cause an overflow. If the substance
is concentrated acid, base or dangerous /toxic substance, it endangers your
life.

Note to the Inductee:

If the student followed the steps as sequenced correctly, they would be able to
transfer a correct volume without difficulty. This is performance. You can score the
performance of your student with a scoring rubric.

You can also make a rubric for this. The rubric may be specific or general.

(The steps were modified from Web Site Created by Debbie Owen, Prelab
Presentations by Sophie Lavieri ( June 2004)

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Appendix J

Example of a picture or diagram assessment

This item assesses student’s concept about physical change and chemical change.

In the box are pictures of objects which are found in our environment. Predict the
products if these objects would undergo a chemical change.

fresh egg candle

paper

Identify the kind of change shown in the pictures below:

A B C

D E

Answers: A. chemical change

B. physical change
C. chemical change
D. physical change
E. chemical change

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ANSWER KEY
PREASSESSMENT

MULTIPLE CHOICE:

1. D 11. B

2. A 12. D

3. C 13. C

4. B 14. C

5. A 15. C

6. B

7. C

8. A

9. B

10. A

ASCQ 1.1

1. The science teachers should also include the teaching of the process skills and
scientific attitudes.

2. Science process skills are called life-long learning skills because these are the
skills that will enable the students to cope with the challenges of life.

Reflections (Answers may vary but it is preferred that a science teacher should
give more emphasis to the development of science process skills because once
the students have developed these skills, acquisition of facts will be easy for
them.)

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ASCQ 1.2

1. B

2. C

3. B

4. B

ASCQ 2.1

1. C

2. D

3. A

4. Reflection (Answers may vary) Probable Answer: Yes, through this approach,
students are given the opportunity to correct their misconceptions through first-
hand experiences.

ASCQ 2.2

1. Integrative teaching has the following features:

- It involves the practice of recognizing and articulating relationships

among subject matters.

- It involves applying learning from one context to another.

- It presents the content the way it is in the real world.

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- It is student-centered and involves active learning

- Teacher acts as facilitator of learning

- It gives opportunities for students to demonstrate learnings in several

ways.

2. The three levels of integrative teaching are:

a. Facts level - It is at this level where students pick up fragmented terms

or facts.

b. Concept level - At this level, the students view and organize the
isolated, fragmented and meaningless facts into concepts.

c. Values level - It is at this level where students apply what they have
learned to actual life situations.

3. Through integrative teaching, students realize the relevance of what they learn
in science to their daily lives.

4. Reflections

Answers may vary.

ASCQ 2.3

1. No, because we can only consider a group of students a cooperative group if

each member has a valued role in the learning process and takes
responsibility for each other’s learning.

2. Through cooperative learning, students will develop positive interdependence,

individual accountability, concern for others and cooperation.

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ASCQ 3.1

1.

involves Involves re-

repeating teaching or
the information re-learning
until it is and is
mastered Intended usually done
to reinforce in the form of
what was summary
learned

Drill Review

2. The orientation for a field trip should include the following:

a) Objectives of the field trip

b) What outputs are expected from the students

c) Precautionary measures and proper behavior that should be observed

d) A brief description of the places to be visited

e) Materials / things that should be brought

f) Proper attire for the activity

ASCQ 3.2

1. D
2. B
3. C
4. D

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ASCQ 5.1

1. Concept maps may vary. Below is an example response.

2. Most teachers still use the traditional forms of assessment because they are easy
to check.

3. Answers may vary:

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ASCQ 5.2

1. B

2. D

3. A

4. C

5. A

ASCQ 6.1

1. A. rubric is a scoring guide that uses a set of criteria to differentiate between

levels of student proficiency.

2. Through the use of rubrics, the teacher can; (a) judge or rate the students’ work
more objectively; (b) keep track of the students progress in performing a specific
task; and (c) make the students, parents and other stakeholders aware of how
the students’ work and performance are judged and documented.

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