Bonding HL notes:
Combination of atomic orbitals to form molecular orbitals:
Although the Lewis representation is a useful model to represent covalent bonds
, it does make the false assumption that all the valence electrons are the same. A
more advanced model of bonding considers the combination of atomic orbitals
to form molecular orbitals.
Sigma bonds
A sigma bond is formed when two atomic orbitals on different atoms overlap a
line drawn through the two nuclei. This occurs when two s orbitals overlap, an s
orbital overlaps with a p orbital or when two p orbitals overlap ‘head on’.
Pi bonds :
A pi bond is formed when two p orbitals overlap ‘ sideways on’ . The overlap now
occurs above and below the line drawn through the two nuclei. A pi bond is
made up of two regions of electron density.
HYBRIDIZATION (1)
SP3 hybridization:
Eg: Methane
Methane contains four equal C-H bonds pointing towards the corners of
tetrahedron with bond angles of 109.5 . A free carbon has the configuration 1s2
2s2 2p2. It cannot retain this configuration in methane. Not only are there only
two unpaired electrons, but the p-orbitals are at 90 to each other and will not
give bond angles of 109.5 when they overlap with the s orbitals on the hydrogen
atoms.
When one of the 2s electrons of the carbon bonds in methane is promoted to a 2p
orbital , then the 2s and three 2p orbitals hybridize to form four new hybrid
orbitals. These four new orbitals arrange themselves to be as mutually repulsive
as possible. i.e., tetrahedrally.
Four equal sigma bonds can then be formed with the hydrogen atoms.
free carbon atom
electron promoted
2s and three 2p orbitals hybridize. These are lower
in energy than 2p orbitals, so more energetically favourable.
sp3 orbitals of C atom overlap with s orbital on H
atoms to form four equal sigma bonds
Hybridization (2)
SP2 hybridization:
Sp2 hybridization occurs in ethane.
After a 2s electron on the carbon atom is promoted , the 2s orbital
hybridizes with two of the 2 p orbitals to form three new planar
hybrid orbitals with a bond angle of 120 degrees between them.
These can form sigma bonds with the hydrogen atoms and also a
sigma bond between the two carbon atoms. Each carbon atom now
has one electron remaining in a 2p orbital. These can overlap to form
a pi bond. Ethene is thus a planar molecule with a region of electron
density above and below the plane
http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/animations/chang_7e_es
p/bom5s2_6.swf
Have a look the above link for the animation of molecules
SP hybridization:
SP hybridization occurs when the 2s orbital hybridizes with just one
of the 2p orbitals to form two new linear sp hybrid orbitals with an
angle of 180 degrees between them. The remaining two p orbitals on
each carbon atom then overlap to form two pi bonds.
An eg is ethyne
Relation between type of hybridization, Lewis structure , and molecular shapes:
Molecular shapes can be arrived at either by using the VSEPR theory or by
knowing the type of hybridization. Hybridization can take place between any s
and p orbital in the same energy level and is not just restricted to carbon
compounds. If the shape and bond angles are known from using Lewis structures
then the type of hybridization can be deduced. Similarly if the type of
hybridization is known, the shape and bond angles can be deduced.
Sp3 hybridization : Bond angle is 109.5 degrees . Examples are methane ,
ammonia, water, hydrazine
Sp2 hybridization: bond angle is 120 degrees. Examples are ethene,
diazene(N2H2), methanal (CH2O)
SP hybridization: Bond angle is 180 degrees. Examples are Ethyne and nitrogen
http://www.ibchem.com/IB/ibnotes/brief/bon-hl.htm#hybrid
Extra notes
RESonance structures:
The above figure is the resonance structure of ozone. These two
structures are known as resonance hybrids. They are extreme forms
of true structure., which lies somewhere between the two. Evidence
that this is true comes from bond lengths, as the bond lengths
between the oxygen atoms in ozone are both the same and are
intermediate between an O=O double bond and an O-O single bond.
Resonance structures are usually shown with the double headed
arrow between them,.
Other common compounds which can be written using resonance
structures are shown below:
The above figure is the resonance structure of CO2
The above figure is the resonance structure of benzene
The above figure is the resonance structure of acetate ion
DELOCALIZATION OF ELECTRONS:
Resonance structures can also be explained by the delocalization of
electrons. For eg., in the ethanoate ion the carbon atom and the two
oxygen atoms each have a p orbital containing one electron after the
sigma bonds have been formed. Instead of forming just one double
bond between the carbon atom and one of the oxygen atoms the
electrons can delocalize over all three atoms. This is energetically
more favourable than forming just one double bond.
Delocalization can occur whenever alternate double and single bonds
occur between carbon atoms. The delocalization energy in benzene is
about 150 kj / mol., which explains why the benzene ring is so
resistant to addition reactions.
1. Benzene structure:
2. Ethanoate ion:
http://www.slideshare.net/wkkok1957/ib-chemistry-resonance-
structuresdelocalization-electrons-and-benzene-structure-10379131
The above link give u very good explanation of delocalization of
ethanoate ion, carbonate ion etc along with the recap of all the notes
given above.
GOOD LUCK
