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Study on MPP mismatch losses in photovoltaic applications

Conference Paper · September 2014

DOI: 10.4229/24thEUPVSEC2009-4BV.1.43

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 STUDY ON MPP MISMATCH LOSSES IN PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS

Binod Prasad Koirala1, Benjamin Sahan2, Norbert Henze3

1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, India ([email protected] )
2
Kompetenzzentrum Dezentrale Elektrische Energieversorgungstechnik, University of Kassel ([email protected])
3
Institue of Solar Energy Technology, Kassel, Germany ([email protected] )

ABSTRACT: One of the major sources of losses in a photovoltaic (PV) system is the mismatch between the amounts
of energy generated by two or more modules inside an array. This mismatch can be caused for instance by partial
shading of the modules. This paper investigates the performance decrease of PV-modules under non-optimal
irradiance conditions, and also some techniques used to mitigate this problem. Firstly, mathematical modeling of the
PV module is simulated under different level of shading. Performance comparison is done between PV string
configuration and those based on module level MPP tracking units in terms of mismatch losses. Further, promising
technologies which increase the efficiency and reliability of such systems under mismatch conditions such as active
bypass, AC-Modules and power optimizers are discussed.

Keywords: Maximum Power Point (MPP), Mismatch Losses, AC-Modules

1. INTRODUCTION negative voltage gives the power dissipated by the

shaded cells. This power is dissipated as heat and hence,
Photovoltaic modules are connected in series and parallel causes ‘hot spots’. The probability that some cells in
in order to match the requirements regarding DC voltage module or some modules in the string are potentially able
and current of the inverter input [1]. The total DC power to deliver strongly different currents in operating
in such network is, however lower than the sum of the conditions is very high [12] and can not be neglected.
individual rated power of each module. The main reasons Hence, it is important to study mismatch effect in PV
are static mismatch, environmental stress and shadow applications.
problems. The first aspect is related to manufacturing
tolerances and aging of the module connected in the The PV plant can be connected to grid via three different
array. The second aspect instead refers to the effect of DC/AC inverters system configuration namely, central
module defects due to weather conditions [2] [12]. inverter, (multi-)string inverter and module integrated
Dynamic mismatches occurs when the modules operates inverter [1]. In large PV system (>10 kW) the large
far from its maximum power point. The PV modules number of PV modules are connected to strings, while
connected in parallel or in series can not operate in their these strings are connected in parallel via string diodes or
individual maximum power point because the voltage (in string fuses. The PV generator structured like this is then
case of parallel connection) or current (in case of series connected to DC input of one of the central inverter.
connection) is forced to be equal in all the modules of the Central inverters are characterized by high efficiency and
string [3]. lowest specific costs. However, the energy yield of the
PV plant decreases due to the module mismatching and
Solar PV arrays are susceptible to large amounts of partial shading conditions [7]. Moreover the reliability is
energy losses, due to partial shading. Partial shading is limited as whole system is dependent on single power
caused by light barriers like trees, chimneys, roof conditioner. In (multi-) string inverter just as with central
obstructions, power lines, debris, dust and bird inverters the PV array is divided into strings. Each of
droppings. In addition, mismatching can also occur if the these strings is assigned to their own inverter, called
photovoltaic modules are installed in different orientation string inverter. Each string operates at its individual
or tilt. When it comes to series connected strings, the (maximum power point) MPP and hence partly
current of the solar array is only as strong as the weakest- minimizes mismatching, reduces losses resulting from
performing panel and this can reduce the solar array shading and avoids losses due to the string diodes and
efficiency significantly [10] [11]. The MPP mismatch large scale DC-cabling compared to central inverter. The
caused by shading is the main subject of the present third type, also called AC-modules has individual MPP
work. The paper presents a study on this problem, and on tracking system for each module and many additional
the techniques which can be used to mitigate the system advantages to the state of the art system.
performance decrease of the photovoltaic system. Sometimes, Power optimizers such as distributed
maximum power point tracking (DMPPT) are also used
When part of the panel is shaded, the shaded cells will to get maximum possible power output from PV plant.
produce less current than the non-shaded cells. Since all
cells are connected in series, the same amount of current To study mismatch losses, mathematical modelling is
must flow through every cell. The non-shaded cells will done for the PV system and the simulation has been
force the shaded cell to pass more current than its new performed using MATLAB® environment. Further, the
short circuit current. The shaded cell operates in reverse effects of partial shading with and without bypass diodes
bias region to match this condition and cause a power are investigated. Then, the performance of state of the art
loss to the system. The product of the current and string inverter system is compared with module based
MPPT. Finally, for mismatch losses reduction promising circuit voltage and causes MPP to change significantly
technologies such as active bypass, AC-Modules and along voltage-axis. This phenomenon can cause
power optimizers (DMPPT) are discussed. significant MPP mismatch losses.

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

The electrical equivalent circuit of a solar cell is

commonly represented by two diodes model [4].

Fig. 2 Effect of irradiance in I-V characteristics (25°C)

2.2 Reverse Characteristics

Fig. 1 Electrical equivalent of solar cell
In the absence of bypass diodes, if the solar radiation is
not uniform across all solar cells in the series connected
2.1 Forward Characteristics
modules, the mismatching causes the shaded solar cells
The forward characteristics of solar cells can be
to be driven into the negative voltage region. This
represented by following equation obtained from
phenomenon of reverse breakdown is not taken in
applying Kirchhoff’s law in the two diode equivalent
account in two diodes model. Hence, the extension term
circuit of solar cell.
is added from model of Bishop in equation (2) to
describe diode breakdown at high negative voltages [4].
⎢ ⎪
I = I -I ⎢exp⎨q
(
⎡ ⎧ V+IR ⎫ ⎤
s )
⎪ ⎥ ⎢ ⎪
⎬−1⎥ − I02 ⎢exp⎨q
( )
⎡ ⎧ V+IR ⎫ ⎤ V+ IR
s ⎪−1⎥ −
⎬ ⎥
( s ) The solar cell can generate around one volt when forward
biased but the reverse bias voltage can go as high as
ph 01 n kT n kT R
⎪
⎢⎣ ⎩ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎭ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎩ ⎭ ⎥⎦ twenty volts or even more and can dissipate much more
1 2
p
power than it actually produce(fig 3). Hence for partial
shading analysis study of reverse characteristics is very
(1)
much important. The dark I-V or reverse I-V
Where, k is Boltzmann’s constant, q is electronic charge,
characteristics of solar cell has been modelled using
n1 and n2 are ideality factor of diodes, I01 and I02 are
following equation.
diode saturation currents which are function of cube of
temperature, T is cell temperature, Rs is series resistance,
Rp is parallel resistance and Iph is photo-generated
I=
sI
ph ⎢ ⎪
-I ⎢exp⎨q
(
⎡ ⎧ V+ IR
s ) ⎫⎪⎬−1⎤⎥ − I ⎢ ⎪ (
⎡ ⎧ V+ IR
s ) ⎫⎪⎬−1⎤⎥
02 ⎢ ⎨ 2kT
current. The single diode equation assumes a constant ⎥ exp q ⎥
100 01 ⎪ kT ⎪ ⎥ ⎪ ⎪ ⎥
value for the ideality factor. In reality the ideality factor ⎢⎣ ⎩ ⎭ ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎩ ⎭ ⎦
is a function of voltage across the device. At high
−n
voltage, when the recombination in the device is
dominated by the surfaces and the bulk regions the (− V+ IRs ) −a ( V+ IRs ) ⎛⎜1− ( V+ IRs) ⎞⎟
ideality factor (n1) is close to one. However at lower R R ⎜ V ⎟
p p ⎜ Br ⎟
voltages, recombination in the junction dominates and ⎝ ⎠
the ideality factor (n2) approaches two. The junction (2)
recombination is modeled by adding a second diode in
parallel with the first and setting the ideality factor
typically to two. The two-diode model is derived from
the physics of the p-n junction, especially those of poly
crystalline silicon. Amorphous silicon doesn’t exhibit a
sharp knee in the curve, and thus the model containing
only one diode is more appropriate for it. [8]

Inside a PV module, the cells are connected in series to

increase the voltage. Several of these series string of cells
may be connected together in parallel to increase current
as well. Significant amount of solar irradiation is blocked
and filtered by atmosphere, dust particles and clouds [7].
The amount of insolation is never constant and it may
vary from modules to modules in the PV array field. This
causes the I-V curves and hence MPPs of PV module to Fig.3 Reverse characteristics of a solar cell.
change as well as shown in fig.2. Further, the cell
temperature variation causes significant change in open
Where, s is shading percentage, VBr is the solar cell single cell shading, mismatch losses increases. When
reverse breakdown voltage, a is correction factor and n is single cell is shaded to 99% (100% shading is not
avalanche breakdown exponent. Partial shading largely possible because of diffused irradiation) the reduction in
affects the irradiance falling on the cell surfaces, hence irradiance falling on the module is less than 3% but
can be modelled by adding the shading factor s to reduce maximum power output in watts is reduced by more than
photo-generated current as done in equation (2). 86%.

3 Mismatch Losses In the real world situations more complex shading

situation than this can occur and lead to much higher
3.1 Static Mismatch mismatch losses. Further, different number of solar cells
According to [1] the figure for static mismatch due to shading situation are simulated as shown in fig 5. It has
manufacturer’s tolerance is below 1% for Si-based been observed that the power loss because of partial
Modules. For thin film modules the manufacturing shading is not proportional to the shaded area in the
tolerances are generally higher. However, the fractional module as it was expected before. As seen in fig 5, with
power loss due to manufacturing tolerances is about 2% the increase in number of shaded cells, the effect in I-V
[2]. Furthermore the effect of aging is investigated. characteristics is almost constant.
Considering aging the mismatch losses may rise up to
12% in series strings. The studies make clear that the
losses may be reduced drastically by means of an
appropriate series parallel connections and a pre-
selection of the modules. Thus the expected mismatch
even in consideration of aging effects is in the range of
0.4 to 2.4%.

3.2. Dynamic Mismatch

3.2.1 without Bypass Diodes
I-V curve of the PV module is affected decisively when
solar cells are irradiated at different levels. It is already
well known that the energy output decreases dramatically
without bypass diodes compared to the lost total
irradiation. In order to demonstrate this, the module in
which all the 36 solar cells are series connected without
bypass diodes and out of which one cell is partially
shaded to different levels is simulated. Resultant Fig.5 Effect of different number of cells shading
characteristics of the whole module in partial shading
have to be obtained. For this, as the solar cells are 3.2.2 Bypass Diodes
connected in series, for the given current the voltage has To prevent shadowed cells from narrowing the current
to be calculated by adding the corresponding voltage of path in a string, and downgrading the performance of
shaded cell and non-shaded 35 cells. The shaded solar other cells in series and reducing the power production of
cell has significantly narrowed the current path in the the whole string , bypass diodes are usually placed in anti
module. parallel (reverse biased) to small group of series
connected cells( normally 18 or 24 cells). Module
manufacturers employ bypass diodes to preserve array
voltage and to minimize hot spot heating and the
potential for cell failure when shaded [7]. For very
sophisticated application (example: space applications),
bypass diode are used across each cell. However in
practice this is avoided because of the cost.

Fig. 4 Effect of partial shading in I-V curves

The partial shading is very dangerous for solar modules

as a single cell shading out of 36 or 72 cells module can
reduce most of the power output drastically. The shaded
cell acts as load, dissipating power on itself which may
lead to hot spot conditions and ultimately damages the
cells. It is found that with the increase of percentage of
 energy than conventional string system because of
individual MPP tracking.

Fig. 7 Homogeneous Shading (different tilt angle)

Fig 6.Effect of using bypass diodes across each solar cell

Bypass diodes will allow current to pass around shaded

cells and thereby reduce the power losses through the
module. When the module becomes shaded the bypass
diode becomes forward biased and begins to conduct
current through itself. All the current greater than the
shaded cells new short circuit current is bypassed through
the diode , thus reducing drastically the amount of local
heating at the shaded area.

To demonstrate the effect of using bypass diodes across

number of series connected cells, the characteristics of 18
cells among which one cell shaded across bypass diode is
modelled and series connected to the normal 18 cells. Fig 8: Effect of Homogeneous shading in string (fig.7)
The diode limits the reverse voltage to -0.7 volts and characteristics.
become forward biased as the current in the series
connection changes because of shading. It bypasses the Table I: Performance comparison between state of art
photo generated current more than that of shaded cell. string configuration and module level MPPT (1
The arrangement of bypass diode in solar module is module irradiance reduced homogeneously to 75%)
shown in fig 9. No. of MPP of MPP of Benefit of
Modules strings Module based Module based
In case of mismatching this measure increases the power (W) MPPT (W) MPPT (%)
production of the PV arrays but introduces multiple local
maximum in its power versus voltage characteristics as 1 41.74 41.74 0.00
seen in fig.8, fig.10 and fig.11 which can confuse 4 188.9 211.33 10.61
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm 6 287.9 324.39 11.25
leading it to lower performances. 10 486.1 550.51 11.70

3.2.3 Homogeneous Shading Table II: Performance comparison between state of art
When all the modules in the string do not receive same string configuration and module level MPPT
amount of irradiance, the effect can be termed as (4 modules irradiance reduced homogeneously to 75%)
homogeneous shading. This phenomenon can occur when
different modules connected in series has different tilt
No of MPP of MPP of Benefit of
angle (for example building integrated PV applications)
Modules strings Module based Module based
so that they can receive different irradiation. In this
(W) MPPT(W) MPPT (%)
conditions bypass diodes may conduct as the modules in
the string have different current. This can cause 4 167 167 0.00
significant mismatch effect. Further, the power and 6 268.8 280.06 4.01
efficiency of the string will be reduced. To continue 10 460.9 506.18 8.95
further on this discussion 10 series connected modules
were considered at operation in homogeneous shading
conditions (fig 7). As an example, 6 modules are
3.2.3 Partial Shading
assumed to have 100% irradiance with MPP of 56.53 W
Bypass diodes can reduce performance degrading when
each whereas remaining 4 modules receives only 75%
partial shading occurs. In order to demonstrate this string
irradiance because of different tilt angle. The MPP power
configuration as shown in fig. 9 is used. The single cell
of the shaded string is 460.9 W. Due to this situation
of a module is shaded to 25%. The MPP of this module is
shading loss is 18.47% including MPP mismatch loss of
45.61 W. This in turn is series connected to the normal
8.95 %. The module based MPPT can harvest more
modules having 56.53 W MPP each. When the shaded
module is series connected with other non shaded Further, complex shading situation than this is
module, additional mismatch losses occurs. The shading considered. 3 cells of different modules (one cell each) of
effect results in degraded string output because the the string are shaded to 25% and resulting characteristics
current of series connected string in module is affected is shown in fig. 11 and table IV.
by shaded cell.The interesting phenomenon in fig. 10 is
when the 5 modules are connected in series and diode
conduct to bypass the shaded cell string, the peak power
becomes 252.5 W, which is higher than the value 243 W
when all cell strings work together. It means it is more
efficient to completely remove the compromised cell
than to have it operate at partial capacity and degrade the
performance of other cells in string [7]

Fig. 11 Effect of Partial shading in series connection

Table IV: Performance comparison between state of art

strings configuration and Module based MPPT
(3 cell of different Module (1 cell each) shaded to 25%)
Total MPP MPP of Benefit of
No. of Power of Module Module
Modules strings based based
(W) MPPT (W) MPPT (%)
3 136.8 136.8 0
5 233.7 249.86 6.47
7 332.8 362.92 8.30
Fig. 9 Series connection of 10 modules 10 481.4 532.51 9.60

4 DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGIS TO REDUCE

MISMATCH LOSSES

4.1 Active Bypass

Though the bypass diodes are advantageous during
partial shading conditions, they still have number of
disadvantages. The forward voltage of the bypass diodes
is usually of the order of 0.5 to 1 Volts and depends on
the type, junction temperature and the current. Few
problems associated with bypass diodes are excessive
heat development due to the forward voltage drop,
normal failures, energy losses in the form of leakage
currents and failures due to over voltages such as lighting
surges, switching surges etc.
Fig. 10 Effect of partial shading in series connection

Table III: Performance comparison between state of art

strings configuration and module based MPPT
(one cell of a Module shaded to 25%)
Total MPP MPP of Benefit of
No. of Power of Module Module
Modules strings Based Based
(W) MPPT (W) MPPT (%)
1 45.61 45.61 0
3 144 158.67 9.25
5 252.5 271.73 7.08
7 365.5 384.79 5.01 Fig. 12 Active Bypass technology
10 535.1 554.38 3.48
Spelsberg Photovoltaik have realized diodeless bypass construction companies for integration into facades and
technology which are integrated into a standard roofs of houses to be built. This shows that AC-modules
connection box (PV 1410-DBT 15) [14], [15]. In the can open the new areas of photovoltaic applications in
same line active diode of OKE (ADO) is an active non-coplanar surfaces and automobiles. The cost benefits
electronic smart circuit which can replace bypass diodes and additional energy yield of this technology is not
in PV-Modules. The maximum voltage drop in these so quantified explicitly so far though it is extremely
called smart PV diodes are approximately 0.05 volts important for a successful market introduction and return
resulting in corresponding reduction in heat dissipation on investment calculation and vice versa. Demonstration
[13][15]. These active diodes are extremely thin and can of AC-modules has been successfully realized in the
be integrated in PV-laminate. The idea of one-to-one currently running project PV-MIPS [1] [9].
replacement of conventional diodes using MOSFETs as
bypass element is presented in [15] (fig 12). Low power
will be dissipated as voltage drop is low (mV range).
Active bypass can have additional functionalities such as
monitoring or active enhanced short circuiting of the
module for safety. Monitoring can lead to the optimum
power output as each module can be monitored.

With active bypass conduction losses in mismatch

situations can be mitigated. The performance comparison
of string system with real bypass diode and active bypass
element is given in table V for homogeneous shading
situations

Table V: Performance comparison between state of art

string configuration and module level MPPT
(4 modules irradiance reduced homogeneously to 75%)
No of MPP of MPP of Benefit of
Module strings Active Active
s (W) bypass (W) bypass Fig. 13 AC Modules
(%)
4 167 167 0.00 4.3 DMPPT/ Power Optimizers
6 268.8 282.19 4.75 In DMPPT, power electronic circuit (fig. 14) is provided
10 460.9 474.29 2.82 for each module so that input and output voltage of each
module are independent and MPP voltage can be set
individually for each module[12] [15] . A new product
4.2 MIC (AC-Modules) called SolarMagic® power optimizers are being launched
A photovoltaic system achieves the highest output when this year (2009) from National Semiconductor. They
every solar module is continuously operated at its claim that this technology monitors and maximizes the
maximum power point. This can be reached by using energy harvest of each individual solar panel and
module-integrated inverters. In AC-modules the output reclaims up to 57% of energy lost to real world mismatch
from the module is AC. As several of these modules can conditions [11]. In this technology, the modules which
be connected in parallel, it is a modular system [16]. have potential of predictable shading because of existing
Since the current mismatch has a larger impact on the trees, chimneys etc are provided with SolarMagic®
energy yield than the voltage mismatch, it is to be optimizers. They consist of dc-dc converters and hence,
expected that systems consisting of parallel connected MPP tracking unit to make sure that output current of
PV-modules have a higher energy yield. Module- underperforming module is equal to that of string and
integrated inverters lead to higher yields especially with module is always operated in its MPP. This configuration
solar modules that are partially shaded or aligned with helps to reduce mismatch losses in string because of
different angles [9]. Other advantages are that the design predictable shading sources. Fig. 14 shows the cascading
of the PV system is more flexible and that it can easily be of the several MPP trackers which in turn are connected
expanded; in addition, costs for DC wiring do not apply to grid via conventional inverters. MPP trackers can also
[1]. be parallel working on a common dc bus [16].

The performance of AC-modules will be similar to The performance of DMPPT will be similar to AC-
module based MPPT. The additional yield of AC- modules as each module can operate in its MPP. If a lot
Modules could be significant under non-ideal operating of shading is expected, DMPPT can be beneficial as
conditions. However, it must be considered that AC- shading losses can be reduced. Mismatch losses are
modules do not avoid shading problem completely. eliminated but power conversion and cabling losses are
increased because of additional electronic circuit [15].
The potential of AC modules with similar performances Further, DMPPT are beneficial to reduce module level
and reliability as larger PV systems with central or string shading losses only. If only the part of the module is
inverters is significant [1]. Because of inherent shaded, the power of the concerning part across bypass
simplicity, the concept will be welcomed by both do-it- diodes will be lost and DMPPT would not help. The
yourself installers as well as by architects and losses in the converters should also be considered.
 Hence, it may not be economical to provide such
optimizer for each module. Further, the rate of return and 6 REFERENCES
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This work has been funded by the German Academic
Exchange Service (DAAD). We would like to extend our
sincere thanks to Dr. Vladimir Scarpa,
Dr.-Ing. Jyotirmay Mathur, Dipl.-Ing. Peter Funtan,
Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Glotzbach and Dipl.-Ing. Siwanand
Misara for their co-operation and guidance.

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