1
MASCULINITY AND
FEMININITY
Required Reading:
My Encounters with Machismo in Spain in GCCP p. 221-
236
Surgical Transformations in the Pursuit of Gender in GCCP
(p. 244-252)
Objectives
2
Exploring Gender Polarization
Masculinity/ies & Femininity/ies
The Theory of Hegemonic Masculinity
Prescriptions
“Embodied Masculinity”
Proscriptions
Movie Clip: Tough Guise 2 (about 8 mins)
Emphasized Femininity
“Embodied Femininity”
Testable video links
3
Slide 25
https://www.ted.com/talks/lisa_feldman_barrett_you_aren_t_
at_the_mercy_of_your_emotions_your_brain_creates_them/tr
anscript
Slide 36: “Tough Guise 2” (Abridged) (***See notes on slide
36 before you watch***)
https://ucalgary-kanopystreaming-
com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/video/tough-guise-2
Slide 64
http://www.upworthy.com/within-5-seconds-you-wont-like-him-
by-the-time-he-laughs-youll-hate-him
Where we left off:
4
The Gender Similarities Hypothesis better describes the
world we live in than the Gender Differences Hypothesis
In other words, the scientific/peer-reviewed data better
supports similarity than difference ….(or more precisely, the
sexes are more similar than different because individuals are
so diverse)
However, this is not the message we get
Our society (Canada, North America) focuses on difference
between males and females and makes a big deal about
difference
Where we want to go in this lecture:
5
We want to know more about Gender Polarization
in our society (Canada, North America) (in other
words, we will explore the big deal our society
makes about difference).
-we don;t find many differences
- gender will make us understand differences
- society make these differences
Part I Enter Gender
6
Gender refers to the socially and culturally produced
ideas about differences associated with being male
or female
Biological differences between the sexes exist; but
what culture makes of those differences is infinitely
variable (paraphrasing Brown and Jordanova 1982)
Some cultures make a big deal about those
differences (gender polarization) and some don’t
(gender egalitarianism)
Enter Gender
7
“Masculinity [& Femininity] is a socially
constructed set of meanings, values and
practices” (Weinstein et al 1995)
Enter Gender
8
A big Take-Home Point we will continue to unpack
in this lecture:
If the traits we assign to masculinity or femininity
are socially and culturally produced, then there
can’t be one monolithic, universal, ahistorical
(essential/ natural) masculinity or femininity (Greig
& Martino 2012) - there can't be one way tp be masculine or feminine
- we come in society that teaches that there are one way to be male and one way to be feminine
-
Enter Gender
9
For instance, Greig & Martino (2012) write:
“The many different versions of Canadian
masculinity that are affected by, among other
things, social class, race, ethnicity, nationality, bodily
ability, and geographical location are situated in
history and shaped by economic, social, cultural and
political changes.”
Part II Where we want to go in this lecture:
10
We want to know more about Gender Polarization
in our society (Canada, North America) (in other
words, we will explore the big deal our society
makes about difference).
Understanding our gender system:
masculinity/masculinities
11
Masculinity/ities: refers to the meanings and
expressions given to being a man in a society
Prescriptive behavioural traits
Proscriptions
Multiple masculinities in a society; but usually only one
dominant form
Expect different cultures to have different forms of
masculinity
- there are multiple way to be masculinities in society
- only one become the dominant version of masculinity which they all have to rise up to
Understanding our gender system:
femininity/femininities
12
Femininity/ities
Prescriptive behavioural traits
Proscriptions
Multiple femininities in a society; but usually only one
dominant form
Expect different cultures to have different forms of
femininity
A few reminders:
13
Not everyone will identify as Masculine or
Feminine (Gender Identity)
Our society puts a lot of pressure on
individuals to conform to the 2 sex/2 gender
system (Gender Stereotypes)
A hallmark of our gender system in North
America is Gender Polarization
- there are categories of gender - the gender polarization is not considered
Gender Norm Violations
14
People who violate gender norms are often
sanctioned by society
+ or at the very “least” feel shame about not
being able to live up to these ideals, which can
be very damaging (Brown 2012)
Theory of Hegemonic Masculinity
15
R.W. Connell’s ground-breaking concept
The theory of Hegemonic Masculinity claims that
although there are multiple forms of masculinity/
multiple ways of “doing masculinity” in a given society,
only one form of masculinity is dominant and culturally
“idealized”
“In most situations that have been closely studied, there
is some hegemonic form of masculinity—the most
honored or desired” (Connell 2000)
16
Hierarchy of different forms of masculinities
Dominant form of masculinity becomes the ‘ideal’
image of the male against which all other men are
judged
Dominant form of masculinity is dominant to (1)
marginalized masculinities and (2) femininities
Hierarchy
17
Hegemonic Masculinity
of North America
Marginalized Masculinities Femininities
Hegemonic Masculinity
18
The ‘traditional’ form of masculinity
The dominant form of masculinity
- they both describe hegemonic masculinity
Gender Stereotypes
19
What are Gender Stereotypes?
- society's expectation of behavior or traits
-societies beliefs and attitude of appropriate way for men and women to behave
Prescriptions: widely shared beliefs about what men
and women should do
Proscriptions: widely shared beliefs about what men
and women shouldn’t do
Agency – Communality Dichotomy
in North America
20
Men are expected to be Agentic masculinity
- agency- capacity to act independandly - to make own choices-
be able to act indepedented
Women are expected to be Communal - traits that are sharing, contrast to agentic
masculinity
These are the dominant stereotypes
21
What are Agentic prescriptions? Associated with
leadership and workplace achievement, such as
competitiveness, power-seeking, assertiveness
**nothing innate or universal about these traits
Think of these prescriptions as behavioural “oughts”;
this is how you are “supposed” to behave
Violations/ transgressions of gender prescriptions
can result in penalties such as, devaluation,
punishment, discrimination
What you “should” and “shouldn’t” be = Agentic
Masculinity (Prentice & Carraza 2008)
22
Intensified
Prescriptions Proscriptions
Aggressive Emotional
Athletic Approval Seeking
Leadership ability Impressionable
Self-reliant Yielding
Dependable Shy
Ambitious Moody
High self-esteem Melodramatic
Assertive Naive
Decisive Gullible
Strong personality Weak
Disciplined
Rational
Competitive
Active construction
23
“Masculinities are neither programmed in our genes,
nor fixed by social structure, prior to social
interaction. They come into existence as people act.
They are actively produced, using the resources and
strategies available in a given society.” (Connell
2000)
- continue with the idea of gender similarity hypothesis and mosaic brains
Theory of Constructed Emotions
24
This is a new paradigm in psychology that is gaining a lot of
traction.
Briefly, this new theory challenges the traditional view that
emotions are like “fingerprints” (e.g. the idea that emotions are
inherited/ hardwired into our brains). Rather the new theory
proposes that emotions are part of the process of allostasis;
emotions are prescriptions the brain makes about situations
and then the body uses these predictions to restore/maintain
balance
In terms of gender, this theory challenges the idea that certain
emotional traits would be more likely to be found in males or
females (or any individual at all)
emotions are prescriptions
-
Theory of Constructed Emotions
TedTalk by Lisa Feldman Barrett
25
Blurb from the website: “Can you look
at someone's face and know what
they're feeling? Does everyone
experience happiness, sadness and
anxiety the same way? What are
emotions anyway? For the past 25
years, psychology professor Lisa
Feldman Barrett has mapped facial
expressions, scanned brains and
analyzed hundreds of physiology
studies to understand what emotions
really are. She shares the results of her
exhaustive research -- and explains
how we may have more control over
our emotions than we think.”
https://www.ted.com/talks/lisa_feldman_barrett_you_aren_t_at_the_mercy_of_your
_emotions_your_brain_creates_them/transcript
Questions to watch for
26
Q1: Barrett states in the Ted Talk: ”It may feel to you like your emotions are
hardwired and they just trigger and happen to you, but they don't. You might
believe that your brain is prewired with emotion circuits, that you're born with
emotion circuits, but you're not. In fact, none of us in this room have emotion
circuits in our brain [e.g. no brain region is the home of any single emotion]. In
fact, no brain on this planet contains emotion circuits. So what are emotions,
really?”
Q2: What does Barrett mean when she says “emotions are not built into
your brain, they are just built”?
Q3: What does she mean when she says the brain makes “predictions?”
Contrast feelings (e.g. ‘affects’, sensations) vs emotions
What does it mean to say we can be “architects of our experience”?
Active construction
27
“There is abundant evidence that
masculinities do change.
Masculinities are created in
specific historical circumstances
and, as those circumstances
change, the gender practices can
be contested and reconstructed.”
(Connell 2000)
Not required viewing: Joe
Ehrmann’s TEDx talk about
Redefining Masculinity LINK: From: Sapiens: A Brief History
http://www.youtube.com/watch? of Humankind by Yuval Harari
v=jVI1Xutc_Ws
Active construction
28
Required Reading: David D.
Gilmore, My Encounters with
Machismo in Spain, in GCCP:
Three V’s of Andalusian
Masculinity
Not required reading:
29
Indigenous masculinities: Antone, B. (2015) Reconstructing Indigenous
masculine thought. Indigenous Men and Masculinities. University of Manitoba
Press p. 21-28)
Japanese masculinities: Dasguta (2009). The lost decade of the 1990s
and shifting masculinities in Japan. Culture, Society & Masculinity. 1(1). 79-
95
African American masculinities: Griffin & Cornish (2017) What defines a
man? Perspectives on African American men on the components and
consequences of manhood. Psychology and Men & Masculinity. 19(1). 78-88
Canadian masculinities: MacDonald (2014). Masculinity and sport
revisited: a review of the literature of hegemonic masculinity and men’s ice
hockey in Canada. Canadian Graduate journal of Sociology and
Criminology. 3(1). 95-112.
This ‘ideal’ is not achievable!
30
Ricciardelli 2011 writes: “Overall, hegemonic masculinity
remains an ideal that men can rarely achieve (Bird 1996;
Connell and Messerschmidt 2005; Messner 2007). Connell and
Messerschmidt (2005) explained that ‘‘it embodied the
currently honored way of being a man; it required all other
men to position themselves in relation to it . . .’’ (p. 832). Its
unachievable nature is compensated for by identifying men,
real or fictional, as symbolic examples of hegemonic
masculinity (Messner 2007).”
**remember this when we watch the clip from Tough Guise 2
slides 35-36
One of the Main Prescriptions of Hegemonic Masculinity in
North America
31
“Tough Guy Masculinity”: Projection of Physical
Toughness & Emotional Stoicism
(Another main prescription is Masculinity =
“Breadwinner”. But we will come back to that one in
the Fatherhood lecture next week)
Tough guy masculinity: Emotional stoicism
32
“Be a Man”
Men are supposed to
be unaffected by their
emotions
The independent,
“invulnerable” man
Tough guy masculinity: Physical toughness
33
Physical toughness is important to
the presentation/ performance of
the hegemonic masculinity
“This gender performance [of the
hegemonic masculinity] must be
constantly validated by ‘proving’
itself as dominant and in control
of itself and others” (Cheng
1999)
The Main Proscription of Hegemonic Masculinity in
North America
34
“Repudiation of the Feminine” =“No Sissy Stuff”
Michael Kimmel argues (2001: 273): “[North]
American masculinity is a relentless test. The chief
test is contained in the first rule of manhood,
codified by Brannon [1976], which states ‘No Sissy
Stuff!’. ‘One must never do anything that even
remotely suggests femininity. Therefore, masculinity
is the relentless repudiation of the feminine.’”
Wiserhood: Society of Uncompromising Men
Movie: Tough Guise 2
35
Jackson Katz argues in the
movie Tough Guise 2 that our
society links being a man with
toughness/ “warrior”
masculinity/ using violence/
threat of violence
And that our society/cultural
systems/ media teaches boys and
men that “Tough Guy”/ Violent
Masculinity is acceptable
We are going to watch:
36
Tough Guise 2 (Abridged) (54:19 min: 1 of 3
choices) – we will only watch 8 minutes of it
**Start watching at minute 7:18 “Taught Behavior”;
continue until minute 15:00)**
https://ucalgary-kanopystreaming-
com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/video/tough-guise-2
Sections we will watch: A Taught Behavior” (begins
at 7 minutes:18 seconds)
“An American Ideal” (ends at 15:00)
“Embodied Masculinity”
37
Trend towards male
bodies that demonstrate
physical toughness or
strength in the media/
pop culture
“Adonis Complex” (Pope
et al 2000) - masculafr, larger and stronger
- ordinary men should look like greek god
- people track how male body is projected
The “Body-as-Self” Paradigm
38
A recent paradigm that promotes the idea that if “you
look good, you feel good” -- that one’s self-worth is
tied to your appearance (“Surgical Transformations in the
Pursuit of Gender” in GCCP p. 244-252)
- we are being object from the society
- if you wanna feel good, u need to look good
Consequences:
(1) The body is on display like never before
(2) We are encouraged to buy things to fix/ transform
our bodies like never before
Male Body Image & Action
Figures (Pope Jr. et al., 1998)
39
Examined the physiques of American
action toys over the last 30 years
Chest & bicep circumference
Scaled measurements to 1.78 m (5’ 8
inches)
1964 1975 1994
40
GI JOE
1964: 12.2 in biceps
1975: 15.2 in biceps
1994: 16.4 in biceps
26.8 in biceps
41 17.8 in biceps 32 in biceps
1978 1998
42
43
Greg Valintino,
apparently
had the world’s
largest biceps
Using steroids
he grew 28
inch biceps
Study Conclusions
44
“Modern action figures displayed physiques of
advanced body builders & levels of muscularity far
exceeding levels of human attainment”
“Male analogs” to Barbie (see next slide)
Bombardment by such images, as well as the
emergent “body-as-self” paradigm, may be fueling
the rise in body dissatisfaction among North
American men (come back to this idea in the last
lecture)
Barbie and the “Tyranny of Slenderness”
From O Magazine: plastic surgery the average woman would
need to have a Barbie face & body (not to encourage plastic
45 surgery, but a reality check)
A breakdown of half of the
surgeries this model would need:
A brow lift
A jaw line shave
Rhinoplasty
Cheek & neck reduction
Chin implant
Scooped-out shoulders
Breast lift
Liposuction on her arms
Tummy Tuck
Resculpted Tummy: “sculpted as if it
were lined with whale-bone from the
inside”
A new male body “ideal”?
46
Simon Lewsen writes in the Globe and
Mail (Feb 2015): “ This pursuit of a
slim physique marks a move away
from the bulky bodybuilder look of the
eighties and nineties. “In the past,”
Hayos says [one of the men
interviewed for the story], “guys
maybe wanted to look like
Schwarzenegger, but now many would
rather look like Adam Levine,” the lithe,
toned and tattooed singer from the Los
Angeles band Maroon 5.
47
Lewson continues:“He’s the model of
what a sexy, fit guy looks like
today.” That desire for sinewy
strength requires a new kind of
regimen: bursts of explosive
movement powered by vegetables,
unsalted nuts and egg-white
omelettes rather than slow,
repetitive weightlifting powered by
steak, steroids and protein shakes.
The point being that this look is
also constructed!
And difficult to achieve
Adam Levine
Take home points:
48
1. Only a very small number of men (if any) live up to the
hegemonic “ideal”
“Indeed, even though this narrow image of masculinity may
only ever be embodied by mythical figures, legendary heroes
and a very small number of men in society, ‘this does
not…lessen its credibility as a standard of masculinity to
which men are supposed to aspire.” (Feasey 2008)
2. Not all men, perhaps few men, desire/want to live up to
the hegemonic “ideal” – but they may feel immense pressure to
49
Another take home point: Although the idea that there
is only one right way “to do” masculinity is very
pervasive – Agentic masculinity in North America––in
reality, there are many ways “to do” masculinity! There
is no one way to be masculine.
Hierarchy
50
Hegemonic Masculinity
Marginalized Masculinities Femininities
R.W. Connell & Femininities
51
Multiple Femininities:
(1) subordinate to the Hegemonic Masculinity
(2) however, one form of Femininity is dominant to
other Femininities; this is the Femininity that is least
challenging to /best accommodates the Hegemonic
Masculinity = called “Emphasized Femininity”
“Emphasized Femininity” = Cultural Norm = Communal
Femininity
Run Like a Girl LINK:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XjJQBjWYDTs
Agency – Communality Dichotomy
in North America
52
Men are expected to be Agentic
Women are expected to be Communal
These are the dominant stereotypes
53
What are Communal prescriptions? Associated
with nurturing & helping behaviour, such as warmth,
empathy, selflessness**nothing innate or universal
about these traits
Think of these prescriptions as behavioural “oughts”;
this is how you are “supposed” to behave
Violations/ transgressions of gender prescriptions
can result in penalties such as, devaluation,
punishment, discrimination
Gender Stereotypes
54
What are Gender Stereotypes?
Prescriptions: widely shared beliefs about what men
and women should do
Proscriptions: widely shared beliefs about what men
and women shouldn’t do
What you “should” and “shouldn’t” be
(Prentice & Carranza 2008)= Communal Femininity
55
Intensified
Prescriptions Proscriptions
Warm & kind Rebellious
Interest in children Stubborn
Loyal Controlling
Sensitive Cynical
Friendly Promiscuous
Attn. to appearances Arrogant
Patient
Polite
Cheerful
Cooperative
“Embodied Femininity”
56
The most important
component of “Embodied
Femininity” in North
America?______________
slenderness
Canadian Women’s Health
Network (2018): Female
models have been getting
thinner and thinner over the
past 20 years
Average CDN woman weighs
148 pounds (height 5’4”); Marilyn Monroe,
average model weighs 23% 1950s
less. 20 years ago average
model weighed 8% less.
Not Only Thin, But “Curvaceously-Thin”
57
Rehabs.com
From the rehabs.com study: “In recent decades, two conflicting images
appear to have merged into a modern synthesis of what is considered
beautiful: an almost unhealthily thin and bony frame, combined with a
substantial bust.”
Point being: this “ideal” is constructed & difficult to achieve!
Advertising and the “Tyranny of Appearance”
58
Advertising directed at women focuses on a woman’s
weight and/or appearance
Yoplait & Trop50 Commercials
Compare this Yoplait yogurt commercial marketed to
women vs a Yoplait yogurt commercial marketed to
men
Hunger not Anger
Stats from: Canadian Women’s Health Network (2018)
59
In Canada today, almost 90 per cent of women
and girls are unhappy with the way they look
Canadian girls are starting to diet younger than
ever before, sometimes starting as early as 5 or 6
years old
One out of 10 Canadian girls and women
develops disordered eating behaviours such as
anorexia, or bulimia
http://www.cwhn.ca/en/yourhealth/faqs/bodyimageinthem
edia
Snapchat dysmorphia
“Doctors have coined the phrase “Snapchat
dysmorphia” to describe what’s happening to
people who feel they can’t live up to their modified
social media photos, and seek plastic surgery to
match their own faces to the photos.”
https://ledger.humanetech.com/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5933578/pdf/c
ureus-0010-00000002263.pdf
From the article: "Is ‘Snapchat
Dysmorphia’ a Real Issue?”
“According to the American Psychiatric Association (APA) and Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), body dysmorphic
disorder (BDD) is classified along the obsessive-compulsive Spectrum. Those
suffering from BDD are preoccupied with at least one nonexistent or slight
defect in physical appearance. This can lead them to think about the defect
for at least one hour a day, therefore impacting their social, occupational,
and other levels of functioning. The individual also should have repetitive
and compulsive behaviors due to concerns arising from their appearances.
This includes mirror checking and reassurance seeking among others [1].
Currently, one in 50 Americans suffers from BDD [2].”
“The two main applications in question included Snapchat and Instagram,
both of which have 187-million and 600-million daily active users. These
two applications provide filters that allow users to change their skin tone,
soften fine lines and wrinkles, alter the size of their eyes, lips, and cheeks,
and change various aspects of their physical appearance.”
- not testable
https://broadly.vice.com/en_us/article/mby5by/cosmetic-plastic-surgery-social-media-
seflies
“Surgical Transformations in the Pursuit of Gender” in GCCP
64
3 themes to pay attention to when
reading the chapter:
1) The recent rise of the constructed
‘curvaceously-thin’ ideal in
Venezuela: e.g. cosmetic surgery &
the Miss Venezuela Pageant; & the
average woman
2) The discussion of the emergence
of the ‘body-as-self’ paradigm p.
245
Miss Venezuela 2012
3) The gendering of cosmetic contestant
surgery in Venezuela Link: Femininity in Venezuela
Take Home Points
65
Gender as construction/process/”we build it” –
which also means we can change it
Ideas about the ‘ideal’ body in North America are
culturally & historically situated—& unrealistic;
these ‘ideals’ are not likely attainable for most
members of either gender
