General Electric Advanced Technology Manual
Chapter 2.2
Core Heat Balance
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.2 CORE HEAT BALANCE .............................................................................. 2.2-1
2.2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 2.2-1
2.2.2 Methods of Calculation ....................................................................... 2.2-1
2.2.3 Heat Balance Calculation Problem ................................................... 2.2-3
2.2.3.1 Assumptions ....................................................................... 2.2-4
2.2.4 Licensed Power Level ....................................................................... 2.2-4
2.2.5 100% Power Exceeded Examples ...................................................... 2.2-5
2.2.6 Summary ............................................................................................ 2.2-8
LIST OF TABLES
2.2-1 Form TI 1.1 ................................................................................................... 2.2-9
2.2-2 Form TI 1.1 (continued) .............................................................................. 2.2-10
2.2-3 Form TI 1.1 (continued) .............................................................................. 2.2-11
2.2-4 Steam Tables ............................................................................................. 2.2-12
LIST OF FIGURES
2.2-1 Simplified Short Form Core Heat Balance Diagram
2.2-2 Simplified Core Heat Balance Diagram
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2.2 EHC Problem
Learning Objectives
1. Explain what the core heat balance is used for.
2. List the three methods that can be used to obtain core thermal power.
3. List the parameters used in a heat balance calculation and indicate the most critical
parameter.
2.2.1 Introduction
The thermal power of the reactor core is determined by a heat balance on the nuclear
boiler using operating data. Under steady state conditions, the nuclear boiler heat out-
put is obtained as the difference between the total heat removed from the boiler system
minus the total heat added in the flow streams returning to the boiler.
A core heat balance in the power range, greater than or equal to 10% power, is made to
ensure that the core is operated at all times within licensed thermal limitations and/or fuel
warranty requirements. The results of heat balance calculations also provide input to
additional core calculations (i.e., CPR & LHGR).
2.2.2 Methods of Calculation
Four methods of calculating the energy output of the core by heat balance are used:
$ Short Form Method - used when a fast estimate is needed and a high degree of
accuracy is not essential.
$ Long Form Method - considers all heat losses and additions.
$ Process Computer - Normal calculational method.
$ Off-line Computer
Either the manual long form method or the off-line computer method is required when the
process computer is unavailable. This instruction covers the manual method long form
and is addressed in NRC "Inspection and Enforcement Manual” chapter (IMC), 61706B.
The core thermal power is obtained by writing an energy balance on a system composed
of the reactor vessel, recirculation loop piping, and cleanup demineralizer piping. Flows
entering the system are the reactor feedwater flow and the control rod drive system flow.
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The only flow assumed to be leaving the system is the primary steam flow. Non-flow
power losses are the radioactive power loss and the net power transferred across the
boundary of the cleanup demineralizer loop.
Figure 2.2-1 is a schematic diagram of the energy inputs and outputs to be evaluated.
Mathematically, the heat balance equation is derived as follows:
The heat outputs from the system include:
Main Steam = mMS x hMS (equation A)
Cleanup System = mCU x (hin - hout) (equation B)
Where: mCU = mCU(A) + mCU(B)
Fixed Losses = QFL (equation C)
The heat inputs to the system include:
Feedwater = mFW x hFW (equation D)
CRD Hydraulic = mRD x hRD (equation E)
Recirculation Pumps = QP (equation F)
Core Power = QC (equation G)
Since the measurement of main steam flow is normally much less accurate than the
measurement of feedwater flow, and since this is a closed system, let:
mMS = mFW + mRD (equation H)
Substituting Equation H into Equation A:
Main Steam = hMS x (mFW + mRD) (equation I)
The total heat outputs are therefore:
Outputs = K[hMS (mFW + mRD) + mCU (hin - hout)] + QFL (equation J)
The total heat inputs are therefore:
Heat Inputs = K[(mFW x hFW) + (mRD x hRD)] + QP + QC (equation K)
Since the heat inputs must equal the heat outputs, equation J is set to equation K:
K[(mFW x hFW) + (mRD x hRD)] + QP + QC = K[hMS (mFW + mRD) + mCU (hin - hout)] + QFL
(equation L)
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Solving Equation L for Core Power:
QC=K [ hMS (mFW + mRD) + mCU (hin - hout) - mFWhFW - mRDhRD]+ QFL - QP (equation M)
Combining all terms and rearranging yields the equation representing total Core Thermal
Power:
Q = K[ m.FW (hMS - hFW) + m.RD (hMS - hRD) + mCU (hin - hout)] + QFL - QP (equation N)
Where:
Qc = Core thermal power (MWt)
K = 2.93 x 10-7 MWt-hr/BTU
mFW = Feedwater Flow (lbs/hr)
mRD = Control rod drive flow (lbs/hr)
mCU = Clean-up System flow (lbs/hr)
hMS = Enthalpy of main steam (BTUlb)
hFW = Enthalpy of feedwater (BTU/lb)
hRD = Enthalpy of control rod drive flow (BTU/lb)
hin = Enthalpy of inlet flow to cleanup system (BTU/lb)
hout = Enthalpy of return flow from cleanup system (BTU/lb)
QFL = Fixed Losses (MW) = 0.6 MW
QP = Recirculation pump work (7.6 MW)
For the case in which an estimate of this value is desired rapidly, the curves of Figure
2.2-2 may be used. These curves are based upon a simplification of equation N of the
form:
Qc = K [mFW (hMS - hFW) ] + Constant (equation 0)
The above constant is composed of all the small heat input and output terms that com-
plete the thermal energy balance. It is defined as:
Constant = K [ mRD (hMS - hRD) + mCU (hin - hout) + QFL - QP (equation P)
2.2.3 Heat Balance Calculation Problem
Table 2.2-1 includes a practice problem for performing a core heat balance. Using the
values on form TI 1.1 of the table and the attached steam tables, calculate the core
thermal power.
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2.2.3.1 Assumptions
Core thermal power is equal to or greater than 329 MWt (10% power)
Reactor Water Cleanup system flow is directed back to the reactor.
Exponents - powers of 10 are compensated for in the formula derivations or are
specifically indicated.
Assume atmospheric pressure is 15 psia.
Check results against the nomograph.
2.2.4 Licensed Power Level
The following is the text of an internal NRC letter from Mr. E. L. Jordon (Director, Office of
I&E, August 22, 1980) to the Branch Chiefs of Reactor Operations in each Region. The
letter provides guidance to inspectors for determining licensee compliance with Licensed
Power limits. This guidance is still in effect today. A copy of the letter can be found in
the Document Control System:
Dating back to at least 1974, there have been many lengthy "discussions" regarding the
exact meaning of "full, steady-state licensed power level" (and similarly worded power
limits). We do not believe the real safety benefits that might be derived from an
NRC-wide agreement would be worth the further expenditure of manpower in meetings,
etc, which would be required to achieve a consensus.
We do realize that some common uniform basis for enforcing maximum licensed power is
needed by I&E inspectors. Therefore, until and unless an NRC-wide position is put for-
ward and agreed upon (and as stated, I&E does not propose to initiate proceedings to
that end), I&E will use the following guidance:
The average power level over any eight hour shift should not exceed the "full steady-state
licensed power level" (and similarly worded terms). The exact eight hour periods defined
as "shifts" are up to the plant, but should not be varied from day to day (the easiest defini-
tion is a normal shift manned by a particular "crew"). It is permissible to briefly exceed
the "full, steady-state licensed power level" by as much as 2% for periods as long as 15
minutes. In no case should 102% power be exceeded, buy lesser power "excursions" for
longer periods should be allowed, with the above as guidance (i.e., 1% excess for 30
minutes, 1/2% for one hour, etc., should be allowed). There are no limits on the number
of times these "excursions" may occur, or the time interval that must separate such
"excursions", except note that the above requirement regarding the eight hour average
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power will prevent abuse of this allowance. The above is considered to be within the
licensing basis and, therefore, acceptable to us, and it is also fair to the utilities and their
ratepayers.
2.2.5 100% Power Exceeded Examples
Core thermal power for nuclear power plants is controlled on the basis of a licensed
thermal power rating. Nuclear instruments and plant calorimetrics are used to monitor
reactor power. The accuracy of the calorimetric power determination (heat balance)is
sensitive to several measurements, but is most affected by feedwater flow measurement
accuracy. Thus, an accurate determination of core thermal power hinges on the accurate
knowledge of feedwater flow.
Two nonconservative errors in feedwater flow measurement led to power in excess of the
licensed thermal power limit at FitzPatrick. The feedwater flow transmitters were
replaced on October 3, 1988, but were not calibrated properly. The calibration was
completed on November 14, 1989. When more accurate transmitters were placed in
service on January 29, 1990, the power level was found to exceed the licensed limit.
Power was immediately reduced. Flow element vendor input errors have since been
identified and corrected.
Operation in excess of the thermal power limit occurred at Oyster Creek on May 11, 1990
and again on August 1, 1990. The first event occurred because of a miscalculation in the
plant heat balance equation. The second event, August 1, 1990, was a result of
feedwater flow calibration calculation which was approximately 2% in the
nonconservative direction.
Operation in excess of the thermal power limit occurred at Cooper Nuclear Station from
1980 to April 1994, at those times when the reactor was operated at full power. The
actual reactor power was approximately 2400 MWt while the calculated power level was
2381 MWt. This was attributed to the licensee not compensating for an error in the
calibration of the pressure transmitters used for feedwater flowrate determination.
On July 16, 1993, a NRC Resident Inspector reviewed WNP-2 procedure for Manual Core
Heat Balance. The procedure was found to be inadequate in that it directed data to be
taken form total Reactor Water Cleanup flow by using computer data points which did not
reflect the actual flow through the bypassed RWCU demineralizers. This error allowed a
nonconservative value for the calculation of core thermal power.
The common link in all of these cases is that there was no indication of a problem until an
independent means of measurement or calculation was employed. The existing
feedwater flow measurement instrumentation, for most BWR plants, consists of a
differential pressure transmitter providing an output proportional to the differential
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pressure across the flow nozzle. Resistance thermometers (or thermocouples) measure
the feedwater temperature. Typically, these outputs are supplied to the plant computer
where the density and enthalpy are calculated with the aid of synthesized ASME steam
tables. Thermal power is then calculated by the plant computer.
Operation experiences in the United States, Japan, and Germany have shown that
venturi flow measurement accuracy is susceptible to degradation. The principle source of
degradation is fouling with corrosion deposits, which adhere preferentially to the nozzle
throats of the venturi tubes. The corrosion deposit fouling causes an increase in the
differential pressure measured for a given volumetric flow and results in erroneously high
feedwater flow readings. When the overestimates of feedwater flow are used to calibrate
the nuclear instruments, these calibrations result in operating with the actual core thermal
power below the intended level. Various studies have shown that fouling recurs during
each operating cycle and can contribute up to 2 to 3 percent reduction in thermal power,
$$$$.
In the August 26, 1999 issue of Nucleonics Week an article stated AGE PROPOSES BWR
UPRATES OF 1% BASED ON GENERIC APPROACH@. The article stated that in mid
August, General Electric (GE) submitted a proposal to the NRC that would allow BWR
owners to proceed with 1 % uprates by reducing conservatism in calculating reactor
power.
GE wants to take advantage of the awaited NRC approval of a similar generic uprate for
PWRs based on uncertainty reductions stemming from use of a new feedwater
measurement technology.
The NRC approved an exemption to allow Texas Utilities to reduce the error assumption
calculated into its heat balance from 2% to 1% at its two Comanche Peak PWRs, and the
utility followed with a request for a power uprate.
The Caldon Leading Edge Flow Meter (LEFM) is currently the only such instrument
approved by the NRC but ABB Combustion Engineering may soon introduce the
Crossflow, its own feedwater flow measuring device and is closely following GE's generic
proposal.
On May 3, 2000, the NRC approved a rule change amending 10CFR50 Appendix K to
permit power increases based on improvements in accuracy of the instrumentation used
to measure thermal power. These power increases, referred to as AAppendix K Uprates@=
are relatively small increases on the 1% to 1.7% range, depending on the demonstrated
instrument accuracy.
It is anticipated that licensees will make use of the new measurement instruments such as
the LEFM mass flow and temperature measurements by directly substituting the new
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information in the plant computer. The plant computer would then calculate enthalpy and
thermal power as it does now. In order to maintain control of thermal power at 100 percent
power, a real-time display of thermal power, as calculated using the new technology, will
be available in the main control room for the reactor operator=s use. The operators would
then use the new display to maintain reactor power at or below the licensed thermal
power limit. A validity indication will also be present to alert the operators of the condition
of the new instruments.
Described below are three ultrasonic technologies used in the measurement of
volumetric flow in a pipe:
• Chordal Transit Time system (LEFM) consisting of arrays of ultrasonic transducers
housed in fixtures in a pipe so as to form parallel, precisely defined acoustic paths.
The times of flight of pulses of ultrasonic energy traveling along these paths are
measured to determine the volumetric flow and the velocity of sound of the flowing
fluid. A numerical integration method is used to determine the volumetric flow rate
directly from the meter's four path velocities without the need for a pipe area
measurement.
• Externally Mounted Transit Time systems consisting of ultrasonic transducers
mounted on the exterior of the pipe so as to form one or more diagonal and diametral
acoustic paths. The times of flight of pulses traveling between pairs of transducers are
measured to determine the axial fluid velocity projected onto the acoustic path (In
some designs, the fluid sound velocity is also measured.). With knowledge of the
shape of the axial velocity profile, the mean fluid velocity can be inferred from the axial
fluid velocity measurement. The volumetric flow is then calculated as the product of
the mean axial velocity and the pipe cross sectional area.
• Cross Correlation systems(Canadian General Electric) consisting of two pairs of
ultrasonic transducers mounted so as to form two parallel diametral paths,
perpendicular to the axis of the pipe, and separated by a known axial distance. One
transducer in each path continuously transmits ultrasound to the opposite transducer
on that path. The received signal for the upstream path is subjected to an adjustable
time delay, then cross correlated with the downstream signal. A characteristic fluid
velocity is calculated from the quotient of the distance between acoustic paths and the
time delay at which maximum correlation is achieved. The mean axial velocity is
inferred from this characteristic fluid velocity. The volumetric flow is then calculated as
the product of the mean axial velocity and the pipe cross sectional area.
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2.2.6 Summary
The thermal power of the reactor core is determined by a heat balance on the nuclear
boiler using operating data. Under steady state conditions, the nuclear boiler heat out-
put is obtained as the difference between the total heat removed from the boiler system
minus the total heat added in the flow streams returning to the boiler.
A core heat balance in the power range, greater than or equal to 10% power, is made to
ensure that the core is operated at all times within licensed thermal limitations and/or fuel
warranty requirements. The results of heat balance calculations also provide input to
additional core calculations (i.e., CPR & APLHGR).
Either the manual long form method or the off-line computer method is required when the
process computer is unavailable.
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Table 2.2-1 TI 1.1 Core Heat Balance
Parameter Panel Instrument Units Reading
No.
(1) mFW 9-5 FR-3-78 106lb/hr 13.3
(2) mRD 9-5 FI-85-11A gpm 80
(3) mCU(A) 9-4 FI-69-35 gpm 135
(4) mCU(B) 9-4 FI-69-60 gpm 0.0
o
(5) TFW 9-6 TI-3-48 F 375
o
(6) TCU(in) 9-4 TI-69-6 F 526
o
(7) TCU(out) 9-4 TI-69-6 F 430
o
(8) TRD Spec. Meas. F 85
(9) PR 9-5 PR-3-53 psig 1010
(10) PRD 9-5 PI-85-13A psig 1335
(11) QLoop A 9-4 EI-96-14A MW 3.75
(12) QLoop B 9-4 EI-96-14B MW 3.75
Data Taken
Initials
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Table 2.2-2 TI 1.1 Core Heat Balance (Continued)
Quantity Data Used Value (BTU/lb)
(13) hMS (9)
(14) hFW (5) & (9)
(15) hin (6) & (9)
(16) hout (7) & (9)
(17) hRD (8) & (9)
Note: Assume that atmospheric pressure equals 15 psia.
enthalpy (h): A quantity associated with a thermodynamic system expressed as
the internal energy of a system plus the product of the pressure and
volume of the system.
thermodynamics: The science concerned with the relations between heat and
mechanical energy or work, and the conversion of one into the other.
entropy: A measure of the amount of work unavailable for work during a
natural process.
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Table 2.2-3 TI 1.1 Core Heat Balance (Continued)
Quantity Data Used Value (MWt)
(18) QFW (1) x (14) x .293
(19) QRDin (2) x (17) x (1.47x10-4)
(20) Qp (11) + (12)
(21) QTin (18) + (19) + (20)
(22) QMS (1) x (13) x .293
(23) QRDout (2) x (13) x (1.47x10-4)
(24) QCU [(3) + (4)] x [(15) - (16)] x
(1.47x10-4)
(25) QFL Special Measurement 0.6
(26) QTout (22+23+24+25)
(27) QC (26) - (21)
Calculation Done By
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Table 2.2-4 Steam Tables
Properties of Superheated Steam and Compressed Water (Temperature and Pressure)
Press., psia 1000 1025 1050
Tsat 544.58 547.56 550.53
Sat Steam 1192.9 1191.95 1191.0
Sat. Water 542.55 546.35 550.15
540 536.69 536.65 536.60
530 524.12 524.09 524.05
520 511.79 511.77 511.74
510 499.69 499.68 499.66
450 430.55 430.57 430.58
440 419.45 419.47 419.49
430 408.46 408.48 408.50
420 397.55 397.58 397.60
410 386.72 386.75 386.77
400 375.96 375.99 376.02
390 365.27 365.31 365.34
380 354.65 354.69 354.72
370 344.08 344.12 344.16
360 333.57 333.61 333.65
100 70.63 70.70 70.76
90 60.69 60.70 60.83
80 50.76 50.83 50.89
70 40.82 40.89 40.96
60 30.88 30.95 31.02
Properties of saturated Steam and Water (Pressure)
Pressure Temperature Enthalpy, Btu/lbm
o
psia F hf hfg hg
1050 550.53 550.1 640.9 1191.0
1040 549.36 548.6 642.8 1191.4
1030 548.18 547.1 644.7 1191.8
1020 546.99 545.6 646.6 1192.2
1010 545.79 544.1 648.5 1192.6
1000 544.48 542.6 650.4 1192.9
990 543.36 541.0 652.3 1193.3
980 542.14 539.5 654.2 1193.7
970 540.9 537.9 656.1 1194.0
960 539.65 536.3 658.0 1194.4
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3800
50
3600 100
150
200
250
3400
300
330
375
400
3200
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
FEEDWATER FLOW (106LB/HR)
Figure 2.2-1 Simplified Short Form Core Heat Balance
Fixed Losses Q FL
P
F T
h MS
Feedwater In Main Steam Out
m FW
h FW
T
Clean Up System Qc
F
Control
h out T RodDrive
h
RD m RD
h
in
RegenerativeHeat Recirculation
Exchanger PumpWork
Qp
Clean Up
Pump
Non - Regenerative
Heat Exchanger
Demineralizer
F
m CU
Figure 2.2-2 Simplified Core Heat Balance Diagram
