SPA6311 Physical Cosmology 2015

Lectures 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3

Lecture by K. A. Malik

Recall
  kc2
H 2 = H02 Ωm0 (1 + z)3 + Ωr0 (1 + z)4 + ΩΛ − 2
a
Define curvature density

−kc2
Ωk0 =
H02
get:

kc2
− = −kc2 (1 + z)3 = Ωk0 (1 + z)2 H02
a2
and Friedmann
 
H 2 = H02 Ωm0 (1 + z)3 + Ωr0 (1 + z)4 + Ωk0 (1 + z)2 + ΩΛ

Can be solved numerically.

The deceleration parameter q

Consider, e.g. matter dominated universe

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a(t) ∝ t 3

Note: expansion slows down. This can be made more precise, by Taylor expanding the
scale factor:
1
a(t) = a(t0 ) + ȧ(t0 )(t − t0 ) + ä(t0 )(t − t0 )2 + ...
2
Rewrite
 
1 2 2
a(t) = a(t0 ) 1 + H0 (t − t0 ) − q0 H0 (t − t0 )
2

where we define
ä(t0 ) 1
q0 = −
a(t0 ) H02

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 Figure 1: The evolution of the scale factor in different universes, Λ = 0.

deceleration parameter. Or

−ä(t0 )a(t0 )
q0 =
(ȧ(t0 ))2

Recall acceleration equation

ä 4πG
= − (ρ + 3P )
a 3
4πG 1
q0 = (ρ0 + 3P0 )
3 H0
Ω0
q0 = (1 + 3ω)
2
Knowing q0 , could get us Ω0 , if all matter us described by (1 + ω) ρ and k = 0.

Note: q0 named deceleration parameter and defined with minus sign in definition for
historical reasons: It was assumed that äa < 0 or (ρ + 3P ) > 0. However, observations
today point äa > 0 and q0 < 0

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Recall

The FRW line element

dr2
 
2 2 2 2
ds = −c dt + a (t) + r2 dΩ2(2)
1 − kr2
a(t) is homogeneous and isotropic. Light travels on null geodesics, that is ds = 0. Hence
for a light ray travelling radially outwards, dΩ(2) = 0, we have

c dt dr
=√
a 1 − kr2

Distances in FRW

1. Proper distance
the length of the spatial geodesic at some fixed time t.
Z
dp = ds

The proper distance from us (at point (0,0,0)) to a galaxy situated (r0 ,0,0) is
Z r0
dp (t) = ds
0
Z r0
dr
= a(t) √
0 1 − kr2
Today, with a(t0 ) = 1
Z r0
dr
dp = √
0 1 − kr2
In a flat universe
Z r0
dp = dr = r0
0
√ √
For a closed universe, k > 0 use U = kr and du = kdr, get
√
kr0
1
Z
dU
dp = √ √
k 0 1 − U2
Using table
Z
dx
√ = arcsin (x)
1 − x2

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 So
1 √ 
dp = √ arcsin kr0
k
Similarly, for an open universe
1 p 
dp = √ arcsinh |k|r0
k

2. Luminosity distance
L
l=
4πD2
This assumed Euclidean geometry: a flat non-expanding universe. L is the energy
emitted per second per solid angle.

Total light output of the source is 4πL. By our observer light is spread out over a
sphere of area 4πd2lum . The receiver receives 4πd12 of the total output.
lum

Define flux density

4πL L
S= 2 = 2
4πdlum dlum
Inverted
L
d2lum =
S
Take into account two effects:

• Redshift of photon energy E = ~ω, E ∝ ω ∝ a−1 ∝ (1 + z)

• Photons reach observer less frequently: photons emitted at intervals ∆tem ,
will be received at intervals
a(t0 )
∆tem = ∆tem (1 + z)
a(tem )

This gives for an object at r0

L
S=
r02 (1 + z)2
and hence

dlum = (1 + z)r0

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 that is distant objects appear further away then they actually are, as redshift re-
duces their apparent luminosity.

Recall r0 depends on the geometry of the universe. k = 0; dp = r0 → dlum =

dp (1 + z). For z << 1, dlum ≈ dp

k>0
1 √ 
r0 = √ sin kdp
k
which implies
1+z √ 
dlum = √ sin kdp
k
For z << 1 get
1 √ 
dlum ≈ √ kdp + ...
k
≈ dp
and similarly for the open case.
3. Angular diameter distance: This distance, denoted ddiam , is defined: the dis-
tance an object of known physical extent appears to be at, assuming Euclidean
geometry (ie it is a measure of how large objects appear). Object of size l, per-
pendicular to the line of sight then
l l
ddiam = ≈
tan (θ) θ
so
l = ds = r0 a(tem )dθ
→
l
dθ =
r0 a(tem )
1
Using now a(tem ) = 1+z

l
dθ = (1 + z)
r0
and hence
l r0
ddiam = l
=
r0 (1 + z) 1+z
For nearby objects
ddiam ≈ r0

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E.g: k = 0, matter dom:
Z t0
cdt
rem =
tem a
Z t0
2 dt
= ct0 3
2
t3 tem
 1 !
tem 3
= 3ct0 1 −
t0
 1

= 3ct0 1 − aem
2

 
1
= 3ct0 1 − √
1+z
Now, for an object with extent l

l(1 + z)
θ =
rem
3
l (1 + z) 2
= √
3ct0 1 + z − 1
1
For z << 1: θ ∝ z and for z >> 1: θ ∝ z. ddiam decreases at large z → distant objects
appear larger.

Note: it is not straight forward to get the information we want (eg distance D) from
the observations (z, l)

Horizons (in FRW)

In general: roughly speaking, a horizon is the boundary between regions we can ob-
serve (exchange information), and ones we can’t.

The Cosmological Horizon: The maximum distance light has travelled since the
Big Bang (at t = 0). Denoted rH , it is given by the following equation
Z t Z rH
c dt dr
= √
0 a 0 1 − kr2
For k = 0 this is
Z t Z rH
dt
c = dr
0 a 0

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Which gives us
Z t
dt
rH = c
0 a

To get physical distance, multiply comoving distance by a(t)

Z t
dt
RH = arH = a(t)c
0 a

If we choose a(t0 ) = 1 today, we have RH (t0 ) = rH (t0 )

For matter dom (k = 0, Λ = 0)

 2
t 3
a=
t0
t
dt′
Z 2 1
= 3t 3 3
0t
0 a(t′ )

So

RH (t0 ) = c3t0

This is the maximum distance light can have travelled (during matter domination).
Note: stars (and galaxies) formed during matter domination, hence 3ct0 is the furthest
distance starlight can have travelled. This resolves Olbers’ paradox. Note, without the
expansion of the universe the Cosmological Horizon would just be ct0

Sometimes the cosmological horizon is referred to as particle horizon have speed v ≤ c,

it is an upper limit particles could have travelled since t = 0

The Event Horizon: is denoted by rev and is defined as the comoving radius within
which signals emitted at time t can be observed by the time tmax :
Z tmax Z rev
cdt′ dr
= √
t a(t )
′
0 1 − kr2
For k = 0
tmax
dt′
Z
rev = c
t a(t′ )

The physical radius:

Rev (t) = a(t)rev (t)

For Λ = 0:

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 • In the open case (k < 0) tmax is unbounded and Rev → ∞
• In the close case (k > 0), tmax is finite, and so is Rev .
For Λ 6= 0 we found (Λ domination)
q 
Λ
3
ct
a∝e

In this case, get for Rev (t)

r
Λ
β=
3
So

Rev (t) = a(t)rev (t)

Z tmax
βt ′
= ce dt′ e−βt
t

So
c 
Rev (t) = 1 − eβ(t−tmax )
β
q
Λ
as tmax → ∞, eβ(t−tmax ) → 0. Hence, in this case Rev is finite (indeed Rev = 3 ).
There is a limit to what we can “see” in the future.

The age of the universe

ȧ(t0 )
Rough estimate: Assume constant expansion rate ȧ(t) = const. Today H0 = a(t0 ) →
ȧ(t0 ) = H0 if a(t0 ) = 1 . Integrate, and get

a(t) = H0 t + const
= H0 t

Evaluate today

a 0 = H 0 t0
= 1

So

t0 = H0−1

This give
1
t0 ≈ ≈ 10Gyr
100hkms−1 M pc−1

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Unfortunately, expansion rate is not constant. It depends on the matter content and the
geometry of the universe (Friedmann Equation).
2
E.g assume matter domination, and get a(t) ∝ t 3

ȧ 2
H= = t−1
a 3
Evaluate at today
2
H0 = t−1
3 0
Or
2
t0 = H0−1 ≈ 6.6Gyr
3
Observational limits on the age

The universe must be older than the objects it contains. Some age measurements:

• Geological data Earth roughly 5 Gyr old

• Uranium Isotopes (produced in supernovae) indicate through decay chains and

rates that Milky Way is roughly 7 Gyr old

• Studies of old white dwarfs and globular clusters indicate both are roughly 10 Gyr.
Adding roughly 1Gyr for globular clusters and white dwarfs to form; got only very
rough agreement with original estimate

Accurate Calculation
Z t0
t0 = dt
Z0 a 0
da
=
ȧ
Z0 a 0
da
=
0 aH

Recall def of redshift

a0
1+z =
a
Differentiating this
a0
dz = − da
a2

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Or writing it more nicely
dz −da
=
1+z a
get
Z 0
dz
t0 = −
(1 + z)H(z)
Z ∞∞
dz
=
0 (1 + z)H(z)

Friedmann equation from beginning of lecture. Can solve numerically, and find

t0 = 13.8 Gyr = 4.3 × 1017 s

According to Planck satellite data from 2013.

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