Index

Chapter Name of the Chapter Page No.

01 Matter in our surroundings 02 – 05
02 Is matter around us pure ? 06 – 10
03 Atoms and molecules 11 – 13
04 Structure of the atom 14 – 16
05 The fundamental unit of life 17 – 20
06 Tissues 21 – 24
07 Diversity in living organisms 25 – 30
08 Motion 31 – 33
09 Force and laws of motion 34 – 37
10 Gravitation 38 – 41
11 Work and energy 42 – 43
12 Sound 44 – 48
13 Why do we fall ill ? 49 – 51
14 Natural resources 52 – 55
15 Improvement in food resources 56 – 60

Mr. P. K. Singh (PGT Biology) [email protected] KV Muzaffarpur (F/S)

 Chapter-01 : Matter in our surroundings
Matter : Anything which occupies space and has mass called matter.

Classification of matter :
 Early Indian philosophers classified in the form of five basic elements as air, earth, fire, sky
and water called Panch Tatva.
 On the basis of the physical state, matter is classified as solids, liquids and gases.
 On the basis of chemical composition, matter is classified as pure substances and mixtures.
 Pure substances may be elements or compounds.
 Mixtures may be homogeneous mixtures or heterogeneous mixtures.
Physical nature of matter :
 Matter is made up of particles.
 The particles of matter are very tiny.
 The particles of matter have space between them.
 The particles of matter are continuously moving.
 The particles of matter attract each other.
Activity for the matter is made up particles : Take some water in a beaker and note
its level. Dissolve some salt or sugar in it with the help of a glass rod. The salt dissolves in the
water but the level of water does not change. This is because the particles of water get into the
space between the particles of water. This shows that matter is made up of particles.

Activity for the particles of matter are very tiny : Dissolve 2-3 crystals of
potassium permanganate in 100ml of water in a beaker. Take 10ml of this solution and dissolve in
100ml of water. Take 10ml of this solution and dissolve in 100ml of water. Repeat this process 5-6
times. This shows that a few crystals of potassium permanganate can colour a large volume of
water because there are millions of tiny particles in each crystal.

Activity for the particles of matter have space between them : Take some
water in a beaker and note its level. Dissolve some salt or sugar in it with the help of a glass rod.
The salt dissolves in the water but the level of water does not change. This is because the particles
of salt get into the space between the particles of water.

Activity for the particles of matter are continuously moving : Take some water
in a beaker and put a drop of blue or red ink slowly along the sides of the beaker. Leave it
undisturbed for a few hours. The ink spreads evenly throughout the water due to the movement of
the particles of water and ink.
 The intermixing of two or more different types of matter on their own is called diffusion.
Activity for the particles of matter attract each other : Take an iron nail, a piece
of chalk and a rubber band. Try breaking them by hammering, cutting or stretching. It is easier to
break the chalk, less easily to break the rubber band and difficult to break the iron nail. This is
because the particles in the iron nail are held together with greater force than in the rubber band
or chalk.

Properties of solids :
 Solids have definite shapes and fixed volume.
 The space between the particles is minimum.
 The force of attraction between the particles is maximum.
 The movement of the particles is minimum.
 They are least compressible.
 Their rate of diffusion is least.

Properties of liquids :
 Liquids have no definite shape but have fixed volume. Liquids take the shape of the
container.
 The space between the particles is intermediate.
 The force of attraction between the particles is intermediate.
 The movement of the particles is intermediate.
 They are less compressible.
 Their rate of diffusion is more than solids.

Properties of gases :
 Gases have no definite shape or fixed volume. Gases occupy the whole space of the
container.
 The space between the particles is maximum.
 The force of attraction between the particles is minimum.
 The movement of the particles is maximum.
 They are most compressible.
 Their rate of diffusion is more than solids and liquids.

Change of state :
When a solid is heated it changes into liquid. When a liquid is heated it changes into gas. When a
gas is cooled it changes to liquid. When a liquid is cooled it changes into solid. E.g.- If ice is heated
it changes into water. If water is heated it changes into steam. If steam is cooled it changes into
water. If water is cooled it changes into ice.
Melting (Fusion) : When a solid is heated, the particles begin to vibrate with greater speed
and begin to move more freely. Then at a particular temperature the solid melts and changes into
liquid. The process of melting is also known as fusion.
 The temperature at which a solid melts is called its melting point. The melting point of ice
is 00C or 273 K.
 Latent heat of fusion : The amount of heat energy required to change 1kg of a solid into
liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is called the latent heat of fusion.

Boiling : When a liquid is heated, its particles begin to move even faster. Then at a particular
temperature the liquid begins to boil and changes into gas (vapour).
 Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. When a liquid boils the bulk of the liquid changes into
vapour.
 The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling is called its boiling point. The boiling
point of water is 1000C or 373K (273 + 100)K.
 Latent heat of vaporisation : The amount of heat energy required to change 1kg of a
liquid into gas at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point is called the latent heat of
vaporisation.

Sublimation : The change of state directly from solid to gas or from gas to solid is called
sublimation. E.g.- If solid camphor or ammonium chloride is heated, it changes into vapour. If the
vapours are cooled it changes into solid.

Effect of pressure on gases :

 When pressure is applied on gas the particles come closer and the gas changes into liquid.
 We can liquefy gases by applying pressure and reducing the temperature.
 Compressed solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice. If the pressure is reduced it changes
directly to gas without coming into liquid state. So, solid carbon dioxide is known as dry
ice.

Interconversion of the three states of matter : The states of matter are inter
convertible. The state of matter can be changed by changing the temperature or pressure.

Evaporation : The change of a liquid into vapour at any temperature below its boiling point is
called evaporation.
 Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface gain enough energy to
overcome the forces of attraction and changes to vapour state.

 Factors affecting evaporation : The rate of evaporation depends upon surface area,
temperature, humidity and wind speed.
  Increase in the surface area increases the rate of evaporation.
 Increase in temperature increases the rate of evaporation.
 Increase in humidity decreases the rate of evaporation.
 Increase in wind speed increases the rate of evaporation.
 Evaporation causes cooling : When a liquid evaporates, the particles of the liquid
absorb heat from the surroundings and evaporates. So, the surroundings become cold.
E.g.- People sprinkle water on the roof or open ground because during evaporation water
absorbs heat makes the hot surface cool.
 During summer we sweat more because during evaporation the sweat absorbs heat
from our body making the body cool.
 Wearing cotton clothes in summer keeps us cool because cotton absorbs sweat and
when the sweat evaporates it absorbs heat from our body making the body cool.
 Chapter-02 : Is matter around us pure ?
Classification of matter :
 On the basis of the physical state, matter is classified into three main types. They are solids,
liquids and gases.
 On the basis of chemical composition matter is classified into two main types. They are
pure substances and mixtures.
 Pure substances are of two types. They are elements and compounds.
 Mixtures are of two types. They are homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous
mixtures.
 Pure substance is a substance which consists of a single type of substance (element or
compound). E.g.- iron, copper, hydrogen, oxygen, water, sugar, common salt etc.
 Mixture is a substance which consists of two or more pure substances. E.g.- sea water,
minerals, soil, air, sand in salt, sugar in water, salt in water etc.
Homogeneous mixture : It is a mixture which has a uniform composition.
 The particles of the mixture are not visible by the naked eye.
 The particles cannot be separated by filtration.
 The mixture is stable (the particles do not settle down).
 The path of a beam of light is not visible in the mixture.
 E.g.- mixture of sugar in water, mixture of salt in water, mixture of copper sulphate in
water etc.

Heterogeneous mixture : It is a mixture which has a non-uniform composition.

 The particles are visible by the naked eye.
 The particles can be separated by filtration.
 The mixture is unstable (the particles settle down).
 The path of a beam of light is visible in the mixture.
 E.g.- mixture of salt and sand, mixture of sulphur and iron filings, mixture of oil and water.

True solution : A true solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

 A solution has a solvent and solute as its components.
 The component in the larger amount is the solvent and the component in the lesser amount
is the solute.
 E.g.- solution of salt in water, solution of sugar in water, iodine in water (tincture iodine),
soda water etc.
 Properties of true solutions :
 True solution is a homogeneous mixture.
 The particles are cannot be seen by the naked eye.
 The solute particles cannot be separated by filtration.
  The solute particles do not settle down and the solution is stable.
 The particles do not scatter a beam of light passing through it and the path of light is
not visible in the solution.

Colloidal solution : A colloidal solution is a heterogeneous mixture of two or more

substances.
 E.g.- mixture of starch in water, mixture of egg albumin in water, milk, air containing dust
and smoke etc.
 Properties of colloidal solution :
 Colloidal solution is a heterogeneous mixture.
 The particles cannot be seen by the naked eye.
 The solute particles cannot be separated by filtration.
 The solute particles do not settle down and the solution is stable.
 The particles scatter a beam of light passing through it and the path of light is visible in
the solution.

Suspension : A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

 E.g.- solution of sand in water, solution of chalk powder in water etc.
 Properties of suspension :
 Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
 The particles can be seen by the naked eye.
 The solute particles can be separated by filtration.
 The solute particles settle down and the solution is unstable.
 The particles scatter a beam of light passing through it and the path of light is visible in
the solution.

Tyndall effect : When a beam of light is passed through a colloidal solution, the colloid
particles scatter the beam of light and the path of light becomes visible in the solution. This effect
is called Tyndall effect.
 Tyndall effect can be seen when light enters a room through a small hole due to scattering
of light by the dust and smoke particles.
 Tyndall effect can be seen in a dense forest due to scattering of light by water droplets in
the mist.

Saturated and Unsaturated solution :

 Saturated solution is a solution which cannot dissolve any more of a solute at a given
temperature.
 Solubility of a substance is the amount of solute present in a saturated solution of the
substance.
  Unsaturated solution is a solution which can dissolve some more of the solute at a given
temperature.
 Preparation of a saturated solution : Take 50ml of water in two beakers. Add salt in
one beaker with continuous stirring till no more salt dissolves in it. Similarly add sugar in
the other beaker with continuous stirring till no more sugar dissolves in it. We get
saturated solutions of salt and sugar respectively.
 If the mixtures are heated it dissolves some more of the solute.
 The solubility of different substances is different.
 The solubility of substances varies with temperature.

Concentration of a solution : The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute

present in a given amount of the solvent or solution.
Concentration of a solution = Amount of solute / Amount of solvent
or, Concentration of a solution = Amount of solute / Amount of solution
 The concentration of a solution can be expressed as mass by mass percentage or as mass by
volume percentage.
 Mass by mass percentage of a solution = Mass of solute x 100 / Mass of solution
 Mass by volume percentage of a solution = Mass of solute x 100 / Volume of solution

Separating the components of a mixture : The components of a heterogeneous

mixture can be separated by simple methods like hand picking, sieving, filtration etc. Sometimes
special techniques are used to separate the components of mixtures like Evaporation,
Centrifugation, Decantation (Using separating funnel), Sublimation, Centrifugation,
Chromatography, Distillation and fractional distillation.

 Evaporation : This method is used for separating a volatile component (solvent) from a
non-volatile component (solute) by heating the mixture. E.g.- Ink is a mixture of a dye and
water. If some ink is heated in a dish, the water evaporates and the dye is left in the dish.
Similarly we can separate a mixture of salt and water or sugar and water by evaporation.

 Centrifugation : The method of separating denser particles and lighter particles from a
mixture by using a centrifuging machine is called centrifugation. E.g.- If we take some milk
in a centrifuging machine and spin it rapidly, the cream separates from the milk because
cream is less dense than milk.

 Decantation using separating funnel : This method is used for separating a mixture
of immiscible liquids. Liquids separate into different layers depending on their densities.
E.g.- If we take a mixture of kerosene oil and water in a separating funnel, it forms
separate layers of oil and water. The water can be separated by opening the stop cock.
After the water flows out the stop clock can be closed.
  Sublimation : This method is used to separate a mixture of a sublimely component from
a non-sublimely component by heating the mixture. E.g.- If a mixture of ammonium
chloride and common salt is heated, the ammonium chloride sublimes and can be cooled
and solidified and collected and salt is left behind.

 Chromatography : This method is used for separating coloured components from a

liquid by using a filter paper or blotting paper. E.g.- Put a drop of ink near one end of a
strip of filter paper and dip the end of the paper in a test tube containing water. Ink is a
mixture of two or more coloured components. The component which is more soluble in
water rises faster and gets separated.

 Distillation : This method is used for separating a mixture of miscible liquids by boiling
the mixture and cooling and condensing the vapours.
 Simple distillation is used for separating a mixture of two miscible liquids having
sufficient difference in their boiling points. E.g.- If a mixture of acetone and water is
heated in a distillation apparatus, the acetone which has a lower boiling point than
water first boils and cools and condenses and is separated from the water.
 Fractional distillation is used for separating a mixture of two or more miscible liquids
whose difference in boiling points is less than 25K.
 The apparatus used for fractional distillation is similar to that used for simple
distillation except that a fractionating column is fitted between the distillation flask and
condenser. The fractionating column has glass beads which increases the surface for the
vapours to cool and condense.
 Fractional distillation is used for separating the components of petroleum, separating
the different gases from air etc.

Separation of components of air : Air is a mixture of gases. The components of air can
be separated by fractional distillation.
 Air is compressed by increasing the pressure and cooled by decreasing the temperature to
get liquid air. The liquid air is then allowed to warm up slowly in a fractional distillation
column. Then the different components separate at different heights depending on their
different boiling points.

Purification of solids by crystallization : Crystallization is the process of obtaining a

pure solid in the form of crystals from its solution. E.g.- By crystallization we can obtain pure
copper sulphate from its solution.
 Dissolve about 5g of copper sulphate in minimum amount of water. Filter the solution to
remove the impurities. Evaporate the solution in a china dish to get a saturated solution.
Cover the solution with a filter paper and allow it to cool. Pure copper sulphate crystals are
formed.
Element : Element is a basic form of matter which cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical reactions.
 Elements are of three types. They are metals, non-metals and metalloids.
 Properties of metals : They have lustre. They are malleable and ductile. They are good
conductors of heat and electricity. They are sonorous. E.g.- iron, aluminium, zinc, mercury,
copper, silver, gold etc.
 Properties of non-metals : They do not have lustre. They are not malleable or ductile. They
are poor conductors of heat and electricity. They are not sonorus. E.g.- hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, iodine, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus etc.
 Properties of metalloids : Metalloids are elements which show some properties of metals
and some properties of non-metals. E.g.- boron, silicon, germanium etc.

Compound : A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements chemically

combined together in a fixed ratio. E.g.- water, carbon dioxide, sugar, salt, iron sulphide etc.
 Chapter-03 : Atoms and molecules
Laws of chemical combination : It includes law of conservation of mass and law of
constant proportions.

Law of conservation of mass : Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction. This means that during a chemical reaction the sum of the masses of the reactants and
products remain unchanged.

Activity for law of conservation of mass : Take some sodium sulphate solution in a
conical flask and some barium chloride solution in an ignition tube. Hang the ignition tube in the
flask by a thread and pot a cork on the flask. Find the mass of the flask on a balance. Then tilt the
flask. A chemical reaction takes place and sodium chloride and barium sulphate are formed. Then
find the mass of the flask again. It will be seen that the sum of the masses of the reactants and
products remain unchanged.

Law of constant proportions : In a chemical compound the elements are always present
in a definite proportion by mass. E.g.- Water (H2O) always contains two elements hydrogen and
oxygen combined together in the same ratio of 2:16 or 1:8 by mass. If 9 g of water is decomposed
we get 1 g of hydrogen and 8 g of oxygen. Ammonia (NH3) always contains two elements nitrogen
and hydrogen combined together in the same ratio of 14:3 by mass.

Dalton’s atomic theory :

 Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
 Atoms are indivisible and cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
 Atoms of a given element are similar in mass and properties.
 Atoms of different elements have different masses and properties.
 Atoms combine in small whole number ratios to form compounds.
 In a given compound the relative number and kind of atoms are constant.

Atom : An atom is the smallest particle of an element that may or may not exist independently
and retains all its chemical properties.
 Atoms are very small in size and smaller than anything we can imagine or compare with.
 Atomic radius is measured in nanometres (nm).
 1 nanometer = 10-9m or, 1 meter = 109nm
 The atomic radius of an atom of hydrogen is 10-10m.
 The radius of a molecule of water is 10-9m.

Symbols of atoms of different elements :

 The symbols of elements are represented by letters.
 The symbols of some elements are represented by one letter and the symbols of some
elements are represented by two letters.
  If the symbol has only one letter it should be written as capital letter and if the symbol has
two letters then the first letter should be capital letter and the second letter should be small
letter.

Atomic mass :
 Since atoms are very small in size its mass is very small and determining its mass is very
difficult. So, the mass of an atom is compared with the mass of a standard atom.
 The atom which is considered as a standard atom for comparing the masses of other atoms
is carbon-12 atom whose atomic mass is 12u (atomic mass unit).
 One atomic mass unit (u) is the mass of 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
 The atomic mass of an element is defined as the average mass of one atom of the element
compared with 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Molecule :
 A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound which exists independently
and shows all the properties of that substance.
 A molecule is a group of two or more elements that are held together by attractive forces.
 Atoms of the same element or different elements can join together to form molecules.

Molecule of elements and compounds :

 Molecules of some elements contain two or more atoms of same element.
 Molecule of a compound contains atoms of two or more different types of elements.
 Atomicity of an element is the number of atoms present in one molecule of the element.

Ions :
 Compounds containing metal and non-metal elements contain charged particles called ions.
 An ion is a charged particle having positive or negative charge. A positively charged ion is
called ‘cation’ and a negatively charged ion is called ‘anion’.

Valency : The combining capacity of an element.

Writing chemical formulae :

 Write the symbols/formula of the elements or ions so that the symbol of the metal or
positive ion is on the left and symbol/formula of the non-metal or negative ion is on the
right.
 Write the valencies of the elements or ions below the elements or ions.
 Cross over the valencies of the combining ions.
 Polyatomic ions should be enclosed in bracket before writing the formula.

Examples of chemical formulae of some compounds :

(i) Formula of hydrogen chloride (ii) Formula of hydrogen sulphide
Symbol H Cl Symbol H S
Valency 1 1 Valency 1 2
Formula HCl Formula H 2S
 (iii) Formula of Magnesium chloride (iv) Formula of Carbon tetrachloride
Symbol Mg Cl Symbol C Cl
Valency 2 1 Valency 4 1
Formula MgCl2 Formula CCl4

(v) Formula of Calcium oxide (vi) Formula of Aluminium oxide

Symbol Ca O Symbol Al O
Valency 2 2 Valency 3 2
Formula Ca2O2 = CaO Formula Al2O3

(vii) Formula of Sodium nitrate (viii) Formula of Calcium hydroxide

Symbol Na NO3- Symbol Ca OH-
Formula Valency 1 1 Formula Valency 2 1
Formula NaNO3 Formula Ca(OH)2

(ix) Formula of Sodium carbonate (x) Formula of Ammonium sulphate

Symbol Na CO32- Symbol NH4+ SO42-
Formula Valency 1 2 Formula Valency 1 2
Formula Na2CO3 Formula (NH4)2SO4

Molecular mass/Formula unit mass : The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of
the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance. Molecular mass is expressed in
atomic mass units (u). E.g.- Molecular mass of Nitric acid (HNO3) :
Atomic mass of H = 1 u
Atomic mass of N = 14 u
Atomic mass of O = 16 u
Molecular mass of HNO3 = 1+14+16x3 = 1+14+48 = 63 u
Mole concept :
 A mole of a substance is that amount of the substance which contains the same number of
particles (atoms, molecules or ions) that are present in 12g of Carbon-12.
 The number of particles (atoms) present in 12g of Carbon-12 is 6.022x1023. This number is
called Avagadro’s Number or Avagadro’s Constant.
 A mole represents two things :
 It represents a definite number of particles (atoms, molecules or ions) equal to
6.022x1023.
 It represents a definite mass of a substance equal to the gram-atomic mass of an
element or the gram-molecular mass of a compound.
 Gram-atomic mass of an element is its atomic mass expressed in grams. E.g.-
Gram-atomic mass of Oxygen = O2 = 16 x 2 = 32g.
 Gram-molecular mass of a compound is its molecular mass expressed in grams. E.g.-
Gram-molecular mass of water = H2O = 1 x 2 + 16 = 2 + 16 = 18g.

Relationship between number of moles (n), mass (m), molar mass (M),
Number of atoms or molecules (N) and Avagadro’s number (N0) :
n = m / M, m = n x M, M=m/n
n = N / N0
 Chapter-04 : Structure of the atom
Charged particles in matter : Atoms have three types of sub-atomic particles. They are
electrons, protons and neutrons. Electrons are negatively charged (e-), protons are positively
charged (p+) and neutrons have no charge (n).
 The mass of an electron is 1/2000th mass of a hydrogen atom. The mass of a proton is equal
to the mass of a hydrogen atom and is taken as 1 unit. The mass of a neutron is equal to the
mass of a hydrogen atom and is taken as 1 unit.
Discovery of sub-atomic particles :
 J. J. Thomson discovered the presence of the negatively charged particles called electrons
in the atom in 1900.
 E. Goldstein discovered new radiations in gas discharge in 1886 and called them canal rays.
These rays were positively charged. This later led to the discovery of the positively charged
particles called protons in the atom.
 James Chadwick discovered the presence of particles having no charge in the atom in 1932
called neutrons.
Thomson’s model of an atom :
 According to Thomson, an atom is similar to a Christmas pudding. The pudding had
positive charge and the electrons having negative charge were like plums on the pudding.
 He proposed that :
 An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
 The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is
electrically neutral.

Rutherford’s model of an atom :

 Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiment : Rutherford allowed a beam of fast
moving alpha particles (α–particles) having positive charge to fall on a thin gold foil. He
observed that :
 Most of the α–particles passed straight through the gold foil.
 Some of the α–particles were slightly deflected by small angles.
 Very few α–particles appeared to rebound.
 Conclusions from Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiment :
 Most of the space inside an atom is empty because most of the α–particles passed
straight through the gold foil.
 The atom had a small nucleus having positive charge because some of the α–particles
having positive charge were slightly deflected by small angles.
 The size of the nucleus is very small compared to the size of the atom because very few
α–particles appeared to rebound and most of the positive charge and mass of the atom
is in the nucleus.
  Rutherford’s model of an atom :
 An atom has a positively charged nucleus at its centre and most of the mass of the atom
is in the nucleus.
 The electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits.
 The size of the nucleus is very small compared to the size of the atom.
 Defects of Rutherford’s model of the atom : Any particle in a circular orbit would
undergo acceleration and during acceleration the charged particle would radiate energy.
So, the revolving electrons would lose energy and fall into the nucleus and the atom would
be unstable. We know that atoms are stable.
Bohr’s model of an atom :
 An atom has a positively charged nucleus at its centre and most of the mass of the atom is
in the nucleus.
 The electrons revolve around the nucleus in special orbits called discrete orbits.
 These orbits are called shells or energy levels and are represented by the letters K, L, M, N
etc. or numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.
 While revolving in the discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy.
Distribution of electrons in different shells :
 The distribution of electrons in the different shells was suggested by Bohr and Bury.
 The following are the rules for filling electrons in the different shells :
 The maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by the formula 2n2 where n is the
number of the shell 1, 2, 3 etc.
First shell or K shell can have = 2n2 = 2 x 12 = 2x1x1 = 2 electrons
Second shell or L shell can have = 2n2 = 2 x 22 = 2x2x2 = 8 electrons
Third shell or M shell can have = 2n2 = 2 x 32 = 2x3x3 = 18 electrons
Fourth shell or N shell can have = 2n2 = 2 x 42 = 2x4x4 = 32 electrons and so on.
 The maximum number of electrons that can be filled in the outermost shell is 8.
 Electrons cannot be filled in a shell unless the inner shells are filled.

Valency : Valency is the combining capacity of an atom of an element.

 The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons.
 If the outermost shell of an atom is completely filled then they are inert or least reactive
and their combining capacity or valency is zero.
 The inert elements like Helium atom has 2 electrons in the outermost shell and the atoms of
other elements have 8 electrons in their outermost shell. Atoms having 8 electrons in their
outermost shell are having octet configuration and are stable.
 If the outermost shell of an atom is not completely filled then it is not stable. It will try to
attain stability by losing, gaining or sharing electrons with other atoms to attain octet
configuration.
 The number of electrons lost, gained or shared by an atom to attain octet configuration is
the combining capacity or valency of the element. E.g.-
  Hydrogen, Lithium, Sodium atoms can easily lose 1 electron and become stable. So,
their valency is 1.
 Magnesium can easily lose 2 electrons. So, its valency is 2.
 Aluminium can easily lose 3 electrons. So, its valency is 3.
 Carbon shares 4 electrons. So, its valency is 4.
 Fluorine can easily gain 1 electron and become stable. So, its valency is 1.
 Oxygen can easily gain 2 electrons. So, its valency is 2.
 Nitrogen can easily gain 3 electrons. So, its valency is 3.

Atomic number (Z) : The atomic number of an element is the number of protons present in
the nucleus of the atom of the element. All the atoms of an element have the same atomic number.
E.g.- Hydrogen – Atomic number = 1 (1 proton)
Helium – Atomic number = 2 (2 protons)
Lithium – Atomic number = 3 (3 protons)

Mass number (A) : The mass number of an element is the sum of the number of protons
and neutrons (nucleons) present in the nucleus of an atom of the element. The mass of an atom is
mainly the mass of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom. E.g.-
Carbon – Mass number = 12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons), Mass = 12u
Aluminium – Mass number = 27 (13 protons + 14 neutrons), Mass = 27u
Sulphur – Mass number = 32 (16 protons + 16 neutrons), Mass = 32u
 In the notation of an atom the atomic number and mass number are written as :
Mass number
X
Atomic number E.g.- 147N
Isotopes : Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same atomic numbers but
different mass numbers. E.g.-
 Hydrogen has three isotopes. They are Protium, Deuterium (D) and Tritium (T).
1 H 2 H 3 H
1 1 1
Protium Deuterium Tritium
 Carbon has two isotopes. They are 126C and 146C.
 Chlorine has two isotopes. They are 3517Cl and 3717Cl.

Isobars : Isobars are atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers but same
mass numbers. These pairs of elements have the same number of nucleons. E.g.-
 Argon and Calcium have different atomic numbers (18 and 20 respectively) but have the
same mass numbers (40).
 Iron and Nickel have different atomic numbers (26 and 28 respectively) but have the same
atomic mass numbers (58).
 Chapter-05 : The fundamental unit of life
 Cell was discovered in a thin cork slice with the help of a primitive microscope by Robert
Hooke in 1665. Cork resembled the structure of a honeycomb consisting of many little
compartments. Cork is a substance which comes from the bark of a tree. Robert Hooke
called these boxes cells. Cell is derived from Latin word ‘cellule’ which means ‘a little
room’.
 The free living cell in pond water for the first time was discovered by Leeuwenhoek in 1674
with the help of improved microscope.
 The nucleus in the cell was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831.
 The term protoplasm (fluid substance of the cell) was coined by Purkinje in 1839.
 All the plants and animals are composed of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of life
(cell theory) was presented by Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839).
 The cell theory was further expanded by Virchow (1855) by suggesting that all cells arise
from pre-existing cells.
 The organism which is made up of single cell is called unicellular organisms. e.g. - Amoeba,
Chlamydomonas, Paramecium and bacteria.
 The organism which is made up of more than one cell is called multicellular organisms. e.g.
– Frog, Bird, Human, Snake etc.
 Every multicellular organism has come from a single cell. Thus all cells come from pre-
existing cells.
 The shape and size of cells are of different kinds because they perform the specific function.
 There is a division of labour in multicellular organisms such as human beings. This means
that different parts of the human body perform different functions. Similarly, division of
labour is also seen within a single cell.
 Each cell has specific components (cell organelles) which perform a special function such as
making new material, clearing up the waste material from the cell. These organelles
together constitute the basic unit called the cell.
 Cell is the fundamental structural unit of living organisms. It is also the basic functional
unit of life.

Cell wall :
 It is the outermost covering of the plant cell. It provides rigidity to the cell.
 The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a complex substance and
provides structural strength to plants.
 When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of
the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.
 Cell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute (hypotonic
solution) external media without bursting. In this medium, the cells tend to take up water
by osmosis. The cell swells, building up pressure against the cell wall. The wall exerts an
equal pressure against the swollen cell which prevent from bursting.

Plasma membrane or Cell membrane or Plasmalemma :

 It is the outermost covering of the animal cell. It separates the contents of the cell from its
external environment. It is the second outermost covering of the plant cell. The plasma
membrane allows or permits the entry and exit of selected materials in and out of the cell.
 It also prevents the movement of some other materials. Therefore, the cell membrane is
called a selectively permeable membrane.
 Carbon dioxide or oxygen can move across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion.
The spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration is called diffusion.
 Thus, diffusion plays an important role in gaseous exchange between the cells as well as the
cell and its external environment. Water also obeys the law of diffusion.
 The movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane is called
osmosis. The movement of water across the plasma membrane is also affected by the
amount of substance dissolved in water.
 Thus, osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a
semi-permeable membrane to a region of low water concentration.
 The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of organic molecules called lipids and
proteins. The flexibility of the cell membrane also enables the cell to engulf in food and
other material from its external environment. Such processes are known as endocytosis.
Amoeba acquires its food through endocytosis.

Types of solution :
 If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than the cell (outside
solution is very dilute) then the cell will gain water by osmosis. Therefore, the cell will
swell. Such a solution is known as a hypotonic solution.
 If the medium has exactly the same water concentration as the cell then there will be no net
movement of water across the cell membrane. Such a solution is known as an isotonic
solution.
 If the medium has a lower concentration of water than the cell (outside solution is very
concentrated) then the cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a solution is known as a
hypertonic solution. Therefore, the cell will shrink.
 Thus, osmosis is a special case of diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane.
 Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells tend to gain water through osmosis.
Absorption of water by plant roots is also an example of osmosis.
 Thus, diffusion is important in exchange of gases and water in the life of a cell.

Nucleus :
 The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane. The nuclear
membrane has pores which allow the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to the
cytoplasm.
 The nucleus contains chromosomes which are visible as rod-shaped structures only when
the cell is about to divide. Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features
from parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.
 DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and organising cells.
Functional segments of DNA are called genes. Chromatin material (DNA thread) gets
organized into chromosomes.
 The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction. It also plays a crucial role in
chemical activities of the cell. In bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be poorly
defined due to the absence of a nuclear membrane and contain only nucleic acids is called a
nucleoid.
  Those organisms whose cells lack a nuclear membrane called prokaryotes. Organisms with
cells having a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.
 The chlorophyll in photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria is associated with membranous
vesicles but not with plastids as in eukaryotic cells.

Cytoplasm :
 The fluid content present inside the plasma membrane is called cytoplasm. It also contains
many specialised cell organelles such as Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids etc. Each organelle performs a specific function for the
cell.
 Cell organelles are enclosed by membranes. The membrane bound cell organelles are
absent in prokaryotes and present in eukaryotes.
 Viruses lack any membranes and hence do not show characteristics of life until they enter a
living body and use its cell machinery to multiply.

Endoplasmic reticulum :
 The ER membrane is similar in structure to the plasma membrane.
 Two types of ER – Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER).
 RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes attached to
its surface. The ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. The manufactured proteins are
then sent to various places in the cell depending on need.
 The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules for cell function.
 Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane known as membrane
biogenesis.
 Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones.
 ER serves as channels for the transport of materials (especially proteins) between various
regions of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
 The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some of the
biochemical activities of the cell.
 In the liver cells, SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.

Golgi apparatus :
 The Golgi apparatus was first described by Camillo Golgi. It consists of a system of
membrane-bound vesicles arranged approximately parallel to each other in stacks called
cisterns.
 The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets inside
and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus. Golgi apparatus helps in storage,
modification and packaging of products in vesicles.
 The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes.

Lysosome :
 Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell. Lysosomes help to keep the cell
clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn out cell organelles.
 Foreign materials (bacteria or food as well as old organelles) entering in the cell is end up
in the lysosomes. Lysosomes are able to do this because they contain powerful digestive
enzymes capable of breaking down all organic material.
  During the disturbance in cellular metabolism (when the cell gets damaged), lysosomes
may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as
the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.
 Structurally, lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes which are
made by RER.

Mitochondria :
 Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. The energy required for various
chemical activities needed for life is released by mitochondria in the form of ATP
(Adenosine triphopshate) molecules.
 ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in ATP for
making new chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
 Mitochondria have two membrane covering – the outer membrane is very porous while the
inner membrane is deeply folded. These folds create a large surface area for ATP-
generating chemical reactions.
 Mitochondria are semi-autonomous cell organelles because they have own DNA and
ribosomes. Therefore, mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins.

Plastid :
 Plastids are present only in plant cells. There are two types of plastids – chromoplasts
(coloured plastids) and leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids).
 Plastids containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are
important for photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange
pigments in addition to chlorophyll.
 Leucoplasts help in storage of starch, oils and protein granules.
 The internal organisation of the plastids consists of numerous membrane layers embedded
in a material called the stroma.
 Plastids are similar to mitochondria in external structure. Plastids also have their own
DNA and ribosomes.

Vacuole :
 Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles. The
vacuole of plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume.
 In plant cells, vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
 Vacuoles store amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins.
 In single celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that the
Amoeba has consumed.
 In some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play important roles in expelling
excess water and some wastes from the cell.

Important points :
 Camillo Golgi was born at Corteno near Brescia in 1843. He has got the Nobel prize in 1906
with Santiago Ramony Cajal for their work on the structure of the nervous system.
 Chapter-06 : Tissues
Tissues : Tissue is a group of cells having similar structure and function. In plants and animals
groups of cells called tissues carry out specific functions. E.g.- In human beings the cells of the
muscular tissue contract and relax and help in movements. In plants the cells of the vascular tissue
conduct water and food from one part of the plant to the other.

Differences between plant and animal tissues :

 Plant tissues : Plants do not move from place to place. Most of the cells and tissues in
plants provide mechanical support and strength. So most of the tissues consist of dead cells
because they provide mechanical support and strength to the plant.
 The growth of plants takes place only in some regions. So plants have tissues called
meristematic tissues which divide and help in growth and permanent tissues which do
not divide.
 Animal tissues : Animals move from place to place and need more energy than plants. So
most cells and tissues in animals are living cells.
 The growth of animals is more uniform so animals do not have separate dividing and
non-dividing cells. Animals have organs having specialized functions. So the organs
have specialized tissues.

Plant tissues : Plant tissues are of two main types. They are Meristematic tissues and
Permanent tissues.
 Meristematic tissues are of three types. They are Apical meristematic tissues, Intercalliary
meristematic tissues and Lateral meristematic tissues.
 Permanent tissues are of two types. They are Simple permanent tissues and Complex
permanent tissues.
 Simple permanent tissues are of three types. They are Parenchyma, Collenchyma and
Sclerenchyma.
 Complex permanent tissues are of two types. They are Xylem and phloem.

Meristematic tissue : Meristematic tissues are found in the growing regions of the plant like
the tips of root, stem and branches. They divide continuously and help in the growth of the plant.
They are of three types.
 Apical meristematic tissues are present in the tips of stems and roots. They help in the
growth of stems and roots.
 Lateral meristematic tissues are present in in the sides of stems and roots. They help to
increase the girth of the stems and roots.
 Intercalary meristematic tissues are present at the base of leaves and internodes and help
in the growth of those parts.
Permanent tissues : Permanent tissues are formed from meristematic tissues. They do not
divide and have permanent shape and size. They differentiate into different types of permanent
tissues. Permanent tissues are of two main types. They are Simple permanent tissues and Complex
permanent tissues.
 Simple permanent tissues are made up of one type of cells. They are of three types called
Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma.
 Parenchyma consists of loosely packed thin walled cells having more intercellular
spaces. Some parenchyma cells in leaves contain chloroplast and prepares food by
photosynthesis. Some parenchyma cells have large air cavities which help the plant to
float on water. Some parenchyma cells of roots and stem store water and minerals.
 Collenchyma consists of elongated cells having less intercellular spaces and thicker at
the corners. They give flexibility and allow easy bending of different parts like stem,
leaf etc. They also give mechanical support to the plant.
 Sclerenchyma consists of long, narrow, dead thick walled cells. The cell walls contain
lignin a chemical substance which act like cement and hardens them. It gives strength
and hardness to the plant parts.
 Complex permanent tissues are made up of more than one type of cells. There are two
types of complex tissues. They are Xylem and Phloem. They are called vascular or
conducting tissues.
 Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parechyma and xylem fibres. The tracheids
and vessels help to transport water and minerals from roots to all part of the plant.
Xylem parenchyma stores food and fibres help in support.
 Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
The sieve tubes and companion cells transport food from leaves to all parts of the plant.
Phloem parenchyma stores food and fibres help in support.

Animal tissues : Animal tissues are of four main types . They are Epithelial tissue, Muscular
tissue, Connective tissue and Nervous tissue.
 Epithelial tissues are of different types. They are Squamous, Columnar, Cuboidal,
Glandular etc.
 Muscular tissues are of three types. They are Striated, Unstriated and Cardiac.
 Connective tissues are of different types. They are Blood, Bone, Ligaments, Tendons,
Cartilage, Areolar, Adipose etc.
 Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells called neurons.

Epithelial tissue : Epithelial tissue is the covering or protective tissue in animals. It forms the
outer covering like skin, outer covering of organs, inner lining of blood vessels, lungs, oesophagus,
etc. It protects the body and controls the movement of materials between the body and the
surroundings and between the parts of the body. The cells are closely arranged and have a fibrous
basement membrane.
  Squamous epithelial tissue consists of a layer of thin flat cells. It is present in the linings of
blood vessels, lungs, mouth, oesophagus etc. The skin has several layers of epithelial cells.
This tissue is called Stratified squamous tissue.
 Columnar epithelial tissue consists of tall pillar like cells. It is present in the walls of the
intestine. The columnar epithelial tissue in the respiratory tract has hair like projections
called cilia. This tissue is called ciliated columnar epithelial tissue.
 Cuboidal epithelial tissue consists of cone shape cells having a basement membrane. It
forms the lining of kidney, tubules and ducts of salivary glands and provides mechanical
support.
 Glandular epithelial tissue : Sometimes epithelial tissue folds inwards and forms a
multicellular gland which secretes substances. This tissue is called Glandular epithelial
tissue.

Muscular tissue : Connective tissue helps in the movements of the body. It consists of
elongated cells called muscle fibres. It contains a protein called contractile protein which contracts
and relaxes and helps in movements. Muscles which can move under our will are called voluntary
muscles. Muscles which do not move under our will are called involuntary muscles.
 Striated muscles are voluntary muscles having light and dark striations. The cells are long,
cylindrical and are multinucleated. They are also called skeletal muscles because they are
attached to bones. They help in voluntary movements of the body.
 Unstriated muscles (Smooth muscles) are involuntary muscles having no striations. The
cells are long and spindle shaped and is uninucleated. They are present in alimentary
canal, blood vessels, bronchi of lungs, iris of eye etc. They help in involuntary movements.
 Cardiac muscles are involuntary muscles having faint striations. The cells are long,
cylindrical, branched and multinucleated. They are present in the heart and helps in the
contraction and relaxation of the heart.

Connective tissue : Connective tissue connects and joins the different parts of the body
together. The cells of the connective tissue are loosely packed and the space between the cells is
filled with a jelly like matrix.
 Blood contains a fluid matrix called plasma which contains red blood cells (RBC), white
blood cells (WBC) and platelets. The blood transports gases, digested food, hormones,
waste materials etc.
 Bone is a hard and strong tissue. It consists of cells which are embedded in a hard matrix
containing calcium and phosphorus compounds. Bone forms the framework of the body
and supports the body and the main organs.
 Ligaments are a flexible tissue which joins bones together and helps in movements.
 Tendons are a fibrous tissue which joins muscles to bones and helps in movements.
 Areolar tissues fill the space between skin and muscles, inside the organs, around blood
vessels etc. It helps to repair the tissues.
  Adipose tissue is found below the skin and between internal organs. It contains fats and
helps to store fats.

Nervous tissue : Nervous tissue helps to carry messages from one part of the body to the other
and responds to stimuli. It is found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It consists of nerve cells
called neurons.
 Neuron (Nerve cell) has a cell body containing a nucleus and cytoplasm. It has hair like
structures called dendrites and a long part called axon having nerve endings. The axon has
a protective covering called myelin sheath. The neurons are joined together to form nerve
fibres. The junction between two neurons is called synapse.
 Chapter-07 : Diversity in living organisms
Need for classification of living organisms : Living organisms have evolved on the
earth over millions of years. There is a vast variety of living organisms. Living organisms show a
wide range of variations.
 Some microscopic bacteria are of a few micrometres in size. Whales and red wood trees are
about 30 metres and 100 metres in size respectively.
 Some pine trees live for thousands of years while insects like mosquitoes die within a few
days.
 Some organisms are colourless and even transparent and some are brightly coloured.
 To understand and study all these organisms are impossible. If they are arranged into
different groups based on their similarities in characteristics then it is easier to study the
different groups as a whole.
Classification of living organisms : The arranging of organisms into different groups on
the basis of the similarities in their characteristics is called classification of living organisms.

Basis of classification of living organisms : The main characteristics which are

considered for classification of living organisms into different groups are :
 Whether they are made of prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells.
 Whether the cells occur singly or they are grouped together and live as an indivisible
group.
 Whether they produce their own food by photosynthesis or get their food from outside.
 The characteristics used for classification of plants will be different from the characteristics
used for classification of animals because plants make their own food and animals get their
food from outside.

Classification and evolution : The present day complex living organisms have evolved
from the earlier simple forms due to the changes in their body designs over millions of years.
 The body designs of living organisms are gradually changing due to the changes in
environment and the need to adapt themselves to the changes in the environment.
 Some groups of organisms having ancient body designs have not changed much during
evolution and have simple forms and structure. These organisms are called ‘primitive or
lower organisms’.
 Some organisms have acquired their body designs relatively recently and have complex
forms and structure. These organisms are called ‘advanced or higher organisms’.

The hierarchy of classification : Living organisms have been broadly classified into five
main kingdoms. They are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. Each kingdom has been
further classified into smaller sub-groups at various levels as :
 Kingdom
Phylum (for animals) / Division (for plants)
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

By arranging organisms on the basis of hierarchy and characteristics into smaller and smaller
groups then we arrive at the basic unit of classification called species.
 Species is group of organisms which are similar enough to breed and perpetuate.

Monera : They are mostly prokaryotic, unicellular, do not have a definite nucleus, may or may
not have cell wall and the mode of nutrition is autotrophic or heterotrophic. E.g.- Bacteria, Blue-
green algae (Cyanobacteria), Mycoplasma etc.

Protista : They are eukaryotic, unicellular, mostly aquatic, some have cilia or flagella which
help them in moving and the mode of nutrition may be autotrophic or heterotrophic. E.g.- Algae,
Diatoms, Protozoans etc.

Fungi : They are eukaryotic, unicellular or multicellular. They do not have chlorophyll and
cannot prepare their own food and are heterotrophs. They use decaying organic matter as food.
So, they are called saprophytes. E.g.- Yeast, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Agaricus etc.
 Some of them live in association with algae are called lichens.

Plantae (Plants) : They are multicellular eukaryotes having cell walls. They use chlorophyll
for photosynthesis. All plants are included in this group. They are divided into five groups. They
are Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.

Animalia (Animals) : They include all organisms which are multicellular, eukaryotes,
without chlorophyll and cell walls. They are heterotrophs. They are divided into ten groups. They
are Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca,
Echinodermata, Protochordata and Vertebrata.

Classification of plants (Plantae) :

 Thallophyta : In this group the plants do not have well differentiated body parts. The
plants are called algae. They are mostly aquatic. E.g.- Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora,
Chara etc.
  Bryophyta : In this group the plant body is differentiated into stem and leaf like
structures but there are no specialised structures for the conduction of water and other
substances from one part of the plant body to the other. These plants are called the
amphibians of the plant kingdom. E.g.- Moss (Funaria), Marchantia, Riccia etc.
 Pteridophyta : In this group the plant body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves
and has vascular tissue for conducting water and other substances from one part of the
plant body to the other. E.g.- Ferns, Marsilea etc.
 Gymnosperms : The plants of this group bear naked seeds (gymno means naked and
sperma means seed). They are usually perennial, evergreen and woody. E.g.- Pines (Pinus),
Cycas etc.
 Angiosperms : The plants of this group bears covered seeds (angio means covered and
sperma means seed). They are also called flowering plants. The plant embryo in the seed
has cotyledons. Angiosperms are divided into two groups on the basis of the number of
cotyledons. Plants with seeds having single cotyledon are called monocots. E.g.- rice, wheat,
maize etc. Plants with seeds having two cotyledons are called dicots. E.g.- green gram, peas,
tamarind etc.

Classification of animals (Animalia) :

Porifera (Sponges) :
 They are aquatic non-motile animals attached to some solid support.
 They have pores all over the body forming a canal system which helps to circulate water
and bring food and oxygen.
 They have a hard outer skeleton and do not have any tissues.
E.g.- Spongila, Sycon, Euplectella etc.

Coelenterata :
 They are aquatic animals.
 There is a cavity in the body (coelom).
 The body has two layers of cells as outer layer and inner layer.
 Some live in colonies (corals) and others are single.
E.g.- Corals, Hydra, Jellyfish, Sea anemone etc.

Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) :
 They have flat body which is bilaterally symmetrical i.e. both right and left half of the body
is similar.
 They have three layers of cells called triploblastic.
 They do not have true body cavity.
 They may be free living or parasitic.
E.g.- Planaria (free living), Liver fluke and Tape worm (parasitic) etc.
Nematoda :
 They have cylindrical body.
 The body is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
 They do not have true body cavity.
 They have tissues but no real organs.
 They are parasitic.
E.g.- Ascaris (round worms), Wuchereria (pin worms) etc.

Annelida :
 Their body is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
 They have true body cavity.
 Their body is segmented.
 There is differentiation of organs.
 They are found in water and on land.
E.g.- Earthworm, Nereis, Leech etc.

Arthropoda (Joint legged) :

 They have bilaterally symmetrical body.
 The body is segmented.
 They have an open circulatory system.
 The body cavity is filled with blood.
 They have jointed legs.
 E.g.- Prawn, Crab, Cockroach, Spider, Scorpion, Butterfly, Housefly, Centipede etc.

Mollusca :
 They have bilateral symmetry.
 The coelomic cavity is reduced.
 There is little segmentation.
 They have open circulatory system and kidney like organs for excretion.
 They have feet for moving around.
E.g.- Snails, Mussels, Chiton, Octopus etc.

Echinodermata (Spiny skinned) :

 They are spiny skinned organisms.
 They are free living marine animals.
 They are triploblastic and have coelomic cavity.
 They have water filled tube feet which help in movement.
 They have hard skeleton made of calcium carbonate.
E.g.- Star fish, Sea urchin, Feather star, Sea cucumber etc.
Protochordata :
 They have bilateral symmetry and are tiploblastic.
 The have coelomic cavity.
 They have a notochord which is a long rod-like structure along its back to which muscles
are attached and help in movement.
E.g.- Balanoglossus, Amphioxus, Herdemania etc.

Vertebrata (Vertebrates) :
 They have vertebral column and internal skeleton.
 They have bilateral symmetry and are triploblastic.
 They have coelomic cavity.
 Their body is differentiated into tissues and organs.
 Their body consists of four regions – head, neck, trunk and tail.
 They have two pairs of fins or limbs.
 The respiration in aquatic forms is by gills and in land forms respiration is by lungs.
 The sexes are separate.
 Vertebrates are grouped into five classes. They are Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and
Mammalia.

 Pisces (Fishes) : They are fishes living in water. Their skin is covered with scales or
plates. They respire by using gills. They have streamlined body and fins which help them to
move in water. They are cold blooded and their heart has only two chambers. They lay eggs
from which the young ones hatch out. Some fishes have skeleton made of cartilage like
Sharks, Rays etc. and some have skeleton made of bones and cartilage like Tuna, Rohu etc.

 Amphibia (Amphibians) : They are found in land and water. They do not have scales
but have mucous glands on their skin. They are cold blooded and the heart is three
chambered. Respiration is through gills or lungs. They lay eggs in water. E.g.- Frogs,
Toads, Salamanders etc.

 Reptilia (Reptiles) : They have scales and breathe through lungs. They are cold blooded.
Most of them have three chambered heart but crocodiles have four chambered heart. They
lay eggs with hard covering in water. E.g.- Snakes, Turtles, Lizards, Crocodiles etc.

 Aves (Birds) : They are warm blooded animals. They have four chambered heart. They
breathe through lungs. They have an outer covering of feathers. Their two fore limbs are
modified into wings for flying. They lay eggs. E.g.- Crow, sparrow, Pigeon, Duck, Stork,
Ostrich etc.
  Mammalia (Mammals) : They are warm blooded animals. They have four chambered
heart. They have mammary glands for production of milk to nourish their young ones. The
skin has hairs and sweat glands. Most of them give birth to their young ones. Some of them
lay eggs (like Platypus and Echidna). E.g.- Cat, Rat, Lion, Tiger, Whale, Bat, Human etc.

Nomenclature :
 All living organisms have been given scientific names which can be used to identify them
anywhere in the world.
 The system of scientific naming organisms is called binomial nomenclature. The binomial
nomenclature consists of two parts. The first part is the name of the genus and the second
part is the name of the species.
 The system of scientific naming or nomenclature we use today was introduced by Carolus
Linnaeus.
 The scientific name of human beings is Homo sapiens. Homo is the name of the genus and
sapiens is the name of the species.
 Chapter-08 : Motion
Motion : Motion is the change in position of a body with time.
 Motion can be described in terms of the distance moved or the displacement.
 Distance moved is the actual length of the path travelled by a body.
 Displacement is the length of the shortest path travelled by a body from its initial position
to its final position.

Uniform motion : If a body travels equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be
in uniform motion.

Non-uniform motion : If a body travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time, it is

said to be in non-uniform motion.

Speed : Speed of a body is the distance travelled by the body in unit time.
Speed = Distance / Time
 If a body travels a distance ‘s’ in time ‘t’ then its speed ‘v’ is
v=s/t
 The SI unit of speed is metre per second m/s or ms-1.
 Since speed has only magnitude it is a scalar quantity.
 Average speed is the ratio of the total distance travelled to the total time taken.
Average speed = Total distance travelled / Total time taken

Speed with direction : The rate of motion of a body is more meaningful if we specify its
direction of motion along with speed. The quantity which specifies both the direction of motion
and speed is velocity.
 Velocity of a body is the displacement of the body per unit time.
Velocity = Displacement / Time taken
 Since velocity has both magnitude and direction, it is a vector quantity.
 Average velocity is the ratio of the total displacement to the total time taken.
Average velocity = Total displacement / Total time taken
 Average velocity is also the mean of the initial velocity ‘u’ and final velocity ‘v’.
Average velocity = (Initial velocity + Final velocity) / 2
v = (u + v) / 2
av
 Speed and velocity have the same units m/s or ms-1.

Rate of change of velocity : During uniform motion of a body in a straight line the
velocity remains constant with time. In this case the change in velocity at any time interval is zero
(no change in velocity).
  During non-uniform motion the velocity changes with time. In this case the change in
velocity at any time interval is not zero. It may be positive (+ve) or negative (-ve).
 The quantity which specifies changes in velocity is acceleration.
 Acceleration is the change in velocity of a body per unit time or the rate of change of
velocity.
Acceleration = Change in velocity / Time
 If the velocity of a body changes from initial value ‘u’ to final value ‘v’ in time ‘t’ then
acceleration ‘a’ is
a = (v - u) / t

 The SI unit of acceleration is ms-2.

Uniform acceleration : If the change in velocity is equal in equal intervals of time it is

uniform acceleration.

Non-uniform acceleration : If the change in velocity is unequal in equal intervals of time

it is non-uniform acceleration.

Distance–Time graphs : The change in the position of a body with time can be represented
on the distance time graph. In this graph distance is taken on the y–axis and time is taken on the
x–axis.
 The distance-time graph for uniform speed is a straight line (linear). This is because in
uniform speed a body travels equal distances in equal intervals of time. We can determine
the speed of the body from the distance–time graph. For the speed of the body between the
points A and B, distance is (s2– s1) and time is (t2– t1).
v=s/t or, v = (s2– s1) / (t2– t1)

 The distance–time graph for non-uniform motion is non-linear. This is because in non-
uniform speed a body travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time.

Velocity–time graphs : The change in the velocity of a body with time can be represented
on the velocity-time graph. In this graph velocity is taken on the y–axis and time is taken on the x–
axis.
 If a body moves with uniform velocity, the graph will be a straight line parallel to the x-
axis. This is because the velocity does not change with time.
 If a body whose velocity is increasing with time, the graph is a straight line having an
increasing slope. This is because the velocity increases by equal amounts with equal
intervals of time.
 The area under the velocity–time graph is the distance (magnitude of displacement) of the
body.
  If a body whose velocity is decreasing with time, the graph is a straight line having an
decreasing slope. This is because the velocity decreases by equal amounts with equal
intervals of time.
 If a body whose velocity is non-uniform, the graph shows different variations. This is
because the velocity changes by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time.

Equations of motions by graphical method : The motion of a body moving with

uniform acceleration can be described with the help of three equations called equations of motion.
 Equation for velocity–time relation : v = u + at
 Equation for position–time relation : s = ut + ½ at2
 Equation for position–velocity relation : 2as = v2 – u2
Where, u = initial velocity
v = final velocity
a = acceleration
t = time
s = distance travelled
Circular motion : The motion of a body in a circular path is called circular motion.

Uniform circular motion : If a body moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its
motion is called uniform circular motion.
 Uniform circular motion is accelerated motion because in a circular motion a body
continuously changes its direction.
 The circumference of a circle of radius ‘r’ is given by 2лr. If a body takes time ‘t’ to go
once around the circular path, then the velocity ‘v’ is given by
v = 2лr / t
 Chapter-09 : Force and laws of motion
Force : Force is an external effort which may move a body at rest or stop a moving body or
change the speed of a moving body or change the direction of a moving body or change the shape
and size of a body.

Effects of force :
 Force can move a body at rest.
 Force can stop a moving body.
 Force can change the speed of a moving body.
 Force can change the direction of a moving body.
 Force can change the shape and size of a body.

Balanced forces : If two forces act on a body in opposite direction and if both the forces are
equal, then the resultant force acting on the body is zero. Such forces are called balanced forces.
 Balanced forces cannot change the state of rest or motion of a body.

Unbalanced forces : If two forces act on a body in opposite direction and if one force is
greater than the other, then the resultant force is not equal to zero. Such forces are called
unbalanced forces.
 An unbalanced force changes the state of rest or the motion of a body.

Force of friction : Force of friction is the force which opposes the motion of an object over a
surface. E.g.- A ball rolling on ground gradually slows down and comes to a stop due to force of
friction. If we stop pedaling a bicycle, it gradually slows down and comes to a stop due to force of
friction.
 An object with uniform motion will continue to move with uniform motion if the forces
acting on it (pushing force and frictional force) are balanced.
 If an unbalanced force acts on the moving body, then its speed or direction of motion
changes.
 If the unbalanced force is removed, then it will continue to move with the speed it had
acquired till then.

Galileo’s experiment of motion of an object on an inclined plane : When a

marble rolls down an inclined plane, its velocity increases and when it goes up on the second
inclined plane, its velocity decreases. If the inclinations of both the planes are equal, then the
marble will reach the same height which it rolled down. If the inclination of the second plane is
decreased, it will travel more distance to reach the original height. If the inclination of the second
plane is made horizontal, the marble will travel forever trying to reach the same height. An
unbalanced force is required to change the motion of the marble but no force is needed to sustain
the uniform motion of the marble.

Newton’s first law of motion : An object remains in a state of rest or in uniform motion
in a straight line unless compelled to change that state by an applied unbalanced force.
Inertia : The natural tendency of objects to remain in a state of rest or in uniform motion is
called inertia. This is why the first law of motion is also known as the ‘law of inertia’.

Examples of inertia :
 If a striker hits a pile of coins on a carom board, the lowest coin moves out and due to
inertia of rest, the other coins fall down.
 If a coin placed on a playing card over a tumbler is flicked with the finger, due to inertia of
rest, the coin falls down into the tumbler.
 When we travel in a car and the driver applies the brakes suddenly, we tend to fall forward
due to inertia of motion.
 When we are standing in a bus and the bus begins to move suddenly, we tend to fall
backward because our feet in contact with the floor moves forward but the upper part of
the body continues to remain at rest due to inertia of rest.

Inertia and Mass :

 A body at rest continues to be at rest and a body in motion continues to be in motion. This
property of a body is called its inertia.
 The inertia of a body is measured by the magnitude of force required to change the state of
the body. The force required to change the state of a heavier body is more than the force
required to change the state of the lighter body. This is because the mass of the heavier
body is more than the mass of the lighter body.
 The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia.

Momentum of a body : The momentum of a body is the product of its mass and velocity.
Momentum = mass x velocity
p = mv
where ‘p’ is the momentum of a body.
‘m’ is the mass of the body.
‘v’ is the velocity of the body.
 If a body is at rest its velocity is zero and so its momentum is also zero.
 The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second or kg m/s or kg ms-1.
 A truck moving at a very low speed can kill a person standing in its path because of the
heavy mass of the truck.
  A bullet of small mass when fired from a gun can kill a person because of the large velocity
of the bullet.
 So, the impact of a body depends upon its mass and velocity.

Newton’s second law of motion : The rate of change of momentum of an object is

proportional to the applied force in the direction of force.
 Mathematical formulation of Second law of motion : If an object of mass ‘m’ is
moving along a straight line with initial velocity ‘u’ and is accelerated to velocity ‘v’ in time
‘t’ by applying a force ‘F’, then
Initial momemtum = p1 = mu
Final momentum = p2 = mv
Change in momentum = p2 – p1 = mv – mu
= m (v – u)
Rate of change of momentum = m (v – u) / t
Or the applied force, F α m (v – u) / t
F = k.m (v – u) [but (v – u) / t = a]
So, F = kma where k is a constant of proportionality.
F = ma
 The SI unit of mass is kg and acceleration is m/s2 or ms-2. So, the unit of Force is kg ms-2 or
newton and its symbol is N.

Newton’s third law of motion : To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
and they act on two different bodies.

To prove that action and reaction are equal and opposite : Take two spring
balances A and B connected together. Fix the spring balance B to a rigid support. When a force is
applied by pulling the free end of the spring balance A, both the spring balances show the same
readings. This shows that the force exerted by the spring balance A on B is equal but opposite in
direction to the force exerted by spring balance B on A. The force exerted by the spring balance A
on B is action and the force exerted by the spring balance B on A is reaction.

Examples of action and reaction :

 When a bullet is fired from a gun, it exerts a forward force (action) on the bullet and the
bullet exerts an equal and opposite force on the gun (reaction) and the gun recoils.
 When a sailor jumps out of a boat, he exerts a backward force of the boat (action) and the
boat exerts an equal and opposite force on the sailor (reaction) and the sailor jumps
forward.
 When an air filled balloon is released, the force of the air coming out of the balloon
(action) exerts an equal and opposite force on the balloon (reaction) and it moves upward.
  When a rocket is fired, the force of the burning gases coming out (action) exerts an equal
and opposite force on the rocket (reaction) and it moves upward.

Law of conservation of momentum : The sum of momenta of two objects before

collision is equal to the sum of momenta after collision provided there is no unbalanced forces
acting on them.
 This means that the total momentum of the two objects is unchanged or conserved by
collision.
 If two balls A and B of masses mA and mB are travelling in a straight line with initial
velocities uA and uB and if uA> uB, the two balls will collide with each other. During
collision at a time t, ball A exerts a force FAB on ball B and ball B exerts a force FBA on ball
A. If vA and vB are the velocities of balls A and B after collision. The momenta of ball A
before and after collision are mAuA and mAvA and the momenta of ball B before and after
collision are mBuB and mBvB.
Change in momentum of ball A during collision = mAvA – mAuA
Rate of change of momentum of ball A (FAB) = mA (vA - uA) / t
Change in momentum of ball B during collision = mBvB – mBuB
Rate of change of momentum of ball B (FBA ) = mB (vB - uB) / t
According to Newton’s third law of motion, the force FAB exerted by ball A on ball B is
equal and opposite to the force FBA exerted by ball B on ball A.
Therefore, FAB = - FBA
mA(vA - uA) / t = - mB(vB - uB) / t
mAvA - mAuA = - mBvB + mBuB
- mAuA - mBuB = - mAvA - mBvB
m u + m u = m v + m v
A A B B A A B B

 Momentum of the two balls before collision is equal to the momentum of the two balls after
collision.
 Chapter-10 : Gravitation
Gravitation : Gravitation is the force of attraction between two objects in the universe.
 Gravitation may be the attraction of objects by the earth. E.g.- If a body is dropped from a
certain height, it falls downwards due to earth’s gravity. If a body is thrown upwards, it
reaches a certain height and then falls downwards due to the earth’s gravity.
 Gravitation may be the attraction between objects in outer space. E.g.- Attraction between
the earth and moon. Attraction between the sun and planets.

Centripetal force : When a body moves in a circular path, it changes its direction at every
point. The force which keeps the body in the circular path acts towards the centre of the circle.
This force is called centripetal force.
 If there is no centripetal force, the body will move in a straight line tangent to the circular
path.

Universal law of gravitation : Every object in the universe attracts every other object
with a force which is directly proportional to product of the masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.
 Mathematical formulation of Universal law of gravitation : Let two objects A and
B of masses M and m lie at a distance d from each other. Let F be the force of attraction
between them. According to the universal law of gravitation the force between the objects
is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
F α M x m …………… (i)
and F α 1/d2 ………………. (ii)
Combining the two equations, F α M x m / d2
F = G (M x m) / d2
Where, G is a constant of proportionality called universal gravitation constant.
F x d2 = G M x m
G = F x d2 / M x m
 The SI unit of ‘G’ is Nm2kg-2 and its value is 6.673 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2.

Free fall : The earth attracts objects towards it due to gravitational force. When an object falls
towards the earth due to the earth’s gravitational force it is called free fall.
 When an object falls towards the earth there is a change in its acceleration due to the
gravitational force of the earth. So, this acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity.
 The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g.
 The unit of ‘g’ is same as the unit of acceleration ms-2.
 From the second law of motion, force is the product of mass and acceleration.
 F = ma
 For free fall, force is the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity.
F = mg ……………….…. (i)
F = G M x m / d2 ……….. (ii)
From both the equations, F = mg = G M x m / d2

g = G M / d2
Where, M is the mass of the earth and ‘d’ is the distance between the object and the earth.
 For objects near or on the surface of the earth ‘d’ is equal to the radius of the earth ‘R’.
mg = G M x m / R2
g = G M / R2
The value of ‘g’ is 9.8 ms-2.
Mass :
 The mass of a body is the measure of its inertia.
 If the mass of a body is more its inertia is more.
 The mass of a body is constant and does not change from place to place.
 The SI unit of mass is kg.

Weight :
 The weight of a body is the force with which the earth attracts the body.
 The force with which a body is attracted by the earth depends on its mass m and
acceleration due to gravity g.
F=mxg
 Since weight of a body is the force with which the earth attracts the body, W = m x g
 Since ‘g’ at a place is constant, W α m
 The weight of a body changes from place to place.
 The SI unit of weight is the same as force i.e. newton (N).

Weight of an object on the moon : The weight of an object on the earth is the force with
which the earth attracts the object and the weight of an object on the moon is the force with which
the moon attracts the object. The mass of the moon is less than the mass of the earth. So, the moon
exerts lesser force on the objects than the earth. The weight of an object on the moon is one sixth
(1/6th) of its weight on the earth.

Thrust : Thrust is the force acting on an object perpendicular to the surface. E.g.- When we
stand on loose sand the force (weight) of our body is acting on an area equal to the area of our feet.
When we lie down, the same force acts on an area equal to the contact area of the whole body. In
both cases the force acting on the sand (thrust) is the same.
Pressure : Pressure is the force acting on unit area of a surface.
Pressure = Thrust / Area
 The effect of pressure on loose sand is larger while standing than while lying down.
 The SI unit of pressure is N/m2 or N m-2. It is called Pascal (Pa).

Pressure in fluids (Liquids and gases) : Fluids exert pressure on the base and walls of
the container. Fluids exert pressure in all directions. Pressure exerted on fluids is transmitted
equally in all directions.

Buoyancy (Upthrust) : When an object is immersed in a fluid it experiences an upward

force called buoyant force. This property is called buoyancy or upthrust.
 The force of gravity pulls the object downward and the buoyant force pushes it upwards.
 The magnitude of the buoyant force depends upon the density of the fluid.

 Why objects float or sink in liquid ?

 If the density of an object is less than the density of a liquid, it will float on the liquid
and if the density of an object is more than the density of a liquid, it will sink in the
liquid.

Activity for objects float or sink in water : Take some water in a beaker. Take a
piece of cork and an iron nail of the same mass. Place them on the water. The cork floats and the
nail sinks.
 The cork floats because the density of cork is less than the density of water and the
upthrust of water is more than the weight of the cork.
 The nail sinks because the density of the iron nail is more than the density of water
and the upthrust of water is less than the weight of the nail.

Archimedes’ principle : When a body is partially or fully immersed in a fluid it

experiences an upward force that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.
 Archimedes’ principle is used in :
 Designing ships and submarines.
 Hydrometers (used to determine the density of liquids).
 Lactometers (used to determine purity of milk).

Density : The density of a substance is the mass of a unit volume of the substance.
Density = Mass / Volume
 The unit of density is kilogram per metre cube (kg m-3).
Relative density : The relative density of a substance is the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of water.
Relative density = Density of a substance / Density of water
 Since relative density is a ratio of similar quantities. So, it has no unit.
 Chapter-11 : Work and Energy
Work : Work is said to be done when a force acts on an object and the object is displaced in the
direction of force.
 The work done on an object is the product of the force applied and the displacement.
Work done = Force x displacement
W=FxS
 The unit of work is joule (J).
 If F is 1 N and displacement is 1 metre then the work done is 1 Nm or 1 joule (J).
 So, 1 joule is the amount of work done when a force of 1 N displaces an object by 1 metre.
E.g.- If a force of 5 N acts on an object is displaced through 2 m in the direction of force
then work done is 5 N x 2 m = 10 Nm or 10 J.
 The work done by a force may be positive or negative.
 The work done by a force is positive if the force and displacement are in the same direction.
The work done by a force is negative if the force and displacement are in opposite directions.
E.g.- When we lift an object the object moves upward in the direction of force. Here the
work done is positive. But there is the force of gravity acting downward on the object. The
work done by the force of gravity is negative.
 The work done by a force is zero if there is no displacement.
 The work done by a force is zero if the force is perpendicular to the displacement.

Energy : The energy of an object is its capacity for doing work.

 The unit of energy is the same as that of work that is joule (J).
 1 joule is the energy required to do 1 joule of work.
1000 J = 1 kilo joule (kJ).
 There are different forms of energy. They are heat energy, light energy, electrical energy,
chemical energy, mechanical energy (potential energy + kinetic energy) etc.
Kinetic energy : The kinetic energy of an object is the energy possessed by the object due to
its motion.
 All moving objects possess kinetic energy. A falling coconut, a speeding car, a flying
aircraft, flowing water, blowing wind, a running athlete etc. possess kinetic energy.
 The kinetic energy of an object depends upon its speed. An object moving faster has more
kinetic energy than an object moving slower.
 The kinetic energy possessed by an object of mass m and moving with uniform velocity v is
E = ½ mv2
Potential energy : The potential energy of an object is the energy possessed by the object due
to its position or shape. E.g.-
 If a rubber band is stretched and then released it regains its original position. When the
rubber band is stretched, energy is transferred to it and stored as potential energy.
 If we wind the key of a toy car and place it on the ground it moves. When we wind the key
of the car, energy is transferred to the spring inside and stored as potential energy.
  If we lift an object to a height and release it, it falls down. When the object is lifted energy
is transferred to it and stored as potential energy.

Potential energy of an object at a height : When an object is raised to a height, its

energy increases because work is done on it against gravity. The energy present in such an object
is called gravitational potential energy.
 If an object of mass m is raised to a height h from the ground, the force required to raise
the object is equal to the weight of the object mg.
Work done = Force x displacement
Or, W = mg x h
= mgh
 Potential energy gained by the object.
E = mgh

Transformation of energy : The conversion of energy from one form into another form is
called transformation of energy.
 When energy is converted from one form into another, the total energy always remains the
same.
Law of conservation of energy : The law of conservation of energy states that energy can
only be converted from one form into another, it can neither be created nor destroyed i.e. The total
energy before and after the transformation remain the same.
 For Example : Let an object be allowed to fall freely from a height. At the start the
potential energy is more. As it falls down the potential energy changes into kinetic energy.
The potential energy decreases and the kinetic energy increases. When the object is about
to reach the ground the kinetic energy is the largest and the potential energy is the least.
But the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy is the same at all points. So,
potential energy + kinetic energy = constant. The sum of the potential energy and kinetic
energy is the total mechanical energy.

Power : Power is the rate of doing work.

If W is the work done in time t, then
Power = work done / time taken
or, P =W/t
 The unit of power is watt (W).
 1 watt is the power of an agent which does work at the rate of 1 joule per second.
 1 watt = 1 joule / second or, 1 W = 1 J/s
1 kilowatt = 1000 watts
1 kW = 1000 W
1 kW = 1000 J/s
Commercial unit of Energy :
 The commercial unit of energy is kilowatt hour (kWh).
 1 kilowatt hour is the energy used in one hour at the rate of 1 kilowatt (1000 J/s).
 1 kWh = 1 kW x 1 h = 1000 W x 1 h = 1000 W x 3600 s = 3600000 J = 3.6 x 106 J
 The electrical energy used in homes and industries are expressed in kilowatt hour. The
electrical energy used during a month is expressed in ‘units’. Here, 1 unit means 1 kilowatt
hour.
 Chapter-12 : Sound
Production of sound : Sound is produced due to the vibration of objects. Vibration is the
rapid ‘to and fro’ motion of an object. e.g. – The sound of human voice is produced due to the
vibration of the vocal cords. A stretched rubber band when plucked, it vibrates and produces
sound.

Activity for production of sound : Strike the prongs of a tuning fork on a rubber pad
and bring it near the ear. We can hear a sound. If a suspended table tennis ball is touched with the
vibrating prong, the ball is pushed away repeatedly. This shows that the prong is vibrating and
vibrating objects produces sound.

Propagation of sound :
 The sound produced by a vibrating object travels through a medium to the listener. The
medium can be solid, liquid or gas.
 When an object vibrates, the particles around the medium vibrates. The particle in contact
with the vibrating object is first displaced from its equilibrium position. Then, it exerts a
force on the adjacent particle and the adjacent particle is displaced from its position of rest.
After displacing the adjacent particle, the first particle comes back to its original position.
This process repeats in the medium till the sound reaches to the ear.
 The disturbance produced by the vibrating body travels through the medium but the
particles do not move forward themselves.
 A wave is a disturbance which moves through a medium by the vibration of the particles of
the medium. So, sound is considered as a wave. Since, sound waves are produced due to the
vibration of particles of the medium, sound waves are called mechanical waves.

Propagation of sound through air : Air is the most common medium through which
sound travels. When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and compresses the air in front
of it forming a region of high pressure called compression (C). The compression moves away from
the vibrating object. When the vibrating object moves backward, it forms a region of low pressure
called rarefaction (R). As the object moves ‘to and fro’ rapidly, it produces a series of
compressions and rarefaction in the air which makes the sound to propagate in the medium.

Sound needs a medium to travel : Sound is a mechanical wave and needs a medium for
propagation. Sound travels through solids, liquids and gases. Sound does not travel in vacuum.

Activity for showing Sound needs a medium to travel : Suspend an electric bell
in an air tight bell jar. Connect the bell jar to a vacuum pump. If the switch is pressed, we can
hear the sound of the bell. If air is pumped out through the vacuum pump, we cannot hear the
sound of the bell. This shows that sound needs a medium to travel and sound cannot travel in
vacuum.

Sound waves are longitudinal waves :

 Sound propagates in a medium as a series of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R).
 In these waves, the particles move back and forth parallel to the direction of propagation of
the disturbance. Such waves are called longitudinal waves.
 There is another kind of waves called transverse waves. In these waves, the particles
oscillate up and down which is perpendicular to the propagation of the direction of
disturbance.

Activity for longitudinal wave : Stretch a slinky and push and pull it alternately at one
end. If we mark a dot on the slinky, the dot moves back and forth parallel to the direction of the
propagation of the disturbance.

Characteristics of a sound wave :

 Sound wave can be described by its frequency, amplitude and speed.
 Sound can be graphically represented as a wave. There is changes in the density and
pressure as sound moves in a medium.
 Compressions are the regions of high pressure and density where the particles are crowded
and are represented by the upper portion of the curve called crest.
 Rarefactions are the regions of low pressure and density where the particles are spread out
and are represented by the lower portion of the curve called trough.
 The distance between two consecutive compressions (crests) or two consecutive rarefactions
(troughs) is called wave length. It is represented by the symbol ‘λ’ (Greek letter lamda). Its
SI unit is metre (m).

 Frequency of sound wave :

 When sound is propagated through a medium, the density of the medium oscillates
between a maximum value and a minimum value. The change in the density of the
medium from a maximum value to a minimum value and again to the maximum
value is one oscillation.
 The number of oscillations per unit time is called the frequency of the sound wave.
 It is represented by the symbol ‘v’ (Greek letter nu).
 Its SI unit is hertz (Hz).
 Time period of sound wave :
 The time taken for the change in the density of the medium from a maximum value
to a minimum value and again to the maximum value is the time period of the sound
wave.
  The time taken for one complete oscillation in the density of the medium is called
the time period of the sound wave.
 It is represented by the letter ‘T’.
 The SI unit is second (s).
 Frequency and time are represented as follows :
T=1/v or, v=1/T
 Amplitude of sound wave :
 The magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium on either side of the
mean value is the amplitude of the sound wave.
 The amplitude of sound wave is the height of the crest or tough.
 It is represented by the letter A.
 The SI unit is the same as that of wavelength i.e. metre (m).
 Pitch and loudness of sound :
 The pitch of sound (shrillness or flatness) depends on the frequency of vibration.
 If the frequency is high, the sound has high pitch and if the frequency is low, the
sound has low pitch.
 The loudness of sound depends upon the amplitude of vibration.
 If the amplitude is high, the sound is loud and if the amplitude is low, the sound is
soft.
 Speed of sound :
 The speed of sound is different in different media. The speed of sound is more in
solids, less in liquids and least in gases.
 The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium. If the
temperature of the medium is more, the speed of sound is more.
 Relationship between Speed (v), frequency (v) and wavelength (λ) :
Speed = wavelength x frequency
v=λxv

Reflection of sound : Like light, sound gets reflected at the surface of a solid or liquid and
follows the laws of reflection.
(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.

Activity for reflection of sound : Take two pipes of the same length and arrange them on a
table near a wall or metal plate. Keep a clock near the open end of one pipe and try to hear the
sound of the clock through the other pipe by adjusting the position of the pipe. Now, measure the
angles of incidence and reflection. Then, lift the second pipe and try to hear the sound. It will be
seen that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. The incident ray, the reflected
ray and normal all lie in the same plane.
  Echo :
 If we shout or clap near a reflecting surface like tall building or a mountain, we hear
the same sound again. This sound which we hear is called echo. It is caused due to the
reflection of sound.
 To hear an echo clearly, the time interval between the original sound and the echo must
be at least 0.1 second.
 Since, the speed of sound in air is 344 m/s. The distance travelled by sound in 0.1 second
= 344 m/s x 0.1 s = 34.4 m
 So, to hear an echo clearly, the minimum distance of the reflecting surface should be
half this distance i.e. 17.2 m.
 Reverberation :
 Echoes may be heard more than once due to repeated or multiple reflections of sound
from several reflecting surfaces. This causes persistence of sound called reverberation.
 In big halls or auditoriums to reduce reverberation, the roofs and walls are covered by
sound absorbing materials like compressed fibre boards, rough plaster or draperies.
 Uses of multiple reflection of sound :
 Megaphones, horns, musical instruments like trumpet, shehnai etc. are deigned to send
sound by multiple reflection in a particular direction without spreading in all
directions.
 Doctors listen to sounds from the human body through a stethoscope. The sound of
heartbeat reaches the doctor’s ears by multiple reflection.
 Generally, the ceilings of cinema halls and auditoriums are curved so that sound after
multiple reflection reaches all parts of the hall. Sometimes, a curved sound board is
placed behind the stage so that sound after multiple reflection spreads evenly across the
hall.

Range of Hearing :
 Human beings can hear sound frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz.
 Sound whose frequency is less than 20 Hz is called infrasonic sound. Animals like dog,
elephant, rhinoceros, whale etc. produce and hear infrasonic sound.
 Sound whose frequency is more than 20,000 Hz is called ultrasonic sound. Animals like
dolphin, bat, rat porpoise etc. produce and hear ultrasonic sound.
 Bat uses reflection of ultrasonic sound waves to detect an obstacle or its prey.

Uses of ultrasonic sound :

 Ultrasonic sound is used to clean objects like electronic components. The electronic
components to be cleaned are kept in a cleaning solution and ultrasonic waves are sent into
the solution. Due to the high frequency, the dirt particles get detached from the electronic
components.
  Ultrasonic sound is used to detect cracks in metal blocks. Ultrasonic waves are sent
through the metal blocks and if there are cracks, the waves are reflected back and the
cracks can be detected.
 Ultrasonic sound is used in ultrasound scanners for getting images of internal organs of the
human body.
 Ultrasonic sound is used to break small stones formed in the kidneys into fine grains so that
they are removed through the urine.

SONAR :
 SONAR stands for ‘Sound Navigation And Ranging’. It is a device which uses ultrasonic
waves to measure distance, direction and speed of underwater objects.
 Sonar has a transmitter and a detector installed in ships. The transmitter produces
ultrasonic sound waves which travel through the water and after striking the object in the
sea bed is reflected back to the detector.
 The distance of the object can be calculated by knowing the speed of sound in water and
the time taken between the transmission and reception of ultrasound.
 If the time taken for the transmission and reception of ultra sound is t and the distance
travelled is 2d by the ultra sound, then 2d = v x t
d = (v x t)/2

Structure of the human ear : The outer ear is called pinna which collects the sound
waves. The sound waves passes through the ear canal to a thin membrane called eardrum. The
eardrum vibrates. The vibrations are amplified by the three bones of the middle ear called
hammer, anvil and stirrup. The middle ear then transmits the sound waves to the inner ear. In the
inner ear, the sound waves are converted into electrical signals by the cochlea and sent to the
brain through the auditory nerves. The brain then interprets the signals as sound.
 Chapter-13 : Why do we fall ill ?
Health and its failure : Health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being.
 The conditions necessary for good health are :
 Good physical and social environment.
 Good economic conditions.
 Social equality and harmony.
 Good physical and social environment includes clean surroundings, good sanitation, proper
garbage disposal and clean drinking water.
 A good economic condition includes job opportunities for all for earning to have nutritious
food and to lead a healthy life.
 Social equality and harmony are necessary for a healthy and peaceful life.

Differences between Healthy and Disease free :

Sl. No. Healthy Disease free

1. It is a state of physical, mental and It is a state of absence from diseases.
social well-being.
2. It refers to the individual, physical It refers only to the individual.
and social environment.
3. The individual has good health. The individual may have good health
or poor health.

What does disease look like ?

When a person is affected by a disease either the normal functioning or the appearance of one or
more systems of the body will change for the worse. These changes give rise to signs of the disease
called symptoms.
 On the basis of the symptoms the physicians look for the signs of a particular disease and
conduct tests to confirm the disease.

Types of diseases : Diseases are of different types.

 Acute diseases are a disease which last only for a short period of time and does not have
long term effect on health. E.g.- cold, cough, typhoid, cholera etc.
 Chronic diseases are a disease which lasts for a long time and has long term drastic effect
on health. E.g.- diabetes, tuberculosis, elephantiasis, arthritis, cancer etc.
 Infectious diseases (Communicable diseases) are diseases which spread from an infected
person to a healthy person through air, water, food, vectors, physical contact or sexual
contact. E.g.- common cold, chicken pox, mumps, measles, typhoid, cholera, tuberculosis,
malaria, AIDS etc.
  Non-infectious diseases (Non-communicable diseases) are diseases which are not spread
from an infected person to a healthy person. E.g.- beri-beri, rickets, scurvy, night
blindness, diabetes, cancer, high blood pressure etc.

Causes of diseases : Diseases are caused by :

 Pathogens like virus, bacteria, fungi, protozoans or worms.
 Poor health and under nourishment.
 Malfunctioning of body parts.
 Environmental pollution.
 Genetic disorders.

Infectious diseases :
 Infectious agents : The agents which cause infectious diseases are called pathogens.
These are Viruses, Bacteria, Fungi, Protozoans and worms.

Sl. No. Infectious agents Diseases

1. Viruses Common cold, Influenza, Measles, Mumps, Chicken pox,
AIDS, Hepatitis-B etc.

2. Bacteria Cholera, Typhoid, Tuberculosis, Tetanus, Anthrax, Food

poisoning etc.

3. Fungi Skin infections.

4. Protozoans Malaria, Kala-azar, Amoebic dysentery, Sleeping sickness.

5. Worms Intestinal infections, Elephantiasis.

 Means of spread of infectious diseases : Infectious diseases spread from an infected

person to a healthy person through air, water, food, vectors, physical contact and sexual
contact.
 Through air : Common cold, Tuberculosis, Pneumonia etc.
 Through water : Cholera, Amoebic dysentery etc.
 Through vectors : Mosquitoes for Malaria, Dengue, Yellow fever etc.
Flies for Typhoid, Tuberculosis, Diarrhoea, Dysentery etc.
 Through sexual contact : Syphilis, AIDS.
AIDS virus can also spread through blood transfusion and
from the mother to her child during pregnancy and through breast feeding.
 Organ-specific and tissue-specific manifestations : Disease causing microbes enter
the body by different means and goes to different organs and tissues.
 Microbes which enter through the nose are likely to go to the lungs. (Bacteria which
cause tuberculosis of lungs).
 Microbes which enter through the mouth are likely to stay in the gut (Bacteria which
causes Typhoid) or liver (Bacteria which causes Jaundice).
  Virus which causes AIDS enters the body through sexual organs during sexual contact
and spreads through the lymph to all parts of the body and damages the immune
system.
 Virus which causes Japanese encephalitis (brain fever) enters the body through
mosquito bite and enters into brain which infects the brain.
 Principles of treatment : The treatment of infectious diseases consists of two steps. They
are to reduce the effects of the disease (symptoms) and to kill the microbes which caused
the disease.
 To reduce the effects of the disease : This can be done by taking medicines to bring
down the effects of the disease like fever, pain or loose motions etc. and by taking bed
rest to conserve our energy.
 To kill the microbes : This can be done by taking suitable antibiotics and drugs which
kills the microbes and the disease is cured.
 Principles of prevention : There are two ways of prevention of infectious diseases which
are general ways and specific ways.
 General ways of prevention : Public hygiene is most important for prevention of
infectious diseases. Proper and sufficient food for everyone will make people healthy to
resist infection. Air borne diseases can be prevented by living in conditions that are not
crowded. Water borne diseases can be prevented by providing safe drinking water.
Vector borne diseases can be prevented by providing clean environment.
 Specific ways of prevention : The specific ways to prevent infectious disease is
immunization by taking vaccines. Vaccines provide immunity from infectious diseases
like tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough, measles, polio etc. Our body has an immune
system which fights against microbial infection. When this system first sees an
infectious microbe, it kills the microbe and remembers it. So, if the microbe enters the
body the next time, it responds more vigorously. A vaccine mimics the infectious
microbe and strengthens our immune system and protects the body from infectious
diseases.
 Chapter-14 : Natural resources
Resources on the earth : The natural resources of the earth are air, water, soil, minerals
and living organisms.
 The outer crust of the earth is the lithosphere. The water on the earth is the hydrosphere.
The layer of the air around the earth is the atmosphere. Living organisms are found where
the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere interact and is the biosphere.

Air (Atmosphere) : Air is a mixture of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water
vapour and other gases.
 During respiration living organisms use oxygen to break down glucose and get energy for
their activities. This results in the release of carbon dioxide. Burning of fuels also use
oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
 During photosynthesis green plants convert carbon dioxide into glucose in the presence of
sunlight. This results in the release of oxygen.
 These processes help to maintain the oxygen – carbon dioxide balance in nature.

The role of atmosphere in climate control : The atmosphere covers the earth like a
blanket. Air is a bad conductor of heat. It prevents sudden increase in temperature during the day
and also slows down the escape of heat during the night. So, the atmosphere keeps the average
temperature of the earth fairly steady during the day and throughout the year.

The movement of air (Winds) : When air gets heated, it rises up and produces low
pressure and cool air moves into take its place. The movement of air causes winds.
 During the day, the land gets heated faster than the sea. So, the hot air above the land rises
up and cool air from the sea moves towards the land. During the night, sea cools down
slowly than the land. So, the hot air above the sea rises up and cool air from the land moves
towards the sea.

Rain : When water bodies are heated during the day, a large amount of water evaporates and
rises up. Some water vapour also gets into the atmosphere due to biological activities like
transpiration. As the water vapour rises, it cools and condenses to form tiny droplets of water. This
appears as clouds. When the tiny droplets of water join together to form bigger drops of water,
they fall down as rain, snow or hail.

Air pollution : The increase in the content of harmful substances in the air is called air
pollution.
 Fossil fuels like coal and petroleum contain small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur. When
these fuels are burnt, it releases oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. These oxides dissolve in
rain and causes acid rain.
  Burning of fossil fuels also release unburnt carbon particles which reduces visibility.
During cold weather along with condensed water it forms smog.
 Regular breathing air containing these harmful substances causes allergies, cancer, heart
diseases etc.

Water (A wonder liquid) : A very large area of the earth’s surface is covered with water.
Water is also found inside the earth, in the atmosphere as water vapour. The water in seas and
oceans is saline. Fresh water is found in rivers, lakes, ponds and as ice and snow at the poles and
mountains in cold regions.
 Water is needed by living organisms because all life processes and cellular activities need
water. So, all organisms need water to survive.
 The amount of water and other factors like temperature and nature of soil decides the
diversity of species and the number of individuals of each species in an area.

Water pollution : The increase in the content of harmful substances in water is called water
pollution.
 Water pollution is caused by addition of harmful substances like fertilizers and pesticides
from farms; sewage from towns, cities and factories; harmful chemicals from factories;
disease causing micro-organisms changes in the amount of oxygen dissolved in water or
changes in the temperature of water.

Formation of soil : Soil is formed by the breaking down of rocks on the surface of the earth
by physical, chemical and biological processes.
 The sun heats the rocks during the day and the rocks expand and at night the rocks cool
and contracts. This causes the rocks to crack and break into smaller pieces.
 Water enters the cracks in the rocks and when water freezes, it expands and causes the
cracks in the rocks to widen and break into smaller pieces. The flowing water carries the
rock pieces. These pieces rub against each other and become smaller and smaller particles.
 A strong wind also breaks rocks into smaller particles and carries it from one place to the
other.
 The roots of large trees grow into the cracks in rocks and break it into smaller pieces.
Lichens which grow on rocks produce some substance which cause the rock surface to
powder and become soil.

Composition of soil : Soil is a mixture of rock particles, decayed organisms i.e. humus, living
organisms, minerals, air and water. The amount of minerals, humus, air and water are the factors
which decide the biodiversity in that area.

Soil pollution : The addition of harmful substances which affects the fertility of the soil and
kills the diversity of organisms living in it is called soil pollution.
 Soil pollution is caused by the excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides. It kills the
organisms like earthworms and bacteria which makes the soil rich in humus. The removal
of useful components and addition of other harmful substances reduces the fertility of soil
and causes soil pollution.
Soil erosion : The carrying away of soil from one place to the other by flowing water and wind
is called soil pollution. Large scale deforestation also causes soil erosion.
 Soil erosion can be reduced or prevented by vegetative cover on the ground, afforestation,
construction of bunds, terraces, dams etc.

Activity for ffect of flowing water on top soil : Take two trays of the same size and
fill them with soil. We plant mustard or green gram in one of the trays. Water both the trays for a
few days till the first tray is covered by plant growth. Tilt the both trays at the sane angle. Pour
equal amount of water gently on both the trays. We see that more soil is carried out of the tray
which did not have plant growth. This shows that vegetative cover reduces soil erosion.

Biogeochemical cycles : Biogeochemical cycles are the transfer of matter and energy
between the biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere.
 The common biogeochemical cycles are Water cycle, Nitrogen cycle, Carbon cycle and
Oxygen cycle.

Water cycle : When water bodies are heated during the day, a large amount of water
evaporates and rises up. Some water vapour also gets into the atmosphere due to biological
activities like transpiration and respiration. As the water vapour rises, it cools and condenses to
form tiny droplets of water. This appears as clouds. When the tiny droplets of water join together
to form bigger drops of water, they fall down as rain, snow or hail. Some of this water enters the
ground and forms ground water. When water flows from the land to the seas it carries many
nutrients and minerals which are used by marine organisms.

Nitrogen cycle : The nitrogen in the atmosphere is fixed into nitrogen compounds in the soil
by nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants and also during lightning.
These nitrogen compounds are taken by plants and used to make proteins. When animals eat
plants they also get proteins. When plants and animals die, bacteria convert the proteins into
nitrogen compounds like nitrites and nitrates. Other bacteria convert these nitrogen compounds
back into nitrogen in the atmosphere.
 Nitrogen is an essential component of biological molecules like proteins, nucleic acids and
some vitamins.

Carbon cycle : Carbon in the form of carbon dioxide is used by plants to prepare glucose by
the process of photosynthesis. When animals eat plants then glucose enters the body of animals
which is converted into other organic compounds and used in respiration process. During
respiration, energy and carbon dioxide are produced. The carbon dioxide goes back into the
atmosphere. Another process which adds carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere is the
combustion of fuels like coal and petroleum. The organic compound in plants and animals are also
converted into carbonates, limestone, coal, petroleum, exoskeletons (shells) of some animals.
 Carbon is an essential component of biological molecules like carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
vitamins, nucleic acids etc.
Oxygen cycle : Oxygen in the atmosphere is used for respiration, combustion and formation
of oxide of elements. Oxygen is sent back into the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
 Oxygen is an essential component of biological molecules like carbohydrates, fats and
proteins.

The greenhouse effect : Gases like carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
traps the heat radiated by the earth and prevents the escape of heat from the earth. The increase
in the presence of these gases in the atmosphere causes increase in the temperature of the
atmosphere. This is called the greenhouse effect.
 Greenhouse effect can cause melting of polar ice, increase in sea levels, flooding of coastal
areas and submerging of islands.

Ozone layer : Ozone molecule contains three atoms of oxygen (O3). It is present in the upper
layers of the atmosphere. It is poisonous gas. It protects the earth from the harmful ultra-violet
radiations from the sun which is harmful for living organisms.
 The ozone layer is being damaged by carbon compounds like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
 To prevent the damage of the ozone layer, the use of CFCs is being reduced.
 Chapter-15 : Improvement in food resources
Need for increasing food production : Our population is more than one billion and it is
still growing. We will need more than a billion tonnes of grain every year to feed this growing
population.
 Since increasing the area of land for cultivation is limited, it is necessary to increase the
production efficiency of crops and livestock.
 The production efficiency of crops and livestock can be increased by adopting scientific
management practices to improve crop yield, undertaking mixed farming, intercropping
and integrated farming practices like combining agriculture with livestock, poultry,
fisheries, bee-keeping etc.

Different types of crops : Cereals like rice, wheat, maize, millets, sorghum etc. provide us
carbohydrates. Pulses like peas, beans, grams, lentils etc. provide us proteins. Oil seeds like
groundnut, sesame, castor, mustard, linseed, sunflower etc. provide us fats. Vegetables, spices and
fruits provide us vitamins and minerals along with small amounts of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins.
 Fodder crops like berseem, oats or Sudan grass are grown as food for livestock.
 Different crops require different climatic conditions, temperature and duration of sunlight
(photoperiods).
 Kharif crops are crops grown during the rainy season from June to October like paddy,
soya bean, maize, pigeon pea, green gram, black gram, cotton etc.
 Rabi crops are crops grown during winter season from November to April like wheat,
gram, peas, mustard, linseed etc.

Improvement in crop yield : Crop yield can be improved by three main activities. They
are Crop variety improvement, Crop production improvement and Crop protection management.

Crop variety improvement : Crop variety improvement is done by selecting good

varieties of crops. This is done by hybridization. Hybridization is the crossing between genetically
dissimilar plants to obtain crops having useful characteristics like disease resistance, good quality
and high yields.
 Hybridization may be intervarietal (between different varieties), interspecific (between
different species of the same genus) or intergeneric (between different genera).
 Another way of improving crop variety is by introducing a gene to obtain the desired
characteristic. This produces genetically modified crops.
 Crop variety improvement is done for the following :
 Higher yield : To increase productivity of crop per acre.
  Biotic and abiotic resistance : To increase resistance of crops to biotic factors like
insects, diseases etc. and abiotic factors like draught, salinity, heat, cold etc.
 Change in maturity duration : To reduce the duration between sowing and harvesting
so that farmers can grow multiple crops during the year.
 Wider adaptibility : To grow crops in different climatic conditions.
 Desirable agronomic characters : Characters like tallness and more branching are
useful for fodder crops and dwarfness (shortness) is desirable for cereal crops.

Crop production management : Crop production management includes Nutrient

management, Irrigation and Cropping management.
 Nutrient management : Plants get nutrients from air, water and soil. There are sixteen
nutrients required by plants for their proper growth. Air supplies oxygen and carbon
dioxide, water supplies hydrogen and the remaining thirteen nutrients are obtained from
the soil.
 Among the sixteen nutrients required by plants, six are required in large quantities and
are called macro-nutrients. The macro-nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium and sulphur.
 The other seven are required in small quantities and are called micro-nutrients. Soil can
be enriched by supplying nutrients in the form of manures and fertilizers. The micro-
nutrients are iron, manganese, boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum and chlorine.
 Manure : Manure is prepared by the decomposition of plant and animal waste. It
contains organic matter and nutrients. It helps to increase soil fertility. It also helps to
reduce use of fertilizers and recycle farm waste and protects the environment. There are
two main types of manures. They are compost and green manure.
 Compost : Compost is prepared by the decomposition of plant and animal waste in
compost pits. Compost prepared by using earthworms is called vermi-compost.
Compost is rich in organic matter and nutrients.
 Green manure : Before sowing seeds in fields, some green plants like sun hemp, gaur
etc. are mixed in the soil by ploughing. These plants turn into green manure which
makes the soil rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.
 Fertilzers : Fertilizers are chemical substances made commercially. They supply
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and help to increase crop yield. Fertilizers should
be used only in required amounts. Excessive use of fertilizers can reduce soil fertility
and also cause water pollution.
 Irrigation : The supply of water to the crops is called irrigation. Water is necessary for
the proper growth of plants and helps to increase crop yield. Different kinds if irrigation
systems are used to supply water to agricultural land. They are wells, canals, rivers, tanks,
check dams etc.
  Wells : There are two types of wells called dug wells and tube wells. In dug wells water
is collected from water bearing strata. In tube wells water is collected from deeper
strata.
 Canals : In this system, canals receive water from reservoirs or rivers and distributes it
to fields.
 River lift systems : In this system water is lifted from rivers to irrigate fields close to
rivers.
 Tanks : These are small storage reservoirs which supply water to fields.
 Check dams : These are used to stop rain water from flowing away and helps to
increase groundwater levels and reduce soil erosion.
 Cropping patterns : Different ways of growing crops are used for maximum benefit.
These include mixed cropping, inter-cropping and crop rotation.
 Mixed cropping : Mixed cropping is growing two or more crops simultaneously in the
same field. E.g.- wheat + gram, wheat + mustard, groundnut + sunflower etc. This
reduces the risk even if one crop fails.
 Inter-cropping : Inter-cropping is growing two or more crops simultaneously in the
same field in alternate rows. E.g.- maize + soya bean, millet + cow pea etc. Crops with
different nutrient requirements are selected. This helps in better use of nutrients and
prevents spreading of diseases to all plants of the same crop.
 Crop rotation : Crop rotation is growing different crops in the same field in succession.
Growing leguminous crops after growing cereal crops helps to increase soil fertility. If
crop rotation is done properly, two or three crops can be grown in a year profitably.

Crop protection management : Crops in the field are damaged by weeds, insect pests
and diseases.
 Weeds are unwanted plants which grow in the field. E.g.- Xanthium, Parthenium,
Cyperinus rotundus etc. They compete with the crop for food, space and sunlight and use
nutrients and reduce crop yield.
 Insect pests cause damage to the root, stem and leaves, suck cell sap and bore into stems
and fruits. They can reduce crop yield.
 Diseases in plants are caused by pathogens like virus, bacteria and fungi and reduces crop
yield.
 Weeds, insect pests and diseases can be controlled by using chemicals like weedicides,
pesticides, fungicides etc. They are sprayed on crop plants or used for treating seeds and
soil. Since these chemicals are poisonous, excessive use of these chemicals can cause
environmental pollution.
 Storage of grains : The factors responsible for the damage and loss of grains are biotic
factors like bacteria, fungi, insects, rodents etc. and abiotic factors like moisture and
temperature in the place of storage. Before storage, the grains are cleaned and dried in
sunlight to remove moisture and the storage places are fumigated to kill pests.
Animal husbandry : Animal husbandry is the scientific management of animal livestock
including their feeding, breeding and disease control. Animal farming includes cattle, sheep, goat,
poultry and fish farming.
 Cattle farming : Cattle farming is done for two main purposes. They are for milk
production and farm labour. Milk producing females are called milch animals and those
used for farm labour are called draught animals.
 Milk production depends on the duration of the lactation period (the period of milk
production after the birth of the calf). Milk production can be increased by increasing the
lactation period. Foreign breeds like Jersy and Brown Swiss have long lactation periods
and local breeds like Red Sindhi and Sahiwal are resistant to diseases. They can be cross-
breed to get animals with both the qualities.
 Cattle shelter should be clean and well ventilated with sloping floors for easy cleaning.
 Cattle feed should include roughage containing mainly fibre and concentrates containing
protein and other nutrients.
 Cattle diseases are caused by parasites, bacteria and virus. External parasites cause skin
diseases. Internal parasites like worms affect stomach and intestine and flukes damage the
liver. Vaccinations are given to protect from viral and bacterial diseases.

 Poultry farming : Poultry farming is done for egg production and chicken meat.
 Improved poultry breeds are developed to produce layers for eggs and broilers for meat.
 Cross-breeding between Indian varieties like Aseel and foreign varieties like Leghorn is
done to develop new varieties.
 For good production of poultry birds they are given proper nutrition and kept in hygienic
conditions and proper temperature conditions.
 Broiler chickens are feed with vitamin, protein and fat rich food for better growth.
 Poultry fowls are affected by diseases caused by virus, bacteria, fungi and parasites. They
are protected from diseases by proper sanitation, spraying disinfectants and vaccination.

 Fish production (Pisciculture) : Fish is a source of animal protein in our food. There
are two ways of obtaining fish. They are from natural sources called capture fishing and
from fish farming called culture fishery. The water source of fishes can be sea water
(marine) or fresh water likes rivers, ponds, lakes etc.
 Marine fisheries : The popular marine fish varieties are pomphret, mackerel, tuna,
sardines etc. They are caught by fishing nets from boats. Some marine fishes are farmed in
sea water. These include prawns, mullets, pearl spots, mussels, oysters etc. We get pearls
from oysters.
 Inland fisheries : Culture fishery is done in freshwater and brackish water where sea water
and fresh water mix together. Sometimes fish culture is done in combination with paddy
crop in the field. This is called composite fish culture. The common fishes in inland fish
farms are rohu, catla, mrigal, grass carp, silver carp, common carp etc.
 Bee-keeping (Apiculture) : Bee-keeping is done to obtain honey and wax. Honey is used
as a source of energy and also has medicinal uses. Wax is used in medicinal preparations
and for making polishes.
 The local varieties of bees used for honey production are the Indian bee, Rock bee and
Little bee. An Italian variety of bee is also being used for large scale production of honey.
 The bees collect nectar from flowers and are convert it into honey in the bee hives. Bees are
artificially grown in apiaries and the honey is extracted by machine called honey
extractors.