CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

India has a very long and varied tradition of philosophical thinking. In every

age there has been a continuous search for the ultimate truth and a constant discourse

about the nature, reality and values. There have also been repeated attempts by great

thinkers to reinterpret the past in the light of present needs.

The researches in humanities and social sciences have a determining influence

on educational practices. To the extent the educational practice do not develop on the

basis of research, the educational process lags behind other social sciences. It is

therefore necessary that periodic reviews be made of the status of educational research

in a country to study the trend of development as a guide to future action and to fill

the existing gap in educational research. It not only allows the researcher to acquaint

himself with current knowledge in the field or area in which he is going to conduct his

study, but describes the procedure for organizing the related literature in a very

systematic manner. It determines and defines the limits of one’s field and help in

suggesting the areas and scope for further researches, which provides proper

guidelines for more investigations successfully and help the researcher.

In the review presented the researcher has included those studies on

existentialism which are directly or indirectly related to the study. The researcher has

gone through several theses and dissertations, journals, survey of educational

researches, books, encyclopedias and other sources of information.

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 Review of Literature based on Dissertation Abstracts

Long (1972) made an analysis of aspects of existentialism and humanistic

psychology relevant to education with special reference to informal education in the

primary schools of Great Britain. He concluded that contemporary vacuum in terms of

the loss of old beliefs, values and goals has led to widespread feeling of anxiety,

alienation, loss of identity and meaninglessness. This calls for the development of an

educational system emphasizing freedom, self awareness, choosing and personal

responsibility, that is, an education stressing individualism and activism i.e.

existentialist education.

He further argued that an examination of the main tenets of existentialist

philosophy, particularly from Sartrean view, led to the conclusion that an existentialist

school would be one which stressed freedom, individualism and activism in order to

foster in its students qualities of self awareness, initiative, decisiveness and personal

responsibility.

He found that the informal education system being employed in the primary

schools of Great Britain have been able to develop the existentialist qualities of self-

awareness, initiative, decisiveness and personal responsibility in a warm, humane

environment.

Also the existential education stressing freedom, individualism and self-

activism along the lines suggested by existentialist ideas might have significant

implications in the area of moral education.

Finally he argued that the informal education system presently being

employed in the primary schools of Great Britain offers the best hope of realizing, for

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the present, the educational ideals implied by existentialism and emergent new

humanistic psychology.

Jabbar (1976) made a critical study of educational implications of

existentialism. The objectives of this study were to analyse the main philosophical

ideas of existentialism and to discuss the aims of education, method, content and

relationships between the teacher and taught in existentialist schools and universities.

The major conclusions of the study were:

i) Existentialism seeks a way out of the dilemmas of life to an authentic and

more meaningful existence for man.

ii) Existential knowledge is a direct outcome of man’s interaction with his

world of experience.

iii) The aim of existentialist education is to liberate the mankind from all

social taboos and cultural norms.

iv) The existentialist curriculum will include subject matter which helps in the

development of the student’s whole being.

v) The existentialists recommend Socratic Method of teaching.

Chantharaskul (1977) in a comparative study of existentialism and Theravada

Buddhism focussed on philosophical beliefs of the two philosophies. The comparison

of the meanings and aims of education, theories of learning, teacher, teaching and

curriculum were also made.

He identified that both philosophies are seriously concerned with the nature of

human existence and describe its predicament. Both explain existence in terms of self

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creation. Theravada Buddhism explains self creation according to the law of karma,

existentialism explains it according to individual’s choice.

Comparison of educational philosophies of these schools of thought indicated

that both encourage educational meaning to place impetus on subjective realm of

human existence such as suffering, misery, birth, death, joys and authentic existence.

Both philosophical systems derive the theory of learner from the concept of human

existence. Existentialism views learner as the self, a unique human being, Theravada

Buddhism sees learner as a non self, self is only a momentarily changing compound

of five psychological factors called skandvas. However, to the existentialist authentic

is the individual’s responsibility. Also, in Buddhist philosophy the burden of

responsibility for attaining ultimate liberation, nirvana, resolves in the individual for

the individual attains enlightenment through inner self realization.

Both philosophies view all learning as self learning or self experience

therefore the teacher does not cause learning to take place but encourages and guides

it. Both reject the teacher’s authority upon the learner. ‘Maeutic method’ or the

method of dialogue is emphasized in existentialism, while the debate method, the

dialectical method and the ‘Danna’ method are significant teaching-learning methods

in Buddhism.

He concluded that existentialism as a western philosophy compare favourably

with Theravada Buddhism therefore it is recommended that Thai University which

prepare teachers provide learning experiences which present existentialism as a

variable philosophic approach in the classroom.

Chun (1985) studied the relation to education of guilt and conscience in the

philosophy of Soren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger. Kierkegaard’s description of

of exister’s separation from the eternal happiness. Guilt consciousness is part of the

dialectic of inward transformation or edification by which the self becomes aware of

its limitations in relation to the absolute telos or God. For Heidegger, guilt signifies

the existential nudity which permeates the being of Dasein. Guilt refers to the

existential constitutionality of human being in its contingency, finitude and throwness.

Conscience plays an instrumental role in summoning the individual to his or

her own possibilities for being and in guiding the process of choice. Once choices are

made, conscience unifies and consolidates the self in resoluteness.

The study concluded with specific recommendations for education with

reference to the areas of teaching, learning and curriculum design. Methods of

application in classroom settings were explored and course offerings in the education

of the self, moral education and aesthetic education are suggested.

Heston (1986) made a study on strengthening confluent education through a

philosophical analysis of the concept of dialogue. He studied the implications for

education of the concept of dialogue as it was analysed in the philosophical writings

of Martin Buber, Hans George Gadamer and Karl Jaspers. Writings on the concept of

dialogue were analysed to provide a set of guidelines for thinking about dialogue.

This work was based on the premise that philosophical analysis of the concept of

dialogue can enhance the effectiveness of confluent education, which attempts to

integrate affect and cognition in the education process.

The study then attempted to demonstrate that an understanding of the

dialogue can provide both a general philosophical grounding of confluent education

and specific implications pertaining to pedagogical obligations, teacher-student

the premise that education is most effective if it is ontologically rooted. From the

philosophical perspective used in this study, human beings self actualize through and

in dialogue as a central dynamic. Three pedagogical obligations that follow from this

perspective are first, education should heighten students awareness of themselves as

unique, emergent, self actualized persons; second, education should enhance students’

understanding of the human tradition; third, education should enhance students’

ability to participate in dialogical relationships.

Liter (1987) studied the existential factors of death anxiety, purpose in life and

alienation and their relationship to adjustment during the freshmen year of college.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether a relationship existed between the

freshmen adjusting to college and the existential variables of purpose in life, death

anxiety and alienation. Subjects (N=100) were first time freshmen at Texas A and M

University in college station, Texas. One group of subjects (N=50) were solicited as

volunteers within the university, with a second group (N=50) who were receiving

counseling services from the counseling centers at the university. Purpose in life was

assessed by the Purpose in Life Test. Death anxiety was assessed by Death Anxiety

Scale and alienation by Alienation Scale. Adjustment was measured by the College

Adjustment Scale and the Behavioral Assessment Questionnaire.

Results indicated that a relationship did exist between the factor of adjustment

and the existential variables. In particular death anxiety and purpose in life were

found to be significantly related to personal emotional adjustment with death anxiety

also shown to be significantly related to a measure of somanticism. Alienation

exhibited the greatest number of significant relationship with adjustment measures

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e.g. full scale adjustment, academic adjustment, social adjustment and personal

emotional adjustment.

Counselors are advised to be familiar with the existential concerns of students,

particularly issues of alienation and estrangement.

Pandey (1991) made a critical study of existentialist philosophical thoughts

and its educational implications. The objectives of this study were:

i) To study those situations and influences which provided a special feature to the

philosophy of existentialism

ii) To discuss philosophies of some important existentialist philosophers

iii) To bring out educational implications for philosophical thought of some

important existentialist philosophers.

iv) To examine critically the utility of existentialist thought in contemporary

Indian context.

Major findings were

i) Jean Paul Sartre considered education essential for creating awareness about

man’s existence and preparing him for life’s struggle.

ii) The nature of education should be such that it inculcates self confidence,

freedom of choice, awareness of self and preparation for life.

iii) Education need not be tied down to curriculum.

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iv) Existentialists are opposed to scientific subjects. They do not disapprove

technical and religious education.

v) In Indian context, through existentialist objectives of education, we can strike a

balance between spiritualism and materialism.

Ashai (1998) studied existential concept of alienation. In the study she

discussed problem of alienation as perceived by different existentialists – Marx,

Kierkegaard, Sartre, Heidegger and Jaspers and suggested the ways to overcome

alienation. According to her man ought to believe in a power which seems to control

the destiny not only of his own but also of the world at large. That is the ultimate

remedy for delineation

Fatima (1999) made a critical study on existentialistic view of education that

led to following conclusions:

1. Soren Kierkegaard is the main propounder of existentialism. Other important

existentialists are Friedrich Nietzsche, Karl Jaspers, Martin Heidegger,

Gabriel Marcel and Jean Paul Sartre.

2. Important themes of existentialism include priority of existence over essence,

anxiety, dread and despair, authenticity, death and nothingness, facticity,

individualism, freedom, alienation and subjective approach to life.

3. Existential ontology holds that universe is cruel and unfriendly. As far as

knowledge is concerned man is responsible for his own knowledge. Values

that are freely chosen by man are valuable.

4. Existentialistic aims of education include development of self realization in

student, development of authentic self, the unique personality and choice

making power in child and to help the child in social adjustment. It also aims
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 at developing hidden potentialities of child, preparing him to face the

tragedies of life and developing sense of responsibility in him.

5. Regarding curriculum existentialists emphasize humanities i.e. history,

literature, philosophy and arts. Religious education is allowed according to

free choice of student.

6. Existentialism prefers Socratic Method of teaching. It also likes play way

method. They discourage group method and problem solving method.

Khan (2007) made a study on the concept of authentic existence in

existentialism. He explored the thoughts of few thinkers regarding authenticity

through means that were truly existential.

1. For Kierkegaard, the most authentic moment resides in the religious stage,

where an individual surrenders himself unconditionally in a surge for an

irrational passion before the will of God.

2. According to Buber, authenticity can be gained only in genuine dialogue

between two individuals which he called I-Thou and I-It relationship.

3. Tillich holds that when an individual transcends from the courage to be as a

part and the courage to be as oneself or from God of mysticism and God of

atheism then he comes face to face with an absolute faith called ‘God beyond

God’. In this absolute faith which is an ultimate concern authentic existence is

revealed.

4. Jaspers holds that realization of authenticity is actualized through the

channels of communication.

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 5. For Marcel, individual can discover his authenticity only under the condition

that the subject-object dichotomy be dissolved.

6. For Sartre, authenticity involves acknowledging the realities of the human

condition and explicitly accepting their consequences.

Finally he explored how authenticity located in the existential milieu takes on a

distinctive stance towards ethics and value theory clearly stating that the possibility

of authenticity is a mark of an individual’s freedom. It is through freedom that the

existentialism approaches its most recognizable doctrines. He however stated that a

clear cut conclusion become antithetical to the idea of authenticity and hence closed

his thesis with a postscript.

Review of Literature based on Journals

Morris (1961) studied existentialism and the education of twentieth century

man. He acclaimed that thoughtful attention should be given to the authentic message

of existentialism and what this message has to say about the management of the

educative process.

He argued that in existentialism, we are placed, into a circumstance of

choice and responsibility and are on our own and therefore can creatively assign

meaning to the world. Thus boys and girls, as they grow up and go to school, might be

inducted into this open-ended world than into the ready-built worlds our traditional

educational programs would have them know.

The consideration of school as only a social institution deteriorates the

developing individual. The school is not just a social institution; it is also an

‘individual’ institution, i.e. an institution for individuals.

therefore is to perform a bit of social surgery to separate at least a part of the

youngster’s school life from the moral tyranny of the community. This might be done

in a number of ways. We become existentially awake around the sixth or seventh

grade, at this stage the elementary school should seize upon every opportunity to

present moral problems to the youngster at the level of his understanding. They

should open up the moral sphere to youngsters to introduce them to the most difficult

sector of the world they inhabit. In later years of schooling, a youngster should be

given a more systematic exposure to the ethical questions of life. From this point

forward, into college and beyond, the individual should be constantly provoked to

expand upon this plan for his developing self, checking here, amending there, but

always mindful of the control he has over his own single life, the precious offering he

is to contribute to the developing Idea of Man.

Finally Morris suggested that the ultimate questions and destiny should have

some place in the educative programme along with penultimate and lower-order

questions which currently claim the student’s entire attention. If we could somehow

simply awaken boys and girls to the ‘need for ultimate recognition’, to the idea that

we ourselves are the authors of the response this need must have through our own

lives and works, then we should be on our way to a newer and higher kind of meaning

in the education of the young.

Emery (1971) examined existentialism in classroom setting. He held that

existentialists education emphasized learners’ experience of getting involved in

subject matter and in significant situations. Teachers emphasis thus should be on the

importance of personal involvement with the ideas and commitment to the fact that

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they are part of the living and learning process. He further argued that exploring

personal meaning is a creative process and new teachers should be introduced to

following elements of an atmosphere in which such creativity is fostered: 1.

encourage experimentation 2. value openness, flexibility and individuality. 3.

encourage communication and problem solving 4. encourage differences, uniqueness

and integrity. And 5. provide an atmosphere of acceptance.

Moreover capacity for acceptance is most likely to be learned in classroom

climate which encourage self revelation, give each person a feeling of belonging,

create the impression that difference is good and desirable and emphasize the

existential, ongoing character of learning. In such atmosphere the student will proceed

towards authentic and functioning self realization. Curriculum should always aim

towards self realization of both teacher and student.

Finally, he held that how man relates to education and his search for meaning

in life is the main concern for the existentialists. The best way to find meaning is

through one’s realization of freedom of choices. When man realizes he has the ability

to choose his life and be responsible for himself, he is on his way to self-realization.

Achieving this awareness is the goal of the existentialists. This is a personal approach

which stresses the importance of communication in such manner that other people feel

accepted and worthwhile. The existentialist teacher is the caring and concerned one

and is involved with the pupil. He believes that all learning is for self realization and

self fulfillment.

Vandenberg (1979) examined existential and phenomenological influences in

educational philosophy. He claimed that existentialism and phenomenology both have

exercised a potent influence over the development of American educational

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philosophy in the latter half of the twentieth century. He outlined the relevance of

these philosophical positions to the educational process.

The essence of existentialism has been concisely captured in Kierkegaard’s

1846 dictum: “Subjectivity is truth”. The existentialists have repeatedly stressed the

cultivation of inwardness—the individual’s awareness of his authentic feelings,

thoughts, moods, desires and goals. Self-conscious awareness is never given, but must

be achieved by an often heroic effort. Existentialism is relevant to education since

education attempts to facilitate the unfolding of an authentic personality.

While phenomenology also concerns itself with the task and process of self-

awareness, it differs from existentialism in its objective rigour and outward emphasis.

Phenomenology has striven to develop public methods to describe the elements of

awareness, removing from its description as many distinctive elements as possible. Its

analysis of consciousness thus yields intersubjectively valid results.

The complementary subjective and objective approaches to awareness

developed by existentialists and phenomenologists provide effective techniques for

understanding the complex personal and more broadly human factors involved in

education. Reacting to some theorists objections that the existentialist view of the

world unduly stresses negativity—forever dwelling on homelessness, powerlessness,

facelessness and even nothingness, Vandenberg argued that existentialists explore the

negative aspects of life in order to transcend them. Thus, they examine homelessness

to prepare for homecoming, meaninglessness to discover personal significance. This

balance of optimism and pessimism provides a much needed corrective to the almost

unquestioned faith in progress which pervaded American educational theory until the

end of the 1950s.

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 Recognizing the value of existentialist and phenomenological contributions to

educational theory, Vandenberg warned against the dangers of falling into entrenched

ideological positions which could hinder understanding as much as facilitate it. He

advises future educational theorists to assert their autonomy from other disciplines as

well as from pseudophilosophical prejudices in order better to formulate a theory

which would clarify the phenomena of education.

Lieberman (1985) enquired specific aspects of existentialism and their

relevant implications for an educational system. He held that that the existentialistic

aim of education is to ‘awaken awareness in the learner’ (existential awareness of

himself as a simple subjectivity present in the world). Existentialist education assume

the responsibility of awakening each individual to the intensity of his/her own

selfhood (defining self as the phenomenon of the awareness of subjectivity). The self

constitutes a choosing, free and responsible agent. Thus such learning situation is

needed in which the structure and significance of the self is meaningfully conveyed.

Existentialists argued that the educational system could stress the vital function of

death, to enhance the value of life. Education toward death can be converted into an

experience to enhance the authentic life and to separate the essential components of

life from the trivial. In existentialism, education concentrates on the freedom of the

total inner being, accepting facts only in-so far as they have significance for the

individual.

According to existentialism “know thyself” becomes “choose thyself”.

Existential education can begin as soon as the child wants to know him/herself and

teachers must accept the challenge to present both the beauty and tragedy of life at

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exactly the correct moment. An education for perfectibility is no education at all, but

an irresponsible indulgence in unreality.

Existentialists do not want mass education as it results in rote learning, which

causes the students to repeat what they have been taught in the classroom.

For existentialists, home is more organic and profound in imparting education

than schools. Classrooms levelise the child while the home provides a setting for

cultivating the authentic self and can instill a spirit of love and fellowship which

extends to extra-familial relationships.

Harlow, Michael and Bentler (1986) examined a theoretical model of

adolescent behaviour separately for males and females (N=722). The model

hypothesized that depression and self- derogation may lead to a lack of purpose in

life, which in turn, may lead to suicide ideation and substance use. Confirmatory

factor analysis and structural equation procedures were used to examine the model,

using Bentler’s (1984) EQS computer programme, which is available from BMDP.

For both the men and women, the model adequately accounted for the data although

there were some important differences between the sexes.

The study concluded that in response to psychic discomfort (i.e. depression

and self–derogation), men are more apt to drug and alcohol, whereas women consider

suicide. Conversely, the situation changes in response to feeling of meaninglessness

or a lack of purpose in life. Here, the females appear to turn to substance use, whereas

the males react with thoughts of suicide.

Horn (1993) made a study on Karl Jaspers. He presented Jaspers’ thought on

education in the context of role of family, tradition and the state and education. He

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also discussed Jaspers’ idea of formal and university education. He maintained that

from personal experience and conviction, Jaspers assigns to the family the task of

laying the ground for all education. Tradition is the only means through which man

can come into his own thus education through the study of great men is purposeful.

Regarding state education Jaspers described two possible extremes of the state’s

attitude to education. ‘Either it leaves education free or else the state takes over

education which it goes on to shape in peacefulness or violence to serve its own end’.

He further argued that political education impart constitutional knowledge and

acceptance of the authority, the generation of images and ideas, practical exercises in

the solution of common problems, formulization with thinking and the ability to see

through mere slogans. This political education presupposes ‘constant self-education of

adult citizens in their attitudes’.

As far as formal education is concerned Jaspers emphasizes the exceptionally

important role of the primary school that lays the moral, intellectual and political

foundations for the entire population. He advocates the need for a moral content in all

teaching. Secondary schools must also pursue the same goal. Regarding university

education he said that the tasks of the university include research, teaching and

education, training, communication, the whole world of the sciences. According to

him research is the fundamental task of the university.

The investigator also presented the central philosophical concept of ‘all

embracing’ and highlighted its importance for education. He concluded that the notion

of ‘all-embracing’ is absolutely indispensable if unlimited breadth and rich

differentiation of education are to be focussed on something individual and

propagated and exercised to use a convenient formula as an obvious solution. One

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sided theories can be resisted if the notion of ‘all-embracing’ is to govern the theory

and practice of education.

Remakes (2001) held that Nietzsche’s view of education needs to be

understood by the importance Nietzsche attaches to being embedded in a particular

historical and cultural frame. Education in the early stages is a matter of teaching the

child to see and to value particular things or, in Nietzsche’s words, teaching the child

to lie. In the study the investigator developed an interpretation contrary to those who

emphasize Nietzsche’s radical individualism and thus viewed his overman in

subjective terms. He argued that Nietzsche’s most important lesson is not that we are

to create anything radically new, but rather that we are to take up a serious

engagement with respect to what we stand for.

Guignon (2008) studied authenticity and discussed the ordinary, the

existentialist and the virtue-ethics senses of it. The term ‘authentic’ in ordinary usage

suggests the idea of being ‘original’ or ‘faithful to an original’ and its application

implies being true to what someone (or something) truly is. It is important to see,

however, that the philosopher who put this technical term on the map in

existentialism, Martin Heidegger, used the word to refer to the human capacity to be

fully human, not to being true to one’s unique inner nature. Authenticity might also be

thought of as a virtue and interesting questions arise whether such a virtue should be

regarded primarily as a personal or as a social virtue.

Ian and Lawler (2008) carried out a study on existential communication and

leadership. They attempted to introduce and explain a number of important

existentialist philosophers and concepts that can contribute to a critical approach to a

leadership theory. Emphasis was placed on understanding the nature of

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communication from an existentialist perspective and so Jaspers’ conceptualization of

existential communication was introduced along with important related concepts that

may be regarded as important facets of leader communication including being-in-the

world, the other, intersubjectivity, dialogue and indirect communication. Particular

attention was paid to Buber’s ideas on communication as relationship and dialogue.

Throughout references were made to contemporary and orthodox thinking regarding

the centrality of communication to leadership practice as a means by which to

highlight the relevance of an existential analysis.

Kalderimis (2010) investigated suitableness of existentialism to modern world

in its ethical framework. He concluded that existentialism is well-suited to the

complexities of a globalised, cosmopolitan world, in which different ways of living

and acting take place in ever closer proximity. It requires discipline and responsibility

and explains how meaning and values come to exist through individual choice. Most

importantly, far from being a charter for relativism, it provides two bedrock values,

self-awareness and empathy, which are needed to make authentic choices.

Existentialism thus offers a philosophical foundation on the basis of which

some self-help style advice can be very useful. Anything which offers techniques to

become more self-aware (perhaps by meditating and mastering one’s emotions) and

more empathetic (perhaps by seeking to be more patient and listening better to others)

is good advice.

Moreover, existentialism tells us, subject to the constraint of authenticity, one

must decide one’s own values and how to live. There is much wisdom available to

assist in making those decisions. The message of existentialism is simply that no

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matter how good the advice or esteemed its author, one must always choose for

oneself.

Mayes (2010) analysed five dimensions of existentially authentic education.

He proposed that rather than the standardized, one-size-fits-all approach to education,

education should incorporate five critical features: education as caring, education as

art, education as liberation, education as encounter and education as transcendence.

Education is caring when it involves genuine respect for who the student is and the

development of a deeply relational pedagogy. When education is art, subject matter

becomes a springboard for students to explore and expand their existence and then

express the experience through media that display this growth. Education is liberating

when students use the curriculum as a tool to examine their lives, expose the forces

that are constricting it and devise ways of releasing those fetters. It becomes an

encounter when relationships become more fully personal: I-Thou rather than I-It.

Finally, it is transcendent when it leaves room for the spirit or sacred space in the

classroom. He concluded that the application of the existentialist philosophy allows

the development of student’s personal liberation and transcendence.

Koirala (2011) surveyed the historical development of existentialist

philosophy, meaning of existence, its philosophical premises and perspectives. She

dealt further with implications of existentialism in selection of aim of education,

organization of curriculum, role of teachers and students and school organization.

The study concluded that existentialism opposes exploitation of man and is

against the repression of his individuality but emphasizes the existence of

individuality, thinking as introvert and subjective phenomenon. Education is to

contribute in the realization of self. Subjective knowledge is considered more

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important. It is beneficial to selection of educational policy, formulation of aim of

education, organizing curriculum and selection of effective pedagogy. It also applies

in organizing school programmes and classroom practices.

Review of Literature based on Encyclopedias

Stevens (2000) described existentialism as a philosophical movement oriented

towards two major themes, the analysis of human existence and the centrality of

human choice. He further argued that the roots of existentialism are in the writings of

Soren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. However as a philosophy of human

existence its best exponent is Karl Jaspers and as a philosophy of human decision its

exponent is Jean-Paul Sartre. Sartre finds the essence of human existence in the duty

of self determination and the freedom of choice and therefore devoted time in

describing the human tendency towards ‘bad faith’, reflected in humanity’s perverse

attempts to deny its own responsibility and flee from the truth of its inescapable

freedom.

Lagasse (2000) held that existentialism may be described as any of several

philosophical systems all centered on the individual and his relationship to the

universe or God. The important existentialists include Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers,

Martin Heidegger, Gabriel Marcel and Jean Paul Sartre. Other thinkers are Thomas

Aquinas, Blaise Pascal and Friedrich Nietzsche. Kierkegaard’s fundamental insight

was the recognition of the concrete ethical and religious demands confronting the

individual. Kierkegaard’s analysis of the human situation provides the central theme

of contemporary existentialism. Heidegger’s philosophy is an investigation of the

nature of being in which analysis of human existence is only the first step. For

Sartre, the central idea of all existential thought is that existence precedes essence.

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Gabriel Marcel was most prominent exponent of Christian existentialism. Other

theologians and religious thinkers often included in the orbit of existentialism are

Karl Barth, Martin Buber, Paul Tillich and Reinhold Neibuhr.

Crystal (2002) considered existentialism as a philosophical movement closely

associated with Kierkegaard, Camus, Sartre and Heidegger. Its most salient theses of

existentialism are that there is no ultimate purpose or order in the world; the world is

vaguely hostile; the persons choose and cannot avoid choosing their character and

goals, by self creating ‘leaps’ and have the obligation only to be ‘authentic’. Our

situation is revealed most clearly in moments of unfocussed psychological anxiety

and dread. These themes greatly influenced continental literature, psychoanalysis and

theology in the twentieth century.

Shinn (2002) maintained that existentialism is a philosophical and cultural

impulse, with roots in ancient Socratic and Biblical thought that became a

conspicuous self conscious movement in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Besides a variety of convictions its constant characteristic is concern for human

existence, especially for the affirmation of freedom and the refusal to subordinate

personal self awareness to abstract concepts dehumanizing social structures.

Kierkegaard was the founder of modern existentialism. He criticized the

reigning philosophies for their abstract speculations and pretensions to answer grand

questions without asking the immediate questions of self understanding. Truth he held

is subjectivity. Other nineteenth century philosophers include Dostoevsky, Karl Marx

and Friedrich Nietzsche. Dostoevsky opposed the mechanistic and utilitarian beliefs.

Karl Marx’s description of alienation, his analysis of thinking as always embedded in

a historical context and his call to philosophy to change the world instead of merely

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understanding it have existential spirit. Nietzsche acclaimed the ‘unique wonder’ of

every person, often suppressed by a cowardly herd morality.

In twentieth century Martin Heidegger explored the idea of human existence

especially the experience of human anxiety, temporality and awareness of death. Karl

Jaspers maintained that all fundamental thinking depends upon self comprehension. In

the latter half of twentieth century existentialism entered into the mainstream of

philosophy. Most philosophers like pragmatists, phenomenologists and analytical

philosophers taken up existential themes. Existentialism therefore became less a

distinctive philosophy and more a coloration in most philosophies. Existentialism also

influenced subsequent theology and philosophy of religion. Religious thinkers like

Boltzmann, Marcel, Tillich, Berdyaev and Buber acknowledged its impact.

Mackinnon (2005) defined existentialism as a name for a philosophical trend

or tendency whose central figure is Heidegger and of which the following marks may

be noted:

1. Abstract theory is critized for obscuring the roughness and untidiness of actual

life.

2. The existentialist bias in favour of the particular and the concrete conflicts with

Kant’s attempt to lie bare the universal principle of all moral action, though it

harmonizes with his doctrine of the primacy of practical over theoretical reason.

3. Existentialist thought is sometimes profoundly religious (as in Kierkegaard) and

sometimes overtly aesthetic (as in Sartre). But in existentialist atheism there is

discernible an almost obsessionally religious note.

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4. One might say that the professional philosophers will always find in the writings

of existentialist thinkers, resources to corrector restricted and confined

paradigms.

Thiselton (2006) analysed themes of existentialism, especially in Kierkegaard,

Nietzsche, Dostoevsky, Heidegger, Jaspers, Marcel and Sartre. The basic existential

themes include emphasis upon the individual and the role of active personal

engagement and decision for life and truth. They include most especially an insistence

upon starting from concrete human situations i.e. existence against essence.

Truth for Kierkegaard is ‘subjectivity’. He advocated independent decisions.

He also reminded us of sheer finitude of human existence. Nietzsche represents the

atheistic side of existentialism. He claimed that ‘Will to Power’ is the most

fundamental drive in human persons. He held that God is dead; therefore humankind

is free to choose his destiny and identity. He argued that if rational philosophies and

religion are fictions and lies than the starting point can be only human situations and

human wills. This lead to a re-valuation of all values. Doestoevsky through his novel

“The brothers Karamazov” showed that solutions to the problem of evil cannot take

the form of a single morality, neatly packed system, but require address from various

angles of finite human life.

‘Being’ Heidegger held can be approached only by questions about concrete,

human, existent, beings in their finite ‘thrown-ness’ into the world. In relation to his

religious thought there are two key points. First we cannot adequately philosophize

about human, selfhood or personal agency by drawing only on categories of substance

observation as if we were concerned only with objects of description. Second, all

human interpretation of life and phenomena rests upon a hermeneutic of

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understanding. This takes place within the horizon of time and operates through the

principle of the hermeneutical circle. Jaspers held that man faces suffering, loss, guilt,

isolation or imminent death and the most extreme of these experiences he called

“limit situations” or “boundary-situations”.

Marcel gave emphasis on personhood. He called attention to the dignity and

sacredness of persons-in-relation-to-being, and in relation to one another. Sartre

distinguished between two modes of being of persons and things. An object is

complete, finished and self contained; it is being-in-itself. A person is always in

process of making and shaping themselves as a self and an identity; a person is being-

for-itself. Dread and nausea arises when an individual is placed by society in a pre-

shaped, closed future. As for his religious attitude, Sartre endorsed Nietzsche ‘s

declaration that God is dead.

Kamat and David (2009) discussed various philosophies of education

including existentialism. They described existentialism as a highly individualistic

philosophy that depends heavily on subjective factors like intuition, introspection,

emotional commitment and alienation. They argued that existentialism appeal greatly

to those who find meaninglessness, cruelty and horror in modern living and are

oppressed by the industrial and technical institutions.

For existentialists, the individual human experience is the primary unit of

explanation. They view the individual as exemplary philosopher, the person willing to

freely choose, when all seems to overwhelm. Living for existentialists is a passionate

confrontation with the dangers of and threats to existence, especially freedom and

death.

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 The educational implications of existentialism are for student and teacher as

individuals, both are the persons who passionately opposes the forces which deny the

individual his or her freedom. The subjects of the existential curriculum are

unspecified however any subject that help the student to strive to 'become' is worthy.

The educational methods include dialogue, reflective inquiry and individual

introspection. Schools or educational systems based on existentialism are virtually

impossible but if the individual existentialist can exert his or her will regardless of

deterministic forces, the will can survive even in the crucible of the school.

Review of Literature based on Books

Roberts (1957) surveyed existentialist writings with a view to show their

relevance to Christian theology. He gave an exposition of Pascal, Kierkegaard,

Heidegger, Sartre, Jaspers and Marcel. The first of these thinkers is included as being

a precursor of modern existentialism. He ended each survey with a brief critique. In

conclusion he listed the following features of religious importance in existentialism –

i) It was against an idalateous attitude to science; ii) it offers a drastically realistic

acquaintance with the stuff of human existence; iii) it illuminates the vexed

relationship between faith and reason for the new philosophy may ontologize from

inside the vivid personal language of drama and poetry; iv) it provides an analysis of

unfaith and hence is indispensable to apologists; v) it draws attention to the problem

of human freedom. Of these perhaps iv) is the most suggestive, for even though the

spirit of existentialism seems irrationalist, it contains much that is, while not being

natural theology in old sense, a sort of religious reasoning.

Kneller (1958) recognized the need for an interpretation and choice of

existential themes which are pertinent to educational problems expressed in terms

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readily understood by educator and layman interested in education. He discussed

existentialism and education in the light of following themes– existence and

authenticity, the knower and the known, man and his values, religious and moral

values, freedom and authority, the individual and the group, death, anguish and

commitment, the teacher and the student, the educational process and the challenge of

existentialism.He argued that as far as educational theory and practice are concerned,

they may be inferred since existentialism is not a systematic philosophy.

Existentialists hold that he insistence in the classroom upon utilizing

exclusively rational and empirical method inhibit the growth of students independent

thought and behaviour. School subjects are only a tool of realization. The teacher

must make student realize implications of his decisions. Concerning individual and

group in educational context Nietzsche held that education should not aim at

educating masses but a few. Marcel held only individual may be truly educated the

masses can be trained. In classroom teacher is expected to use group instruction in a

way by which each individual in the group would cut more than the group itself.

Sartre holds that individual student must use group process to realize his own

educational possibilities. Existentialists advocate religious and moral education.

Existentialism also emphasize education for death. Regarding teacher and student

relation, they held it should be I-Thou relation. Curriculum according to them cannot

be prescribed and humanities have central place in it. Arts and literature should also

be taught. Socratic method of teaching is favourable. Problem solving method is

acceptable if the problem originates in the life of one who has to appropriate the

solution. They also advocated playway method. Kneller acclaimed that for the modern

educator existentialism is warning to discourage the demands and pressures of

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organized society and strike out anew in the search of education of and for the

individual.

Morris (1966) explored the implications his philosophy has for education. He

elaborated the basic existentialist concepts of freedom, choice and the self

(individual/personal) and its problems. He stressed the urgency and importance of the

philosophical problems which are central to the existentialist position. He

demonstrated following key points:

1. How self-determination and self-affirmation can be advanced to its next level of

application to American life.

2. How to bring students to the forefront of learning, enjoining them to take charge

of their own growth and development.

3. The need for a world of radical freedom, but each person taking personal

responsibility for how he or she lives a human life.

Warnock (1970) presented the thoughts of four Continental existentialist

philosophers: Husserl, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty and Sartre.

She maintained that this philosophy is really no more difficult than any other

serious intellectual movement and that the problems of these thinkers have much in

common with those of other philosophic schools. The origins of existentialism lie in

the union of the practical concern for human freedom with the phenomenological

method of Husserl. She concluded that existentialism is dogmatic, subjective and anti-

scientific.

Rasheed (2006) provided a conceptual and philosophical framework for

looking behind the screen of the teleological givens within instrumental curriculum

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and explored the possibilities of a curriculum of action that is based on Sartre’s and

Maxine Greene’s concepts of freedom. This framework, which is an existentialist

perspective, implores educators to look past the givens associated with neoliberalist

concepts of education that are said to produce degrees of passive compliance to the

possibilities associated with a curriculum which fosters critical spirit - a spirit which,

once deployed, seeks possibility, hope and change.

Rasheed articulated Maxine Greene’s concept of freedom and its relationship

to action. How this developed from Sartre is highlighted, as are the similarities and

differences between their perspectives. Then he articulated Greene’s resonance with

Freire with regard to the concept of naming. He has importance of providing

curriculum space for naming to occur, which then flows to taking collective action

towards change. He further took the construct of ‘possibility’ through accentuating the

utility of literature and how some literary texts can be used to explore freedom and

possibility. Finally, he provided suggestions around the provision of curriculum that

fosters ‘dialogical knowing, thinking and experiencing’ - curriculum that celebrates

multiplicity as opposed to standardization.

Maisel (2012) approached depression as a symptom of having 1) excessive

focus on negative thoughts and 2) lack of intentionality in creating personal meaning.

He articulated how these deficiencies create what we call depression and specific

tools on how to overcome these deficiencies and turn them into strengths.

After covering some foundational concepts of existentialist philosophies and

the failures of doctors in mis-diagnosing depression, Maisel suggested people to take

charge of their lives. The ‘locus of control’ is thus has been moved from external

entities like doctors, friends, enemies and drugs back to the individual.

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 He argued that by taking the common human experience of unhappiness out

of the shadows and acknowledging its existence, we begin to reduce its power.

Once we decide to take charge, the focus is then on creating a set of personal

values upon which to create a happy and meaningful life. Among other tools, there is

a ‘Life-Purpose Vision’ that is a short or long living statement of what really matters

to us in our life. The deliberate, conscious act of both creating and revising this

statement over time provides a direction. As our situation, resources, capabilities and

desires change over time, we can refer to this Life-Purpose Vision to keep our

bearings. Dr Maisel presented this Vision not as an unchanging definition to which we

should conform, but a current statement that is expected to change as we and our

reality changes. ‘The Life-Purpose Vision’ is not like a rule. It functions more like an

existential chime, resonating with consistent actions and ringing dissonant with

actions that are inconsistent with your purpose statement and values.

He presented several approaches to ensure that we can plan for a meaningful

and fulfilling day every day, that we seize opportunities to make meaning and that we

can resolve crises of meaning as they arise. He summarized his application of

existentialism to meaning as: Meaning is private, personal, individual and subjective.

Every argument for the objectivity of meaning is merely someone’s attempt to elevate

his subjective experience and his opinions above yours and mine.

Saeverot (2013) focussed on education’s existential dimension. He argued

that such a focus requires at least three things. Firstly, we need to justify why it is

necessary to reconnect with existentialism in education. Secondly, we need to

undergo an examination of the quality of existential education, so that we can have a

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basis as to what kind of educational interests teachers should have. Thirdly, we need

to gain knowledge about how teachers may teach in light of existential matters.

However, to teach in light of existence is highly paradoxical in that existence

cannot be forced on someone, but is rather a subjective matter. Teaching which is

non-ironical or too direct can thus be very problematic concerning existential issues.

The reason being that there is no objective truth in terms of existence. There is only a

matter of subjective or existential truth, which is only true for the single individual.

Therefore, the author suggested that the approach teachers’ take must be discrete and

indirect so as to create room for students to take responsibility for their subjective

truth. Such an indirect pedagogy is not a programme, but rather a form of existential

education.

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