RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - Body system responsible of getting Oxygen into the body and remove

Carbon dioxide out of the body through respiration

Respiration - Exchange gases between living things and its surroundings
Types of Respiration
1. External Respiration (Breathing) - Exchange of gases between the organism and the environment
2. Internal Respiration (Cellular Respiration) - Exchange of gases between blood and the body cells
Breathing - Mechanical process that helps get air and out of the lungs
Types of Breathing
1. Inhalation / Inspiration - Intake air from the outside
2. Exhalation / Expiration - Take off the air to the outside
Four Types of Gas Exchange System
1. Integumentary Exchange – ex. worm
2. Gills – ex. fish
3. Tracheal System – ex. grasshopper
4. Lungs – ex. land animal and human
PARTS AND FUNCTION OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT - Includes mouth, nose, nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx
 MOUTH - Passageway of air and food
 NOSE - Passageway of air
 NOSTRILS - It traps dust particles contained in the inhaled air
 NASAL CAVITY - Air is cleaned, warmed and moistened
 PHARYNX – Throat, pathway that connects nasal cavity to the trachea
 EPIGLOTTIS - Prevents food from entering the trachea
 LARYNX – Voice box, contain vocal cord which vibrates sound when speaking
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT - Includes trachea, bronchi, lungs, bronchioles and alveoli
 TRACHEA – Windpipe, hollow tube that serve as passage way of air into the lungs
 BRONCHI - Two branching tubes that connect trachea to lungs
 BRONCHIOLES - Hair like tube that connect to alveoli
 ALVEOLI - Air sacs where gas exchange take place
PATHWAY OF GASES IN AND OUT OF THE LUNGS
1. OXYGEN
MOUTH/NOSE -> NOSTRILS -> NASAL CAVITY -> PHARYNX -> LARYNX ->
TRACHEA -> BRONCHI -> BRONCHIOLES –> ALVEOLI

2. CARBON DIOXIDE
ALVEOLI -> BRONCHIOLES -> BRONCHI -> TRACHEA ->
LARYNX -> PHARYNX -> NASAL CAVITY -> NOSTRILS -> NOSE/MOUTH
LUNGS - Main organ in respiratory system
- Symmetrical pair but not completely identical because the left lung is smaller than
the right lung
- Consist of grape shape called alveoli where gas exchange take place
- Gas exchange between alveoli and capillaries
Breathing - Mechanical process that helps get air and out of the lungs
Types of Breathing
3. Inhalation / Inspiration - Intake air from the outside
4. Exhalation / Expiration - Take off the air to the outside
Muscle involved in respiratory system
1. Rib Muscle - Muscles between the ribs in the chest
2. Diaphragm - It is a dome shape sheet of muscle used in the process of inspiration and inhalation
Movement of Diaphragm, Ribs and Chest Cavity
1. Inhalation / Inspiration
Diaphragm - Contract
Ribs - Move Upward
Chest Cavity - Expand
2. Exhalation / Expiration
Diaphragm - Relaxes
Ribs - Move Downward
Chest Cavity - Back to original size

DIFFERENT RESPIRATORY DISEASES


Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD)
- Lung conditions which inability to exhale normally that cause difficulty in breathing
1. Chronic Bronchitis – caused by cigarette smoking and bronchial irritants
- Symptoms: hacking cough, yellow or green phlegm, fever chills, pain below
breastbone, and shortness of breath
- Treatment: quit cigarette smoking and avoid airborne bronchial irritants
2. Emphysema - caused by cigarette smoking
- Symptoms: shortness of breath and wheezing
- Treatment: stop smoking
3. Lung Cancer - abnormalities in the cells that line in the bronchi due to smoking
- Symptoms: chest pain, cough doesn’t go away, coughing up blood, losing
weight, loss of appetite, shortness of breath, eyelid dropping, joint pain,
shoulder pain, swelling of the face or arm, and weakness
4. Cystic Fibrosis - is a genetic respiratory diseases caused by a defective gene that creates thick
and sticky mucus that clogs up tubes and passageways
- Symptoms: chronic coughing, frequent lung infection, Inflammation of
Pancreas, Liver diseases, Diabetes, Gallstones and develop Bronchiectasis
- Treatment: Antibiotics, Exercise and Chest Physical Therapy
5. Bronchiectasis – condition in which develop abnormally dilated bronchial tubes causing
frequent tract infection
 - Symptoms: wheezing, and shortness of breath
6. Pneumonia - an infection in the air sacs in the lungs caused by bacteria, virus and fungi
- Symptoms: cough with bloody mucus, fever, shaking chills, shortness of breath, Sharp or
stabbing chest pain that gets worse when you breathe
deeply or cough
- Treatment: Fluids and antibiotics in your veins, and oxygen therapy
7. Asthma - caused by allergens such as molds, dust and animal dander, stress and
exposure to tobacco smoke, polluted air, irritants such as perfume and
cleaning products
- Due to Inflammation of airways
- Symptoms : frequent cough, losing breath, feeling very tired, trouble in
sleeping
- Treatment: Anti-inflammatories and Bronchodilator
8. Influenza (Flu) – caused by influenza virus
- Symptoms: cough, fever, chills, aches, vomiting, nausea and diarrhea
- Treatment: influenza vaccine
9. Tuberculosis (TB) – caused by Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
- Symptoms: cough with sputum for more than 2 weeks, night sweats and fever
swelling in the neck, shortness of breath and chest pain
- Treatment: Antibiotic continues 6-9 months therapy

PREVENTIVE MEASURES TO AVOID RESPIRATORY DISEASES

1. Do not smoke 5.Maintain clean, dust free surroundings

2. Avoid secondhand smoke 6. Get regular exercise
3. Avoid exposure to air pollution 7. Eat nutritious foods
4. Do not contribute to air pollution

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- body system responsible of transporting materials throughout the body.
 Heart – pumps the blood throughout the body
 Blood vessel – carries blood throughout the body
 Blood – carries materials throughout the body
Heart – hollow muscular organ that pumps blood to the different parts of the body
- located at the middle of chest cavity its apex slightly tilted towards the left
- big as one’s own clenched fist
- 3 layer Tissues of the Heart Wall
 Epicardium – outer layer of heart wall
 Myocardium – middle layer of heart wall
 Endocardium – inner layer of heart wall
- Chambers of the Heart
 Upper Chambers – collecting chamber of the heart
- Left Atrium – receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
- Right Atrium – receives deoxygenated blood from the different part of the body
 Lower Chambers – pumping chamber of the heart
- Left Ventricle – pump oxygenated blood out of the heart to different parts of the body
- Right Ventricle – pump deoxygenated blood out of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation
- Valves of the heart
 Atrioventricular Valves
- Tricuspid valve – valve between Right atrium and Right Ventricle
- Bicuspid valve or Mitral valve – valve between Left atrium and Left Ventricle
 Semilunar Valve
- Pulmonic valve – valve between Right Ventricle and Pulmonary Artery
- Aortic valve – valve between Left Ventricle and the Aorta
- Septum – a muscular tissue divides the heart into half to prevent blood flowing
 - Chordae Tendineae – heart string of the heart help the valve to close
- Blood Vessels of the Heart
 Venacava – largest veins carried deoxygenated blood from the different parts of the body
- Superior venacava – receives oxygenated blood from the upper part of the body
- Inferior venacava – receives deoxygenated blood from the lower part of the body
 Aorta – largest artery carried oxygenated blood from Left Ventricle to all parts of the body
 Pulmonary arteries – transport deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for
oxygenation

Pulmonary Veins – transport oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium

How the heart work?

- The heart propels the blood, which carries all the vital materials and remove wastes products
that we do not need.
- The heart has two pumps that pumps on every side, the left and the right, to circulate the blood throughout
the body
- All muscles tissues of the heart do not contract and relax in same time
- When the top portion (Atria) contract, the bottom (Ventricles) relaxes, When the bottom (Ventricles contract,
the top portion (Atria) relaxes

Circulation - permits blood to circulate and transport materials to and from the cells of the body
 Pulmonary circulation - movement of blood from heart to the lungs, and back to the heart
 Coronary Circulation - movement of blood through the tissue of the heart
 Systemic Circulation - movement of blood from the heart to the rest of the body except lungs
Blood vessels - also known as Highway System of the body
- network of channels that carried blood to all parts of the
body
 Arteries – carried oxygenated blood away from the heart
- Arterioles – smallest arteries
- Aorta – largest arteries
 Veins – carried deoxygenated blood towards the heart
- Venule – smallest veins
- Venacava – largest veins
 Capillaries – smallest and numerous blood vessels
- Connect arteries and veins
- Exchange of materials between blood and tissue cells
Diffusion – movement of substance from higher concentration to
lower concentration
- passing materials between wall of capillaries and blood

BLOOD - fluid tissue of the body, classified as a connective tissues

- function is to carried materials throughout the body
- four components of blood are:
Solid Part
 Plasma – liquid components of blood
- is a pale yellow fluid that consist about 91% water,
7% protein and 2% other substance
Liquid Part
 Red Blood Cells – also known as erythorcytes
- erythro – “red” and cytes – “cells”
- function transport oxygen form the lungs
throughout the body cells
- produced by the bone marrow
Hemoglobin - contain red chemical pigment with special
kind of protein containing iron produced by
kidney called Erythropoietin
 White Blood Cells – also known as leukocytes
- leuko – “white” and cytes – “cells”
- function defense our body from diseases
- acts as soldier of our body
- begin develop in bone marrow and
mature in the lymph organs or nodes
 GRANULOCYTES - has granules in their cytoplasm
1. Neutrophils – release chemical to kill and inhibit
 growth of bacteria 55% - 60 %
2. Basophil - release histamine which promotes
inflammation 0.5%
3. Eosinophil - release chemical during allergies and
parasites infection 1% - 3%
 AGRANULOCYTES - no cytoplasmic granules
1. Lymphocytes - function as “warrior” of the immune
system 20% - 45%
2. Monocytes - long term clean up team largest WBC ,
eating & digest foreign particles like
bacteria and germs
 Platelets – also known as thrombocytes
- function for blood clotting

DIFFERENT CIRCULATORY DISEASES

1. Heart failure - The heart is congested, beats inefficient due to its muscle that become stiff
- Caused by smoking, alcohol and unhealthy lifestyle
- Symptoms: shortness of breath, swelling of feet and ankle, Palpitation
- Treatment: Avoid eating salty food, stop smoking and regular exercise
2. Stroke - Caused by blood clot blocks smaller arteries
- Thrombotic Stroke - blood clot blocks the artery
- Embolic Stroke - blood clots breaks off somewhere in the body and travels up to the brain and
blocks the smallest artery
- Symptoms: Tingling on one side of the body or numbness, Trouble in speaking and walking
- Treatment: Take drug like thrombolytic or heparin, and surgery
3. Hypertension – caused by too much salt in the body, alcohol abuse, stress and anxiety
- Symptoms: Heartbeat become irregular, Bleeding nose
- Treatment: Alpha blockers, Diuretics, and Vasodilators
4. Coronary Heart Diseases – caused by High LDL ( Bad Cholesterol), Alcohol Abuse and To much stress
- Symptoms: It may feel heavy or like someone, squeezing your heart, Shortness of beat and fatigue
- Treatment: Coronary Artery bypass
5. Arteriosclerosis - build up of fats on the wall of artery
6. Anemia - Low red blood cells count or Hemoglobin
- Symptoms: Looking pale, Low blood pressure and Spleen becomes large
- Treatment: Iron supplement and Blood transfusion
7. Leukemia – caused by smoking, Prolonged exposure to the radiation, and Increase number of WBC
- Symptoms: Swollen gums and Enlarge liver and spleen
- Treatment: Blood and marrow transplant and Chemotherapy

NEGATIVE EFFECT OF CIGARETTE SMOKING IN RESPIRATOR AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

CIGARETTE – a thin cylinder of finely cut tobacco rolled in paper for Smoking
- Contain chemicals that harm our body organs like butane, ammonia
and cyanide
Circulatory System Respiratory System
- Heart Attack COPD
- Heart Failure Chronic Bronchitis
- Coronary Heart Disease Emphysema
- Arteriosclerosis Lung Cancer
- Stroke Asthma
Tips on how to quit cigarette smoking
Get motivated, chew gum, meditation, and start exercising regularly,
Throw away your smoking paraphernalia, take up a new hobby
Visit psychologist and attend counseling
CHROMOSOME - Greek word “Chroma”color and “soma” body)
- is a threadlike structure in all living cells
- it consists of DNA bonded by various protein
- it carries the genes determining heredity
- it found in the nucleus of every cell
 Autosomes / Body chromosome – chromosome that determine the physical characteristics of an organism
 Sex Chromosome – chromosome that determine the sex of an organism

GENE - Code for specific traits

- Ex: Eye, Skin, & Hair color
ALLELE - paired of genes that controls a certain traits
- occupy the same loci in the chromosome
- Ex: BB, bb, or Bb
- variation of traits (blue, green, brown and black)
- 2 FORMS OF DIFFERENT ALLELIC
 Homozygous - Have two identical alleles for a given gene
- BB or bb
 Heterozygous - Have two different alleles for a given gene
- Bb
DOMINANT - traits that dominate the other trait (BB)
RECESSIVE - traits that is being mask by another trait
- Carried in the person genes without appearing in the person (bb)
Genotype - genetic makeup of an organism
Phenotype - physical characteristics of an organism / observable traits
Punnett Square - method that determine the possible genotype and phenotype when two parents are cross
KARYOTYPING - is the process of pairing and ordering all the chromosomes of an organism.
- is a very useful tool to help diagnose chromosomal disorder
Human Karyotype arrange according to size and based on the position of centromere
Group A – Chromosomes 1-3 Large Metacentric Centromere
Group B – Chromosomes 4-5 Large Sub metacentric Centromere
Group C – Chromosomes 6-12 Medium Sub metacentric
Centromere
Group D – Chromosomes 13-15 Medium Acrocentric Centromere
Group E – Chromosomes 16-18 Short Sub metacentric
Centromere
Group F – Chromosomes 19-20 Short Metacentric Centromere
Group G – Chromosomes 21- 22 Short Acrocentric Centromere
Sex Chromosome- Chromosome 23
Female: XX Chromosome
Male: XY Chromosome

Normal Trisomy 13 Trisomy 18 Trisomy 21

NON-MENDELIAN OF INHERTANCE
- refers to any pattern of inheritance in which traits do not segregate in accordance with Mendel’s Laws
 Incomplete Dominance - blending of the two alleles appears in the offspring
 Codominance - both alleles appears in the offspring
 Multiple Allele - traits controlled by three or more alleles

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
- blending of the two alleles appears in the offspring
- bleed IN
- Use Capital letter
CODOMINANCE
- both alleles appears in the offspring
- both alleles are dominant
- Co = together
- Use Capital letter
- Ex. spot, stripes

MULTIPLE ALLELE
- traits controlled by three or more alleles
- example ABO Blood Types
- 3 Different Alleles for Blood Type (A,B, and O)
IA and IB – dominant
IAIB – codominant
ii - recessive

ANTIGEN - carbohydrates attached in the surface of RBC

that immune system consider as invader in the
body
ANTIBODIES - In the plasma of the blood produced by
Immune system to response to antigen in the body

DONOR - Person gives blood

- Type O is the universal donor
- Type O don’t have antigen
RECEPIENT - Person receives blood
- Type AB is the universal recipient
- Type AB don’t have antibodies

Rh factor - Describes another surface protein on the RBC

- It is named after the Rhesus Monkey
Rh (+) - Blood does contain Rh protein
Rh (-) - Blood does NOT contain Rh protein
SEX DETERMINATION
- is a biological system that determines the
development of sexual characteristics in an organism

2 Types of Sex Chromosome in Human

 X Chromosome - Female produce two X
chromosome
 Y Chromosome - Male produce one X
chromosome and one Y chromosome
Sexual Reproduction
- Formation of new individual by the union of two
sex cells
Gamete - refers to the sex cells
- either egg and sperm cell
male gamete - sperm cell
female gamete – egg cell

Fertilization - uniting of an egg and sperm cell

Zygote - result from the
union of an egg and sperm cell
SEX-LINKED TRAITS
- are traits that are controlled by the genes found in the sex chromosome (both X or Y)
- are recessive traits
- female are carrier of this traits
- affect mostly the male offspring
 X-LINKED TRAITS - traits carried on X chromosome
Hemophilia – bleeding disorder due to lack of platelets for blood clotting
Colorblindness - deficiency of certain specialized cells in the retina that are sensitive of different colors
 Y-LINKED TRAITS - traits carried on Y chromosome
Trichocyst - genetic disorder that causes hairy ears, only male can inherit this trait
SEX-INFLUENCED TRAITS
- are traits found in autosomal or body chromosomes
- its phenotypic expression influences by presence certain hormones
- are expressed in both sexes but more frequent in one than in the other sex

BALDNESS IN MEN HORNS IN SHEEP

SEX-LIMITED TRAITS
- are traits found in autosomal also
- traits expressed exclusively in one sex

LACTATION BEARDS
 DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid
- blue print that contain information that will determine the physical and chemical characteristics of an
organism.
- It is made up of two strands that coiled called double helix
- discover by Watson & Crick

- It is composed of subunits called nucleotides.

Nucleotides - molecules made up of phosphate, Sugar
(deoxyribose) and nitrogenous bases

Nitrogenous bases are:

Adenine = Thymine
Guanine = Cytosin
Classification of Nitrogenous Bases
1. Pyrimidines - single ring structure 2. Purines – double ring structure

C T
A G
BIODIVERSITY
- refer to the variety of life in an area
- measured by counting the number of species in specific area
TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
1. Species Diversity - Variety of species in the same area
- Example: Tropical Rainforest has high species diversity than dessert
2. Genetic Diversity - Variation of genes within a species
- Exist as a result of the variation in the sequence of the four base pairs
3. Ecological Diversity - variety of ecosystem found in an area or on the earth
- Example : Terrestrial , Aquatic, Dessert, Grassland etc
Species - a group of organisms that have certain characteristics in common and are able to interbreed
Population - total number of organism of the same species occupying same place or area

IUCN - International Union for the Conservation of Nature

- provide scientifically based information on the status of species and subspecies at a global level
- provide information to guide actions to conserve biological diversity

CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES
1. Threatened Species - species that have rapidly decreasing numbers of individuals
- Example: Bullfrog, Toad frog, crocodile, cobra
2. Endangered Species - species which the number of individual fall slow that lead in extinction
- Example: Hornbill, Tiger, Tartier, Peacock
3. Extinction Species - last member of species dies
- Example: Mammoth, Saber Tooth Cat, Ground Sloth, Short Face Bear
ECOLOGICAL DISTRUBANCES LEADS IN SPECIES EXTICTION
1. Natural Causes - It is natural phenomena that lead mass extinction of species
- Example: Asteroid Impact, Volcanic Eruption, La Niño La Niña, Wildfires
- Typhoon, Tornado, Epidemic, Food Scarcity
2. Anthropogenic Causes / Man Made - It is environmental pollution cause by human activity
- Example: Overpopulation, Deforestation , Mining, Water Pollution, Air Pollution
- Muro Ami, Dynamite Fishing, Overharvesting, Destruction of Coral reefs
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- Greek word Photo means “light” and synthesis meaning “ putting together”
- Process making food by autotropic organism
- Take place in the leaves

INTERNAL PARTS OF THE LEAF

1. Upper Epidermis - Consists of a single layer cell covered by cuticle that allow light to pass through
2. Mesophyll Layer - Most number of organelles called chloroplast which contain the pigment chlorophyll,
that is important for the trapping of light from the sun
a. Palisade mesophyll – Upper Layer
- made up of elongated cells that contain many chloroplast
- most photosynthesis take place here
b. Spongy mesophyll – Lower Layer
- irregular shape cells surrounded by air space
- air space allow carbon dioxide to diffuse freely throughout the leaf
3. Chloroplasts - Contain pigment chlorophyll that is important for trapping light from the sun
4. Vascular Bundle - Serves as transporting vessels of manufactured food and water
a. Xylem - Transport water from roots to photosynthesizing cells (Leaves)
b. Phloem - Transport sugar (glucose) throughout the plant and for storage (starch)
5. Lower Epidermis - Has pores called stomata and guard cells that regulate the stomata to avoid water loss
6. Guard Cells - Specialized cells that regulate the opening and closing of stomata
7. Stomata - Pores that allow gaseous exchange
8. Waxy Layer - Waterproof layer atop the epidermis that limit water loss but allows light through.
CHLOROPLAST
- Organelles responsible for enabling photosynthesis to occur, it
converts light energy into chemical energy
PARTS OF CHLOROPLAST
1. Stroma - Fluid filled interior of chloroplast that was surrounded by
inner and outer membranes
2. Thylakoids - Flattened sacs which forms a different membrane
system found within the stroma
3. Grana/Granum - The stack form of thylakoids
4. Chlorophyll - Located at the surfaces of thylakoids, capable of
absorbing the solar energy. It absorbs white light, but it looks green
because white light consists of three primary colors such as red, blue
and green, Only red and blue light absorbed and will be used in
photosynthesis, On the other hand , it will not absorbed the green light which causes it to be reflected and
looks green in our eyes.

2 STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Light dependent reaction - happens in the presence of light. It occurs in the thylakoids. It requires water
and sunlight to yield ATP, NADPH and oxygen.
2. Calvin cycle / Light independent ractions - requires the ATP and NADPH from the light reactions and Carbon
Dioxide to yield sugar/ glucose. It occurs in stroma of the chloroplasts.
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Light- the rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases.
2. Carbon dioxide concentration- the rate of photosynthesis depends on the level of carbon dioxide
3. Temperature – unfavorable temperatures may inactivate some enzymes and inhibit some reactions from
occurring.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
- It is the process of oxidizing food molecule like glucose to form CO2, Water and Energy.
- It takes place in the mitochondrion
TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION
1. Aerobic Cellular Respiration - Cellular respiration that makes use of oxygen to break glucose
to produce ATP. Mostly animals and photosynthetic organism
2. Anerobic Cellular Respiration - Cellular respiration that can yield ATP molecules without oxygen
Mostly are microbes
MITOCHONDRION
- Is considered as the power house of the cells
- Where cellular respiration take place
- It plays an important role in the breakdown of food
molecules to release the stored energy in the form of ATP
ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate
- Referred as molecular unit of currency
- Used as the main energy source for metabolic functions

3 STAGES IN CELLULAR RESPIRATON

1. Glycolysis - occur in cytosol
- “Lysis” (splitting of sugar) breaks down glucose molecule
into two molecules of pyruvic acid
- Produce two ATP molecules
2. Citric Acid Cycle / Krebs Cycle - occur in matrix of
mitochondria
- Pyruvic undergoes a series of reaction to produce
2 ATP molecules and also several NADH and FADH2
3. Electron Transport - occur in cristae of mitochondria
- Energy from NADH and FADH2 is used to make many
more ATP molecules up to 32 ATP molecules