Structures 2009: Don't Mess with Structural Engineers © 2009 ASCE 2741

A Low-Cost Housing Option in Seismic Regions

Javeed Munshi, Bechtel Power Corporation, 5275 Westview Drive, Frederick, MD 21703
Phone (301) 228 8281; email: [email protected]
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ABSTRACT

Earthquakes have caused a tremendous amount of damage to both life and property
among the populations in the underdeveloped regions which have experienced moderate
or high seismic activity. The recent example is the 7.6 magnitude devastating earthquake
that occurred on October 8, 2005 in the Kashmir region which killed more than 70,000
people and caused a significant amount of misery among those who survived because of
the harsh winter that followed.
The problem is complex in the sense that besides lack of resources, there is lack of
awareness, technical know-how, appropriate building codes and institutions for
enforcement. The solution lies in combining the knowledge of earthquake design with
prevailing construction techniques, resources and materials that are consistent with the
social and cultural fabric of a particular region.
This paper discusses a possible low cost housing module that may be appropriate
for construction in the remote areas like Kashmir. The construction involves walls built
with compacted soil-cement mixture of appropriate proportions using slip forms. Note
this construction is similar to the widely used rammed earth compound wall construction
of clay in the region. The wall is reinforced with nominal conventional reinforcement or
equivalent natural alternate like bamboo to increase its tension, shear and flexural
capacity for earthquake resistance. The construction also involves light roof framing to
minimize inertia, and appropriate wall to roof tie connection design to ensure adequate
load path and load transfer. A standard building configuration is developed and
designed based on expected level of seismic activity consistent with the region. The
paper discusses the design and details of such a construction which may be both
appropriate and affordable.

INTRODUCTION

The developments in soil-cement construction (1), use of non traditional reinforcements

and earthquake design, all combined, provide the basis of the concept presented in this
paper. These concepts can be utilized together with the knowledge of the local materials,
construction methods and environment to come up with the low-cost housing proposal
such as presented herein.
Rammed earth construction has been used since the early ages. The recent
developments in this construction involve addition of lime, cement and gypsum to
improve durability. Mixtures of soil-cement of various proportions have been tested and
are used throughout the world for various applications such as in the form of roller
compacted concrete for dam construction. The mechanical properties particularly the

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compressive strength depends upon the quality and proportioning of the ingredients and
compaction (2). For application in low-cost housing, the proportioning may vary with
the nature and quality of local materials. It is intended that some preliminary test mix
designs will have to be prepared using local materials to establish the optimum
proportioning of the ingredients in order to achieve the required strength.
Use of non-conventional reinforcement such as FRP and steel or propylene fiber
reinforcement is also being increasingly evaluated and used. Bamboo, where locally
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available, has long been identified as a potential low-cost alternative for the conventional
steel reinforcement (3).
Besides being economical and locally available, use of soil-cement and bamboo
would also promote green or environmentally friendly construction.
The slip form construction is widely used in RC construction of buildings
throughout the world. A simpler version of this concept has been traditionally used in
various places around the world including Kashmir region for rammed earthen wall
construction. This concept is shown in Fig. 1.
The concepts presented in this paper have been developed in the context of the
recent Kashmir earthquake. But they could be applied elsewhere where appropriate.

STATE OF PRACTICE

There are essentially 4 different types of construction used in the Kashmir region:

Adobe

Residential structures of adobe or mud bricks, with or without wood log framing, varying
from 1 to 3 stories in height are common in many rural areas [Fig. 2]. The foundation up
to the plinth level is typically dressed rock or river boulders. The wood logs are typically
provided at the plinth level and at each floor level, and serve to tie the structure together
[Fig. 2]. Although this wood framing helps the structure from earthquake resistance
point of view, these buildings remain vulnerable to shear failures because of very low
shear strength to weight ratio of the boulder/adobe construction. As a result of this, such
structures are likely to crumble under their own weight under moderate shaking.

River Boulder

This type of construction is typically found around the meandering rivers in the foothills
of the mountains. The structures are typically only single story in height. The river
boulder is used either partially up to the plinth level or for the whole structure. This type
of construction is particularly weak because of the round smooth shape of boulders which
do not lend themselves to developing a good bond and mechanism of lateral load transfer.
Also, because of being relatively heavy, this construction is likely to attract more inertia
forces, which can result in total disintegration of the construction during even a low to
moderate shaking.

Brick

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Residential and commercial construction of baked clay brick laid in mud or cement
mortar varying from 1 to 4 stories in height are now found mushrooming everywhere
particularly in the urban areas (Fig. 3). The foundation is typically cut/dressed stone up
to the plinth level. Although timber flooring was used in the past, the trend now is to use
reinforced concrete floor slabs. The concrete floor slabs help tie the structure together.
This is a significant improvement as far as the ability to withstand earthquakes is
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concerned as it helps prevent any partial failures. The 8 in. brick bearing walls provide
significant lateral stiffness and moderate shear resistance against earthquakes. Typically,
no reinforcement is provided to enhance the shear resistance of the brick walls.

Concrete Block Construction

This is a relatively new phenomenon that is catching up particularly in the urban areas.
The technology however, still remains in its infancy as far as the specifications for
manufacture, quality, strength and construction are concerned. The block construction
provides a definite edge over the traditional brick because of its cost effectiveness and
favorable construction time. Like in case of brick construction, no reinforcement is
typically provided in the homes constructed with hollow block.

Reinforced Concrete

Frame structures are essentially used for mid-rise commercial and retail construction.
These include office buildings, retail outlets, shopping complexes and hotels.
The following, in general, summarize the expected earthquake performance of the
various types of construction discussed above.

Construction Type Earthquake Performance

Boulder Very Poor

Adobe Poor
Brick Moderate
Block Moderate
Reinforced Concrete* Good

*Designed and detailed per applicable codes

CHALLENGES

A major challenge to accomplishing some semblance of quality earthquake resistant

design in regions like Kashmir is because of unplanned, non-engineered and unregulated
construction practice which largely stems from the following:

Lack of Building Code and Enforcement

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It is not very clear what building codes, if any, apply to residential construction. There is,
in general, a fundamental lack of understanding of building codes not only on part of the
builders and contractors but also professionals engaged in construction. The building
construction permit falls under the purview of local municipalities which do not have the
required technical know-how to establish building protocols. There is widespread
corruption in the municipal offices which makes enforcement unlikely. There are no
architectural/engineering professional associations active in creating awareness of
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building codes and good engineering/construction practices. In short, there is lack of

awareness and knowledge of the codes as well as enforcement.

Quality of Construction

The quality of construction is generally poor with very little emphasis on specifications
for material testing, procurement and construction. There are no guidelines for quality
assurance especially in case of home construction. Also, the construction methods and
skills have not improved much and there is no organized or coordinated effort to improve
these to improve the quality of construction.

Public Awareness

The need for engineering of construction is not widely appreciated. The public is not
generally aware of all that could improve construction such as use of codes and
standards, specifications and good construction practices. The construction industry is
notorious for corruption and engineering professionals do not seem to be doing much to
help improve the situation.

To summarize, the above mentioned challenges pertaining to building code awareness,

enforcement and quality of construction are not very encouraging or conducive to
building safe and affordable housing in the Kashmir region. Given this situation, the only
way to approach the problem of building low-cost housing in high seismic regions is by
creating standard modules such as the one presented in this paper. These modules can be
designed appropriately with specifications using local materials and methods of
construction. The professional architects and engineers will have to get involved and
help create the necessary awareness for using such modules. The government and the
local municipalities will have to do their part through enforcement and oversight.

LOW-COST HOUSING PROPOSAL

A typical configuration with plan, sections and dimensions is shown in Figs. 4-6. The
house is approximately 41.8 square meter (450 square feet) and 4.6 m (15 feet) maximum
height. It is expected that this much area can accommodate a living room , bed room,
small kitchen area and a bath room. The walls are typically 305 mm (12 inches) thick.
The total length of walls in each orthogonal direction is approximately 15.2 m (50 feet).
This has been done in order to get similar magnitudes of shear per linear feet of the wall
in the two directions. The walls provide a significant lateral stiffness thus minimizing the

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lateral earthquake induced deformations and corresponding damage. The floor/roof

construction (not shown here) is assumed to be light wood frame construction with
approximate weight of 103.4 kPa (15 psf).
The foundation and the walls are built in 305 mm (12 in.) lifts of soil cement
mixture consolidated by hand ramming tools. The proportioning of locally available
soils/sands and cement is performed to achieve a strength of at least 3.45 MPa (500 psi)
for the compacted soil-cement cube samples. Appropriate amount of water is added to
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the mixture before or during placement to get a consistent quality and strength. Fibers of
dry straw may be added to improve the durability and wearing resistance. Note straw
fibers have been widely used in mud plastering of adobe construction in the region.
The walls will have a minimum reinforcement equivalent to #4 US bars (129 mm
square or 0.2 in square area) at 1.22 m (4 feet) spacing both in the horizontal and vertical
direction. This is equivalent to approximately 516 square mm (0.8 square inches) of
bamboo reinforcement (3). The details are shown in Figs 5 and 6.
It is estimated that a maximum base shear of about 4,448 N (5,000 pounds) is
likely to develop for this structural module based on an assumed acceleration coefficient
consistent with a high seismic risk level and response modification factor of 1.5 per
International Residential Code (4). The corresponding shear in the walls is
approximately 58.6 kPa (8.5 psi) which is well below the shear capacity of the soil-
cement mixture of 3.45 MPa (500 psi) compressive strength (5).
The proposal is based on the assumption that this type of construction will be used
in rural areas where cost of land does not make it prohibitive.
As can be recognized, construction of similar module can be accomplished using
concrete hollow blocks which should provide better shear resistance. It is recommended
that reinforcement similar to that indicated above be used in grouted cells at 4 feet
spacing both horizontally as well as vertically. Also, a bond beam would be required at
the top of the walls for roof anchorage (4).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Conventional low-cost housing with adobe and river boulder rock is very vulnerable to
severe damage in regions of moderate to high seismicity in areas such as Kashmir. The
lack of resources, public awareness, technical know-how and enforcement of building
codes plague the construction industry. This situation makes it nearly impossible to build
quality low-cost housing that is resistant to earthquakes. Given this situation, it makes
sense to develop pre-engineered standard modules of low-cost housing like the one
presented in this paper. These modules can be designed appropriately for earthquake
forces with specifications using local materials and methods of construction. The
professional architects and engineers will have to contribute by creating the necessary
awareness for using such modules. The government and the local municipalities will have
to do their part to ensure that all specifications are strictly followed to ensure uniform
quality of construction.

REFERENCES

1. Cement and Concrete Basics, Portland Cement Association (PCA), Skokie, IL.

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2. Fernandez, R., “Fibre Reinforced Soilcrete Blocks for the Construction of Low Cost
Housing” University of Witwatersrand.
3. Brink, F. E., and Rush, P. J. (1966), “Bamboo Reinforced Concrete Construction”, US
Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, CA.
4. International Residential Code for One and Two-family Dwellings (IRC 2006),
International Code Council, USA
5. Building Code requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318), American Concrete
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Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.

WOOD
SLIP FORMS

305 mm

1 FT LIFTS OF SOIL CEMENT MIXTURE

CONSOLIDATED WITH A HAND TOOL

Fig. 1 SCHEMATIC OF WALL CONSTRUCTION

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FIG. 2 TYPICAL ADOBE CONSTRUCTION IN KASHMIR

FIG 3 TYPICAL BRICK CONSTRUCTION IN KASHMIR

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PARTITION
WALL
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BED ROOM KITCHEN

A 4.3 m

0.3 m

BATH
ROOM
LIVING ROOM

3.05 m

4.9 m

FIG. 4 PLAN OF PROPOSED LOW-COST BUILDING CONFIGURATION

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WOOD SILL PLATE

WITH EMBEDDED
ANCHOR LAP WITH
REBAR
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SOIL CEMENT MIXTURE

No. 4 REBAR OR
COMPACTED AND REINFORCED
BAMBOO REINF. @ 4 FT
EACH WAY

3.05
FLOOR SLAB
m

0.3 m

0.61 m

FIG. 5 SECTION THROUGH WALL AT A-

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WALL REINFORCEMENT AROUND CORNERS - PLAN

WALL REINFORCEMENT AROUND OPENINGS

FIG. 6 WALL REINFORCEMENT DETAILS

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