SCTE & VT , ODISHA MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING MATERIAL

STATE COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION &

VOCATIONAL TRAINING, ODISHA, BHUBANESWAR

MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY
(For Diploma and Polytechnic students)

4TH SEMESTER

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Chapter-1

Tool Materials

Syllabus:

1.1 Composition of various tool materials

1.2 Physical properties & uses of such tool
materials.

Manufacturing technology:

It is defined as a field of study focused on process techniques or

equipments, cost reduction, increased efficiecy, enhanced reliability,
security safety and anti-polution measures are it’s objects.

Tool Material:

The characteristic of the ideal cutting tool material are-

(a) Hot hardness

(b) Wear resistance
(c) Toughness
(d) Cost and easiness in fabrication

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Hot hardness:

The material must remain hander than the the work material at
elevated operating temperatures.

Wear resistances:

The material must withstand excessive were even through the

relative hardness of the tool-work materials changes.

Toughness:

The term toughness actually implies a combination of strength and

ductility. The material must have sufficient toughness to withstand shocks
and vibrations and to prevent breakage.

Cost and easiness in fabrication:

The cost and easiness of fabrication should have within reasonable

limits.

State the composition of various tool material

The cutting tool materials are-:

1. Carbon steels
2. Medium alloy steel
3. High speed steels
4. Stellites
5. Cemented carbides
6. Ceramics
7. Diamonds
8. Abrasives
9. Cubic boron nitridw(CBN)

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Composition of carbon steels:

Carbon steels contain carbon in amounts ranging fron 0.008 to 1.5%

Composition of medium alloy steel:

The high carbon medium alloy steels have a carbon content akin to
plain carbon steels,but in addition there is ,say up to 5% alloy content
consisting there of tungsten,molybdenum,chromium and vanadium.

Composition of high speed steel:

High speed steel is the general pupose metal for low and medium
cutting speed owing to its soperior three type of high speed steel

1. High tungsten
2. High molybdenum
3. High cobalt

Actually these three named modify as following

1. 18-4-1 high speed steel (T-series)

2. Molybdenum high speed steel(M-series)
3. Cobalt high speed steel

Composition of 18-4-1 high speed steel (T-series)-

This steel containing 18% tungsten ,4% cr & 1% vanadium, is

considered to be one of the best of all purpose o f tool steel.

Composition of molybdenum high speed steel (M-series):

This steel containing 6% molybdenum,6%w,4% cr % & 2%

vanadium.

Composition of cobalt high speed steel:

This is sometimes called super high speed steel. Cobalt is added

from 2 to 15% io incrise of this steel contains 20% tungston 4%cr,2% v &
12% cobalt.

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Composition of satellites:

Satellites is the trade name of a nonferrous cost alloy cobalt,

chromium and tungsten. The ranges of elements in these alloys is40 to 48%,
30 to 35% Cr & 12 to 19% tungsten.

Composition of cemented carbides:

A typical analysis of a carbide suitable for steel machining is 82%

tungsten carbide,10% titanium carbide and 8% cobalt.

Composition of ceramics:

The latest development in the metal cutting tools use Al oxide

generally referred to as ceramics

Tools are made by composing aluminium oxide powder in a mould

at about 280 kg/cm2 or more.

Composition of diamonds:

The diamonds are used for cutting tools are industrial diamonds,
which are naturally occurring diamonds.

Composition of abrasive:

Abrasive grains in various forms, loose, bonded into wheels and

extended in papers and story and extended in paper s and cloths find wide
application in industry. They are mainly used for grinding harder materials
and where a superior finish is desired on hardened or unhardened materials.

Composition of Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN):

This material consisting atoms of boron and nitrogen is considered

as the hardest tool material available.

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Physical properties and user of different types of tool material:

The various type of tool materials are:

1. Carbon steel
2. Medium alloy steel
3. High speed steel
4. Cast alloy satellites
5. Cemented carbide tool material
6. oxide or ceramic tool material
7. diamonds
8. abrasives
9. cubic boron nitride(CBN)

Carbon steel:

Properties

I. low hot hardness

II. poor hardenability
III. can be withstand cutting temperature 2000c
IV. carbon tool steel are harder then many hss

uses: It can be used most economically under these condtion.

(a) The carbon steels are used for making certain taps and drills.
(b) For making wood working tools

Medium alloy steel:

Properties

i) Better hardenability.
ii) Higher wear resistance.
iii) Higher hardness.

Uses

i) Used for making drills

ii) Used for making taps, etc
iii) It can aut effectively up to temperature 250 to 3000c.

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High speed steel (HSS):

Properties

i) High hot hardness

ii) Cutting tools retain the cutting ability upto 6000 c.
iii) High wear resistance.
iv) The hardenability is good.

Uses

i) Drills
ii) Broaches
iii) Milling cutters
iv) Lathe cutting tools
v) Taps,etc.

Cast alloy satellite:

Properties:

i) Material is not so hard at room temperature

ii) Hardness above 10000F is greater then high speed steels.
iii) Hat hardness is higher then H.S.S at higher temprature.
iv) This material is very brittle

Uses

These material are used extensively in some non metal cutting

application such as rubbers, plastics.

Cemented Carbide:

Properties:

i) High hardness
ii) High heat resistance
iii) High wear resistance
iv) High hot hardness upto a temp. of 9000 c
v) Low specific heat

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Uses:

These tool materials are used for machining cast iron, alloy steels.

Oxides ceramic tool material:

Properties:

I) The ceramic has extremely high compressive strength. It is

quietly brittle.
II) Heat conductivity is very low. So generally no coolant is required
while machining
III) The ceramic tools can retain strength and hardness upto 12000c.

Uses:

These tool materials are used for turning boring, etc operations at
high speed.

Diamonds are cutting tools:

Properties:

i) It has a low co-efficient of friction

ii) Hardness of the diamond is incompressible.

Uses:

Diamonds are suitable for cutting very hard material such as glass,
plastics, ceramics.

Abrasive:

Uses:

For most grinding operations there are two kinds of abrasives in

general use namely aluminium oxide and silicon carbide. The
aluminium oxide abrasive are used for grinding all high tensile
materials, where as Silicon Carbide abrasives are more stable for low
tensile materials.

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Chapter-2

Cutting Tools

Syllabus:

2.1 Cutting action of various hand tools such as Chisel, hack

saw blade, dies and reamer
2.3 Turning tool geometry and purpose of tool angle
2.5 Machining process parameters (Speed, feed and depth of
cut)
2.6 Coolants and lubricants in machining and purpose

Cutting tools:
In machining a cutting tool or cutter is any tool which is used to
remove the material from the W/P by means of shear difference
Cutting tool must be made of a material harder than the material which is to
be cut and the tool must be to withstand the heat generated in the metal
cutting process
The angle of cutting facer is also important, also the tool must have a
specific geometry and clearance angles designed so that the cutting edge
can contact the W/P surface .

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Single point cutting tool

This type of cutting tools have only one cutting edge. These used for
wide application of lathe, shaper planner, slitter, boring M/C
Multi point cutting tools
This type cutting tools have more than cutting edge. These are
employed for wide application in twist drills, Reamers, tapes, milling
cutters etc.

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Cutting action of hand tools

Chisel:
A chisel is a hand cutting tools which is shaped cutting edge of blade
on its end, forcarving, cutting a hard material such as wood, stone, metal by
hand with the help of mechanical power.
In used the chisel are forced in to the material to linear relative
motion.
The driving forced into the material may be manually applied by
using a hammer.
In industrial use, a hydraulic ram or falling weight drives the chisel
into the material to be cut .
Chisel is employed to use in wood work, metal working etc.
In wood & stone working used for carving, cutting, shaving,
shaping, trimming.
In metal working process chisel use divided into two categories:

Cold chisel:

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It is made of from tempered steel.

Use for cutting cold metal.
Used to remove waste metal in the situation where a smooth finish is
not necessary or when other tools such as file, hacksaws cannot be used .

Hot chisel:
A hot chisel is used to cut metaln that has been heated in a force to
sustain the metal.
Used to smooth the metals.

Hacksaw blade

Hacksaw bled is a fine toothed saw, originally principally for cutting

metal.
They can also cut various other materials such as plastic & wood.
There are head saw various & power various.

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When attached to a C-shaped frame which holds a blade under

tension.
The frames may be adjustable to accommodate blades of different
sizes.
Blades are available in standardized lengths, usually 1011 or 1211 for
a standard hand hack-saw.
The pitch of the teeth can be anywhere from 14 to 32 per inch for a
hand blade & for large power hack saw blade there are 3 tpi
As hack-saw teeth are so small, they are set in a wave set.
As the blades are normally quite brittle, so proper care should be
taken to prevent fracture of the blade.
Blades are made of carbon steel or low alloy steel.
But for several decades now, hack-saw blades have used HSS for
their teeth, giving great improved cutting & tooth life.
On hack-saw the blade can be mounted with the teeth facing toward
or away from the handle
Resulting and cutting action on either pushes or pull stroke.
In normal use, cutting vertically downwards with work held in a
bench, vice, the saw blade Should be set to be face forward.

Die:

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Die cutting is the posses of using die to shear weds of low strength
material such as rudder, tidier, cloth, plastic, sheet metal etc.
Die cutting can be done on either flat bed or by rotary process .
Rotary dry cutting is die cutting using a cylindrical die or a rotary
processes .
Dies are used to cut the external thread or the rod or pipe end .
Dies are made of high carbon steel or HSS .
The process of cutting external thread by dies is called dieing .
Sharing is also known as die cutting, is a prosses which cuts stock
without formation of chips or the off during or melting.
The die cutting action can be controlled by electric, hydraulic,
pressurized or manual surfaces.

Reamer:
 It is a multiple edge cutting tools.
 The process of enlarging the hole is called reaming.
 There are many different types reamer and there may
be designed for used as a hand tool oir in a M/C tool such as milling
M/C or drill press.
 A typical reamer consists of a set of parallel straight or
helical cutting edge along the length of a cylindrical body
 Each cutting edge is grounded at a slightangle and with
slight under cut below the cutting edge
 This may be used to remove small amount of material.
 Reamers are made of high Carbon or Plain Carbon
Steel
Reamers ar of two types
 Hard Reamers
 Machine Reamers

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Machining Process Parameters:

Factors affecting tool life:

The life of a tool is affected by many factors such as: cutting speed,
feed, depth of cut, chip thickness tool geometry, material of cutting fluid,
and rigidity of the machine

Cutting Speed:

The cutting speed can be defined as the relative surface speed

between the tool and the job or the amount of length that will pass the
cutting edge of the tool per unit of time.

It may be defined as the speed which the cutting edge pass over the
material. It is expressed in meters per min (mpm).

Feed:

It is defined as the relation by small movement per cycle of the

cutting tool, relative to the workpiece in a direction which is usually to the
cutting speed direction.

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Or

It is he distances the tools advances into or along the work piece.

Each time the tool point passes a certain position in its travel over the
surface. It is expressed as mm\tooth.

Depth of cut:

The depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of metal removed in

one cut or pass, measured in a dirn 1 to the machined surface.

It is the vertical distance the tool advances into the work piece
during one revolution of job it is expressed in mm.

Selection of cutting speed, feed & depth of cut:

 Hard and strong materials require a lower cutting speed, soft &
ductile material require higher cutting speeds.

 For light finishing cut – fine feed & higher speed roughing cut – low
feed & lower cutting speed.

 Large depth of cut – roughing operation

 Small depth of cut – finishing operation

 Cemented carbide, ceramics, satellite &

 Hss – high cutting speed tool

 Alloy or carbon steel tools – lower cutting speed.

Coolants & lubricants:

Cutting fixed sometimes referred to at lubricants or coolants are

liquids and gases applied to the tool and work piece to assist in the cutting
operations.

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Purpose of cutting fixed:

 To cool the tool

 To cool the work piece

 To lubricate and reduce friction

 To improve surface finish

 To protect the finished surface from corrosion

 To cause chips break up into small parts

 To wash the chips away from the tool

Properties of cutting fluids:

1. High heat absorption for readily absorbing heat developed.

2. Goo+d lubricating qualities to produce low-cofficient of friction.

3. High flash point so as to eliminate the hazard of fire

4. Stability so as not to oxide in the air

5. Neutral so as notr to react chemically

6. Colorless so as not to p[roduce any bad smell even when heated.

7. Harmless to the bearings.

8. Harmless to the skin of the operators

9. Non-corrosive to the work or the machine

10. Transparency so that the cutting action of the tool may be observed.

11. Low viscosity to permit frac flow of the liquid

12. Low priced to minimize production cost.

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Choice of cutting fluids:

1. Type of operation
2. The rate of metal removal
3. Material of the work piece
4. Material of the tool
5. Surface finish requirements
6. Cost of cutting fluid.

Type of cutting fluids:

Water:

Pure water is the best cutting fluid available because of its highest
heat carrying capacity. But water corrodes the material very quickly so
water containing alkali, salt or water-soluble additive but little or no oil or
soap are some times used as coolant.

Soluble oils:

These are emulsions composed of around 80% or more water, soap

& mineral oil. The soap acts as an emulsifying agent which breaks the oil
into minute particles to dispose them throughout the water. The water
increase the cooling effect and the oil provide the lubricating properties.

Straight oils:

The straight oils may be

a) Straight mineral oils, kerosene, low-viscosity petroleum fraction

such as mineral seal, or higher viscosity mineral oils
b) Straight fixed or fatty oils consisting animal, vegetable or synthetic
equivalent, lard oil etc.
c) They have both cooling and lubricating properties

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Mixed oils:

This is a co0mbination of strength mineral and strength fatty oil.

This makes oil excellent lubricant and coolant for anosmatic screw-machine
work.

Chemical additive oil: straight oil or mixed oil when mixed- up with
sulphur or chorine is known as chemical additive oil. Sulphur and chloral
are used to increase both lubricating and cooling qualities. These oils used
for machining tough, stivgy7 low carbon steels.

Chemical compounds: these compounds consists mainly of a rust

inhibitor, such as sodium nitrate, mixed with a high percentage of water.

Solid lubricants: stick waxes. And bar soaps are sometimes useel as
lubricants.

Metal cutting and cutting tools : in the metal working industry the
various working processes fall into groups.

Not-cutting shaping – forgery, pressing, drawing

Cutting shaping – turning, dralling, milling.

Cutting tools

A cutting tool may be used either for cutting a part or for removing
chips.

Cutting tools are mainly divided into two groups.

 Single point cutting tool

 Multipoint cutting tool

A single poiunt cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part

called its point.
Ex: lathes, slotting machines
Multipoint cutting tools hame arrangement of two or more single
point tools as a unit.
Ex – milling cutting, broaching tool,twist drill.

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Cutting tool nomenclature:

It means schematic naming of the various parts and angles of a

cutting tool.

Shank:

It is the main body of the tool.

Flank:

The surface or surfaces below amd adjacent to the cutting edge is

called flank of the tool.

Heel:

It is the intersectuion of the flank and the base of the tool.

Nose:

It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge
intersection.

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Cutting edge :

It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the metarial from
the work piece. The total cutting edge consists edge (major), end cutting
edge (minor) and the nose.

Face:

The surface against which the chip slides upward.

Base:

Tt is the undersice of the shank.

Rake:

It is the slope of the tap away from the cutting edge. Larger the rake
angle, the cutting force and power reduce.

Designation of cutting tools: there are two system to designate the tool
shape

1. American standards assouiation system (AsA)

Or

American national standards institute (ANSI)

2. Orthogonal rake system. (ORS)

The various tool angles are:

1. Side cutting edge angle (Cs): (Lead angle)

The angle between the side cutting edge and side of the tool
shank

2. End cutting edge angle (Ce):

This is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line normal to
the tool shank

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Side relief angle:

It is the anglew between the portion of the side flank immediately

below the side cutting edge and a line perpendicular top the base of the tool
measured at right angle to the side flank.

End relief angle

It is the anglew between the portion of the end flank immediately

below the side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool
measured at right angle to the end flank.

Back rake angle:

It is the angle between the face of the tool and s line parallel tio the
base of the tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the side of the
cutting edge. The angle is +ve – If side cutting edge slopes downwards
from the point towards the shank.

-ve – if the slope of the side cutting edge is reverse.

Side rake angle :

It is the angle between the tool faxce and a lione parallel to the base
of the tool and measaured in a planer perpendicular to the basr and side
cutting edge. This angle gives slope of the face of the tpol from the cutting
edge.

The angle is – ve – if the slope is towards the cutting edge

+ve - If the slope is away from the cutting edge

Purpose of tool angles

Cs – It is the angle which prevents interface as the tool enters the

work material. This angle affects tool life and surface finish 150 top 300 is
kept for general machining.

Ce – It provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of the cutting

edge to prevent rubbing or drag between the mechanical surface and the
non cutting part of the cutting edge 8 to 150 is satisfactory.

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These angles are provided so that the flank of the tool clears the
workpiece surface and ther is no rubbing between them 5 to 150 is given.

Larger the rake angle smaller the cutting angle and lower the cutting
force and power

The rake angle is small for cutting har4d materials and laergfe for
cutting soft ductile materials. It may be – ve or zero.

A flat cold chisel is a single point tool used at the branch and the
point is considered as wedge.

For mild steel a rake angle of 300 and wedge angle of 600 are
recommended

Using a cold chisel with no clearance angle, the loss through friction
is small as are cutting point is in contact with the metal

The force hammer below F is transmitted at approximately 900 to

the cutting face ac and these sets up shear stress across the shear plane ab.

If the hammer blow is heavy as , the metal will shear across the shear plane
and move upto the face ac as continuous chip.

The energy required to shear the metal will be the shearing force
along the shear plane ab and this force is proportional to the length of the
shear force is propotional to the length of the shear plane and the greater the
energy required to the shear of metal

A hack saw blade is a multi-point tool and has a very large number
of wedges like points each with its own rake and clearance angle.

The rake is necessary but too much rake makes the tooth weak

A large amount of energy would be lost in overcoming the frictional

forces set up if there is clearance .

The hollow space between each tool is sloped more sharply to give
the form if this would be too

Shallow it would be closed with chips of the metal being cut

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Taps are used for cutting internal threads on work materials. it

consists of a no of teeth arranged uniformly across the whole die body when
it rotates in a particular direction i;e clockwise or anticlockwise .

The rake angle is provided to reduce the shear forces during cutting
& less torque will be required to shear the metal. There is no provision for
clearance angle in the die .

It is a multi point cutting tool used for enlarging or finishing a

previously drilled or bore hole to give a good finish and accurate
dimension. It removes very small amount of material from the work piece.

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Chapter-3

Lathe Machine

Syllabus:

3.0 Lathe Machine

3.1 Construction and working of lathe Major
components of a lathe and their function
Operations carried out in a lathe (Turning, thread
cutting, taper turning, internal machining, parting
off, facing, knurling)
Safety measures during machining
3.2 Capstan lathe
Difference with respect to engine lathe
Major components and their function
Define multiple tool holders
3.3 Turret Lathe
Difference with respect to capstan lathe
Major components and their function
3.6 Draw the tooling lay out for preparation of a
hexagonal bolt & bush

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Lathe machine:

The lathe machine is the one of the oldest machine tools and came
the early tree lathe which was a device for rotating and machining a piece
of lathe between two adjacent trees.a rope iwould round the work with its
one end attached to a flexible branch of trees and end is pulled by a man to
rotate the job hard tools are used them.

Function of lathe machine:

The main function of lathe machine is to remove metal from apiece

of work to give it the required shape and size. the work is held securely and
rigidly on the machine and then turn against the cutting tools which is
remove metal from the work in the forms of chips.

Types of lathe:

 speed lathe:
o Wood working
o Centering
o Polishing
o Spinning
 Engine lathe:
o belt drive
o Individual motor drive
o Gear head lathe
 Bench lathe:
 Tool room lathe
 Caps & tureet lathe
 Special purpose:
o Wheel lathe
o Gap bed lathe
o Turrete lathe
o Duplicating lathe
 Automatic lathe:

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The speed lathe:

 It is the simplest of all types of lathe.

 It consists of a bed, headstock, a tailstock and a too post mounted on
an adjusted slide.
 There is a no feed box , lead screw or conventional type carriage.
 The tool is mounted on the adjustable slide and is fed into work
purely by hard control.
 Spindle speed is very high.(range from 1200 to 3600 rpm).
 This is used for word working, spinning, centering, polishing.

The engine lathe or centre lathe:

 The engine lathe in the early ware driven by steam engines
 It consists of bed, head stork, and tail stork.
 More robust head stock and contains mechanism for driving the
spindle at multiple speeds.
 Belt driving lathe – receives power from an overhead live shaft
 Individual motor drive- receiving power from an individual motor
 Gear head lathe –gets power from a constant speed motor.

The bench lathe:

 The small lathe mounted on a bench
 It consists of all the parts but small in size.
 It is used for small & precision work.

The tool room lathe:

 It is similar to engine lathe.
 It has spindle speeds ranging from very low to high upto 2500 rpm.
 It consists of chuck, taper turning attachment, thread charing dial,
steady rest, coolant etc.
 This is used for precision work on tools, dies, gasges & for accuracy
works

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Capstan and turret lathe:

 This is the development over engine lathe.
 The tial stock is replaced by a hexagonal turret, on the face of which
multiple tools are fitted
 Several operations can be done on a work piece with out resetting of
work or tools & a no. of identical parts can be produced in minimum
time.

Special propose lathe:

 They are used for special proposes.
 The Wheel lathe – for finishing journals &turning the thread on rail
road car and locomotive wheels gap bed lathe- to swing extra large
diameter pieces.
 T-lathe – for machining of motor for jet engines the axis of the lathe
bed is right angles to the axis of the head store spade.
 Duplicating lathe – for duplicating the shape of a flat or round
template on the work piece

Automatic lathe:

 These are high speed, heavy duty, mass production lathes with
complete automatic control.
 After the tools are set and the machine is started is performs
automatically all the operations to finish the job.
 The changing of tools, speed s and feeds are done automatically.
 After the job is complete, the machine will continue to repeat the
cycles producing identical parts.

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Specification of lathe :

 The height of the centres from the bed.

 The swing diametre over bed. This is the largest diametre of work
that will revolve without touching the bed and is twice the height of
the centre measured from the bed of the lathe.
 The length between the centers. This is the max heught of work that
can be mounted between the lathe centres.
 The swing dia over carriage. This is the brgest dia of work that can
be less then the swing dia over bed. This is the maximum barstok
will pass through hole of the headstock spindle .
 The length of the bed: This indicates the approx . floor space
occupied by the lathe

The work piece is held in a chuck or between centres and rotated its
axis at uniform speed .the within tool held in the tool post is fed in to the
work spices for a desired depth. the tool may be given linear motion in may
direction salve there is a relative motion between the work piece and tool ,
the material is removed the form of chips & desired shape is obtained .

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Different parts of a lathe :

1. Bed
2. Head stock
3. Tail stock
4. Carriage
5. Feed mechanism
6. Screw cutting mechanism

BED:

The bed is the base or foundation of the lathe. It is made of

cast iron. It is a massive and rigid casting made in one piece to resist
deflection and vibrations. It supports the head stock, tail stock and
carriage. On the top of the bed, there are two sets of slides or guide
ways. The outer ways for carriage and inner ways for the tail stock.
The guide ways may be flat and inverted –v having included angle of
90 0

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Head stock:

The head stock assembly is permanently fastened to the left hand end
of the lathe. It provides mechanical means of rotating the work at
multiple speeds.

The spindle of head stock is made of carbon or nickel chrome steel.

It protrudes from gear box and contains means for fast ending work
holding derives like chuck, face plate, dog plats, live centred spindle
nose is turned so that face plate or chuck can be mounted on it hold and
rotate the work piece. Hollow spindle is tapered at the nose to receive
the live centre.

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Spindle is hollow throughout its length throughout its length through

which long bar stock can be fed. The size of spindle hole determines the
max’m size of bar stock that can be machined

Power is supplied from an electric motor or V-belt.

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Tail stock or loose head stock:

The tail stock is located at on the inner ways at the right hand end of
the bed and it is a non-rotating part which slides and can be clamped to
it. Any position to accommodate different lengths of work pieces.

It has two uses:

1. Supports the other end of the work when it is machined between two
centres.
2. To hold a tool for per forming operations such as drilling, reaming,
tapping etc.

CARRIAGE:

In between the head stock and tail stock is the carriage. It is movable
on the bed ways and its purpose is to hold the cutting tool and to impart
to it either longitudinal or cross feed. It consists of the following parts:

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1. Saddle:
It is an H-shaped cashing that fits over the outer ways of the
bed. It carries the corss-slide and tool post.

2. Cross slide:
It is mounted on saddle. It provides cutting tool motion
which is to the centre like of the lathe. This is known as cross slide
can be moxed by means of feed screw, which is controlled by a
small hand wheel or by power feed.

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3. Compound rest:
It is monted on the top of the cross slide. It supports the tool
post. It has a graduated base and can be surivelled around a vertical
axis. It can be swivelled around a vertical axis. It can be moved by
means of a screw which is contoolled by a small hand wheel and
graduated dia & not by power feed.

4. Tool post:
It is mounted onthe top of the compound rest to hold the tool.
The tool post can be moved on the compound rest and can be
clamped in any position. It can be rotate also to hold the cutter in
desired angle.1. single tool post 2. Four bolt 3. Open side 4. Four
way

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5. Apron:
The portion of the carriage which extends in front of
lathe is called apron. It contains the gears, clutches. And levers for
operating the carriage by hand or power feeds. The apron also
contains friction clutches for automatic feed of a split nut or half nut
which is closed over for cutting screw threads.

FEED MECHANISM:

Feed is the distance the tool advances into the work piece through
one revolution of head stock spindle a lathe tool has 3 types-
longitudinal, cross and angular.

Longitudinal feed:

When the tool moves parallel to the lathe axis, the movement is
termed as longitudinal feed. It is used in cylindrical turning operationbs
and is effected by movement of carriage.

Cross feed:

When the tool moves parallel to the lathe axis, the movement is
termed as cross feed. It is used in facing operation & affected by
movement of cross slide.

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Angular feed:

When the tool moves at an angle to the lathe axis, it is termed as

angular feed. It is used in taper turning and affected by movement of
compound rest.

Angular feed is hand operated where cross feed & longitudinal feed
can be both hand & power operated.

Third cutting mechanism:

The rotation of the head screw is used to transverse the tool along
were to produce screw thread. The half nut mechanism makes the carriage
to engage or disengage or disengage with the lead screw. The two halves of
the nut are connected in the cam slots in a circular disc by two pins. When
the disc is rotated by a hand lever attached to it, the pins being guided in the
cam slots serve to open or close the split nuts and thus engages or
disengages with the lead screw.

The half nuts slide within the guide or frame. Closing the half nuts
causes the carriage to move a fixed distance for each revolution of the
spindle. The direction in which it moves depends upon the position of the
feed reverse lever on the head stock. The split nut is used only for thread
cutting and never for any other operation.

Lathe operation:

Lathe operations are performed by following methods.

Operations which are performed in a lathe either by holding the work
piece between centers or by a chuck:
1. Straight turning
2. Shoulder turning
3. Chamfering
4. Thread cutting
5. Facing
6. Knurling
7. Filling
8. Taper turning

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9. Eccentric turning
10. Polishing
11. Grooving
12. Spinning
13. Spring winding
14. Forming

Operations which are performed by holding the work by a chuck or a

face plate :

1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Counter boring
5. Taper boring
6. Internal thread cutting
7. Tapping
8. Under cutting
9. Parting off

Operations which are performed by using special attachments:

1. Grinding
2. Milling

Facing:

Facing is the operation of for generation flat surface perpendicular to

the rotational axis of spindle. The tool is fed to the axis of rotation of the
work piece. A properly ground facing tool is used. A regular turning tool
may also be used. a spindle speed is selected and the lathe is started. The
tool is brought in to clean stock from the centre and fed out word by hand.
Feed is given by cross slide.

Turning:

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Turning in lathe is to remove excess material from the work piece to

produce a cone-shaped or a cylindrical surface.

Straight turning:

The work is turned straight when it is made to rotate about the lathe
axis, and the tool is fed parallel to the lathe axis. It produce a cylindrical
surface by removing excess metal from the work piece.

After facing the ends and drilling the centre, the job is
carefully mounted between the centres using a lathe dog attached to the
work piece, the bent tail of the dog fitting into the slot provided on the
catihplat. A properly ground a right hand turning tool selected. The
machine is started after the work piece and tool is properly set and
correct spindle speed is determined.

The automatic feed is engaged to move the carriage to the

desired length, then the feed is dis engaged and the carriage is brought
back to the starting position. The process is repeated until the job is
finally finished after two or three similar cuts.

There are two kinds of cuts in a machine shop work.

1. Roughing cut or rough turning.

2. Finishing cut or finish turning.

Rough turning:

It is the process of removal of excess material from the work piece in

a machine time by applying high rate of feed and heavy depth of cut. The
doc is from 2 to 5 mm & feed rate is 0.3 to 1.5 mm per over.

Finish turning:

It requires high cutting speed, small feed and a very small depth of
cut to generate a smooth surface. The doc is from 0.5 to 1 mm & feed 0.1 to
0.3 mm per rev.

Shoulder turning:

When a work piece having different diameters is turned, the surface

forming the step from one diameter to other is called shoulder turning

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The principle of thread cutting is to produce a helical groove on a

cylindrical or conical surface by feeding the tool longitudinal when the job
is revolved between centres or by a chuck. The longitudinal feed should be
equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut per revolution of the work piece.

The lead screw of lathe, through which saddle receives its traversing
motion, has a definite pitch. A definite ratio between the longitudinal feed
and rotation of the headstock spindle should therefore be found out. So that
the relative speeds of rotation of the work and the lead screw will result in
the cutting of a screw of the desired pitch.

This is affected by change gears arranged between the spindle and

the lead screw or by the change gear mechanism or feed box used in a
modern lathe where it provides a wider range of feed and the speed ratio
can be easily and quickly changed

Taper Turning:

A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter

of a piece of work mannered along its length.

In lathe taper turning means to produce a conical surface

by gradual reduction in dia from a cylindrical work piece. The amount of
taper is specified by the ratio of the difference India of taper to its length let
it be denoted by k and termed as concity,

K = b-d/l

There are different method for taper turning in lathe:

1. By a broud nose tool.

2. By setting over the tail stock centre.
3. By swivelling the compound rest
4. By a taper turning attachment.
5. By combining longitudinal feed & cross feed in a special lathe.

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Taper turning in a form tool:

Abroad nose tool having straight cutting edge is set on to the work at
half taper angle, and is feed straight into the work to generate a tapered
surface. The half angle of taper will correspond to (90-SCEA) of the tool.
The work is held in a chuck or clamped on a face plate.

It is used to turn short length of taper only.

Taper turning by setting over the tailstock:

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The axis of rotation of the work piece is shifted at an angle to the

lathe axis and the tool is fed parallel to the lathe axis. The angle at which
the axis of rotation of the work piece is shifted is equal to half angle of the
taper.

This is done by the tail stock is made to slide on its base or away
from the operation by a set over screw.

This is used for turning small taper (not exeed 80) on long jobs.

By swivelling the compound rest:

In this method the taper is formed by rotating the work piece on lathe
axis and feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of work piece.

The tool mounted on the compound rest is attached to a circular

base, graduated in degree, which may be swivelled and clamped at any
desired angle the compound rest car be swivelled at 45 on either side of the
lathe axis to turn a steep taper. The angle is determined by

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KNURLING:

Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on

the surface of a work piece. The purpose of knurling is to provided an
effective gripping surface or a work piece to prevent it from slipping when
operated by hand.

The operation is perturbed by a special knurling tool which

consists of 1 set of steel rollers in a holder. The tool is pressed against the
revolving workpiece producing depressions in a regular pattern. On the
surface of the work piece it is done at the speed ¼ th of that of turning and
planty of oil is flowed on the tool and work piece feed varies from 1to 2mm
per rev.

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Parting off:

Parting off is the operation of cutting a work piece after it has been
machined to the desired size & shape the job rotated on a chuck or face
plate at half the speed that of turning and a narrow parting of tool is feed to
the lathe axis by. Hand feed. The feed varies from 0.07 to 0.15 mm per rev.
And depth at let ranges from 3 to 10 mm .

Internal machining:

Drilling:

Drilling is the operation of production a cylindrical hole in a work

piece by rotating cutting edge of a cutter known as drill .

The work piece is revolved in a chuck or faceplate and the drill is

held in the tailstock drill holder or in a drill chuck. Feeding is effected by
the movement of the tail stock spindle (adopted for regular shaped work
pieces)

The drill is held and driven by a drill chuck attached to the headstock
spindle and the work is held against a pad supported by the tailstock
spindle. Feeding is effected by the movement of the tailstock spindle
(adopted for irregular shaped work pieces

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Boring:

It is the operation of enlarging and truing a hole produced by

drilling, punching, casting co-forging the

The work is revoluted in a chuck or a face plate and the tool which is
flitted to the tool post is fed in to the work . one piece forged tool is used for
boring small hole , whereas a boring bar with a tool bit attached to it is
suitable for machining a large hole the doc is giver by the cross slide screw
and the fade is feeder by the longitudinal travel of the carriage .

The work is clamped on the carriage and a boring bar holding the
tool is supported between the centres made to revolute. Longitudinal
movement of the carriage provides feeding movement and the doc is given
by adjusting the position of the tool insert.

Internal thread to external forced cutting operation , the different

being in the carriage provides feeding movement and the doc is given
adjusting the position of the tool insert .

Internal thread cutting:

It is similar to external torred cutting operation , the different being

is the tool used . the tool is similar to boring tool with the cutting edges
ground to the shape conforming to the type of thread to be cut the hole is
first bored to the root diaof the thread for cutting metric to read the
compound slide is swivelled 30 to words the headstock . the tool is fixed on
the toolpost or on the boring bar after strive it at tught angle to the lathe axis

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, using a torved gauge the do is given by compound slide and the to read is
finished in the usual manner.

Safety measures during machining:

Some safety precautions should be needed while working on lathe.

 Before operating the machine ,one should fully understand its

operations controls and how to stop it .
 All gears and gear ends of the lathe should be properly guarded .
 Safety goggles are preferred to avoid damage to eyes by flying
chips.
 Avoid wearing rings, bracelet or watch.
 Machine should not be left running and opperater should be alert
during a job.
 Before starting a lathe spindle by power , spindle should be
rotated by one revolution by hand to make it sure that no fouling
is there.
 Safe distance from revolving chuck should be maintained.
 Tools and instruments should not be placed over lathe bed.
 Sliding parts of the lathe should be cleaned and lubricated
periodically.
 Chips should never be removed by hand. It can be removed by
brush.
 Before starting the machine, the work should be clamped
properly.
 Before moving the carriage, the carriage clamping screw should
be unlocked.
 On hearing unusual noise, machine should be stopped
immediately and should not be operated till the fault is clear.

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Capstan & Turret lathes:

A capstan or a turret lathe is a production lathe used to

manufacture any number of identical pieces in the minimum time.
The main feature is the six sided block mounted on one end of the
bed replacing the normal tailstock six tools can be mounted at on
cross slide two tool posts are mounted, one in the font and the
other in the rear. Each one can hold four tools .Thus the total
carrying capacity is a maximum 14 tools

Difference between CAPSTAN &TURRET and an ENGINE LATHE

CAPSTAN &TURRET ENGINE LATHE

1. The head stock possesses 1. It requires 3hp to drive the
wider range of speeds and in spindle.
heavier in construction it
require 15 hp power to drive
the spindle.
2. The tool post mounted or the 2. In engine lathe one tool can
cross slide is a four way & a be mounted at one time for
rear tool post is mounted on different operation.
the rear side which also holds
4 tools.
3. In turret lathe, the tail stock is 3. It can accommodate one tool
replaced by a turrt which is a of limited size.
hexagonal block which
contains 6 tools on each face.
4. The feed movement of each 4. The feed movement is given
tool set on square or by hand.
hexagonal turret is regularity
by stops & feed strips.
5. Combination cuts can be 5. Combination cuts can not be
taken by mountiy two or done.
more tools on the same face
of the turret.
6. The labour cost is less. 6. Ladour cost is more.

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7. The threads are cut by 7. The threads are cut by lead

dieheads & taps. screws Centre lathe is
suitable for odd jobs having
different shapes & sizes.
8. Turret lathes are suitrable for 8. The threads are cut by lead
producing large no. Of screws.
identical pieces.

Difference between capstan & turret lathe:

Capstan lathe Turret lathe

1. Its turret head is mounted in 1. Its turret to head is mounted
slide, which moves on the directly on the saddle.
guide ways produced on the 2. For feeding the tool to the
saddle. work, the entire saddle unit is
2. For feeding the tool to the moved.
work, the saddle is fixed at 3. It is suitable for long and
convenient distance from the heavy work and severe
work. cutting condition.\
3. It is suitable for smaller size 4. It is used to work for large
& lighter jobs. It is not size bar upto 200mm dia.
suitable for heavy cutting 5. Turret head is hexagonal.
condition. 6. It is large in size as compared
4. It is suitable to work for to capstan lathe.
smaller bar upto 60 mm dia. 7. The tool feeding is relatively
5. The turret head may slower and provide more
hexagonal or circular. fatigue to operator hands.
6. It is smaller in size
compound to turret lathe.
7. The tool traverse is faster and
offer less fatigue to the hands
of the operator.

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The capstan or ram type lathe:

The capstan or ram type turrentor capstan lathe carries a hexagonal

turret on ram or short slide,the ram slide longitudinally on a sadde on bed
ways. the feeding movement is obtained when the ram moves from left to
right and when the ram moved backward the turret indexes automatically
and the toll mounted on the next face comes into operation. This type of
machine is lighter in construction and is suitable for machinery bar of small
diameter.

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The turret or saddle type lathe

The hexagonal turret is mounted directly on the saddle and the whole
unit moves back and fourt on the bedways to app;ly feed. The machiune can
accommodate longer worklpieces than that ina cap stan lathe. It is heavier
in construction and for larger bar work and chucking work.

Multiple Tool holder.

Both capstan and turret lathe carry a multiple holdiung device called
capstan head in capstan lathe and turret head in case of turret lathe. The
capstan head usually circular carrying six slots. It can be mounted either its
axis vertical or at an inclination. The turret head can be either square,
hexagonal or octagonal in shape having one hole on each face. The
hexagonal type is more commonly used. It is always mounted with its axis
vertical except in case of vertical turret where the axis of rotation of the
turret head is horizontal.T

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Parts of capstan and turret lathe:

Bed:

The bed is longer box like casing provided with accurate guide ways
on which the carriage and turret slid are mounted. It is designed to ensure
strength, rigidity and permanency of alignment under heavy duty services.

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Headstock:

It is similar to engine lathe in construction . It is larger & heavier in

construction and wider range of speeds speed may rang form 30 to 2000rpm
two types of headstocks .

a) Electric head - variable speed motor is maunted .

b) All geared heads - wider range of speeds

The spindle is hollow and bar stock can be fed thorough a colletr chuck .

Gross slide & saddle:

There are two types of slides used in turret lathe

 Conventional type
 Slide hunk type

The conventional type of carriage bridge the gsp between the front
and rear bed wage

The slide hunk type carriage is generally fitted with heavy duty turret
lathe. Large diameter of work pieces can be swing over bed. The
longitudinal movement of each tool may be regulated by using stop bars or
shafts set against the stop fitted on the bed and carriage. The stops are set so
the each tool will feed into the work to desired length the stop bars are
indexed by hand

The turret saddle and auxiliary slide :-

The turret saddle bridges the gap between two bed ways. The
hexagonal turret is mounted o9n the auxiliary slide. In turret lathe, the turret
is directly mounted on the top of the saddle.

The turret is a hexagonal shaped tool harder intended for six or more
tools. The centre line of each hole is coincides with the axis of the lathe. Six
stop bars are mounted on the saddle which restricts the movement of each
tool mounted on each face of turret to be fed predetermined amount. After
one operation the turret is brought backward from the spindle nose the
turret indexes automatically.

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Capstan and turret lathe mechanism:-

Turret head indexing mechanism:-

This is an inverted plan of turret assembly. The turret is mounted on

the spindle. The index plate , the, bevel gear and an indexing ratchet are
keyed to the spindle. The plunger fitted within the housing and mounted on
the saddle locks the index plate by spring pressure and prevents any rotary
movement of the turret as the tool feeds into the work.

A pin is fitted on the plunger projects out of the housing. An

actuating cam and the indexing pawl are attached to the lathe bed at desired
positions. Both the cam and the pawl are spring loaded. As the turret
reaches the backward position , the attaching cam lifts the plunger out of
the groove in the index plate due to the riding of the pin on the bevelled
surface of the cam and thus unlocks the index plate.

The spring loaded pawl which by this time engages with a groove of
ratchet plate, causes the ratchet to rotate as the turret head moves backward.

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When the index plate or turret rotates through one sixth of revolution , the
pin and the plunger drops out of the cam and the plunger locks the index
plate at the next groove.

The turret is thus indexed by one sixth of revolutions and again

backed into the next position automatically. The turret holds the next tool is
now fed forward and the pawl is released from the ratchet plate by the
spring pressure.

The bevel opinion meshes with the bevel gear mounted on the turret
spindle. The extension of the pinion shaft carries a plate holding six
adjustable stop rods. As the turret rotates through one sixth of the revolution
, the bevel gear causes the plate to rotate.

The ratio of the teeth between the pinion and the gear are so chosen
that when the tool mounted on the face of the turret is indexed to bring it to
the cutting position, the particular stop rod for controlling the longitudinal
travelling of the tool is aligned with the stop.

The setting of the stop rods for limiting the feed of each operation
may be adjusted by unscrewing the lock nuts and rotating the stop rods on
the plate. Thus, six stop rods may be adjusted for controlling the
longitudinal travel of tools mounted on six faces of the turret.

Bar feeding mechanism:-

On the capstan and turret lathes , some arrangements is need to be

feed the bar stock through the collet or chuck after each finished work piece
is parted off. Bar may be fed by hand also but has a safety measure one has
to stop the machines first for every feeding of bar. It also wastes lot of time.

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In this method the bar is push forward as soon as it release from the
collect without stoping the lathe.

A bar feeding mechanism is fitted with a capstan lathe is the back

side of lathe. Bar is fed against the rotating sleeve and the collet chuck. The
bar stock passes through the spindle of the collet chuck. One end of the rope
is connected with a sleeve and the other end is attached with a weight.

Under the action of the weight, the bar moves towards the head
stock. At the end of the parting off operation on the job. It is needed to feed
the new length of the bar. As soon as the collet is opened by operating the
Colet control lever , the bar is release and is automatically rushes out of the
collet and strike with the bar stop.

The bar stop mounted on the capstan head for the purpose of getting
the required bar length projecting out of the colet. The colet lever is again
operated to close the collet and hold the bar tightly.

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Tooling layout:

The tool layout for a job constitute the predetermined plan for the
order and method of machining operation necessary to produce it.for
preparation of the layout, it is necessary to have a finished drawing of the
part to be produce. The tool layout consists of two steps: preparation of
operation sheet.

Sketching the plan showing various tolls fitted into the turrent faces
and the cross slides, in proper sequence.

Production of hexagonal bolts:-

Operation no. description of tool position tools

operation
1 Hold in collet 1st turret Bar stop
position
2 Turn to 16 mm 2nd turret Roller steady bar
dia position turning tool
3 Form end of the 3rd turret Roller steady bar
bolt position ending tool
4 Screw 16 mm 4th turret Self opening die
position head with chasers
for 16 mm
5 Chamfer Front cross slide Chamfering tool
tool past
6 Parting off Rear tool post Parting off tool

For bush:-

Sl no Sequence of Machine shop Tools / gauges

operation
1 Fixed end 2mm Turret lathe Bar ending tool
deep position1
(rear slide)
2 Feed out bar stop Position 2 Bar stop
3 Stop for drilling Position 3 Centre drill
4 Drill hole 10 mm Position 4 Drill 10 mm dia,

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dia, and rough turn rough turning

16.5dia×36 mm tool
5 Finish turn to 16.10 Position 5 Finish turn tool,
mm dia, bore 11.5 chamfering tool
dia × 36 mm and and boring tool
chamfer 0.3×45°
³ Rough ream 11.8 Position 6 Reaming toll
mm dia×36 mm rough
7 Finish ream Position 7 Reaming tool
11.8mm dia × 36 finish
mm
8 Cut off to 31 mm Position 8 Parting off tool
length
9 Chamfer other end Upright drill Chamfering tool
0.3×45°
10 Drill oil hole Upright drill Drill 2mm
11 Cut oil grooves Special machine Groove cutter
12 Grind to 16 mm dia Cylindrical Finish grading
grinder wheel
13 inspect Inspection Limit gauges
department

1. Feed the bar stock to stop

2. Turn 14 mm dia with box tool
3. Turn 14.28 mm dia with box tool
4. Round end with roller steady ending tool
5. Centre with centre drill
6. Cut threads with die head
7. Form 17 mm dia and chamfer with tool from front square slide
8. Part off with cut of tool in rear tool

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Chapter-4

Shaper

Syllabus:

4.1 Potential application areas of a shaper machine

4.2 Major components and their function
4.3 Explain the automatic table feed mechanism
4.4 Explain the construction & working of tool head
4.5 Explain the quick return mechanism through
sketch
4.6 State the specification of a shaping machine.

Shaper:-

The shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool intended to

produce flat surfaces. The surface nay be horizontal, vertical or inclined

Working principle:-

The job is fixed rigidly in a suitable vice or directly clamped on the

machine table. The tool is held in the tool post mounted on the ram of the
machine. This ram reciprocates to and fro , and in doing so , makes the tool
to cut the material in the forward stroke. No cutting takes place during the
return stroke of the ram. It is called idle stroke. The job is given an intended
feed, in a direction normal to the line of action of the cutting tool.

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Types of shapers:-

1. According to the type of mechanism used for giving reciprocating

motion to the ram.
a. Crank type
b. Geared type
c. Hydraulic type
2. According to the position and travel of ram .
a. Horizontal type
b. Vertical type
c. Travelling head type
3. According to the type of design of the table
a. Standard shaper
b. Universal shaper
4. According to the type of cutting stroke
a. Push type
b. Draw type

Specification of shaper:-

1. Maximum length of stroke(175-900mm)

2. Maximum horizontal travel of table
3. Maximum vertical travel of table
4. Maximum distance from table to ram
5. Tool box, vertical adjustment
6. Length and width of the table
7. Numbers and range speeds available
8. Numbers and range feeds available
9. Horse power and speed of driving motor
10. Weight of the machine and floor space required

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Crank shaper:-

This a most common type of shaper. It uses a crank mechanism to

change circular motion of a large bull gear into reciprocating motion of the
ram

Geared type:-

The reciprocating motion is effected by means of rack and pinion

Hydraulic shaper:-

The reciprocating motion is obtained by hydraulic power.

Horizontal shaper:-
The ram reciprocates in a horizontal axis
Vertical axis:-
The ram reciprocates in a vertical axis
Travelling head shaper:-
The ram reciprocates and moves crosswise to give required feed
Standard or plain shaper:-
The table has two movements, vertical and horizontal to give the
feed
Universal shaper:-
In addition of the two movements, the table can be swivelled about
on axis parallel to the ram ways.
Push type:-
The most general type of shaper used in common practice . the metal
is removed when the ram moves away from the column
Draw type shaper :-

The metal is removed when the ram moves towards the column of
the machine, draws the work towards the machine. The tool set is reversed
direction to that of a standard shaper.

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DIFFERENT PARTS OF A SHAPER:-

BASE:-

The base provides stability for the shaper as it supports all other
equipments present as well as absorb the forces coming due to the cutting .
it is made of cast iron and have a necessary arrangements of bolts so that it
can be bolted to the factory floor.

Column(housing):-

The column of the shaper is a hollow casting and is mounted on the

base. It houses the ram driving mechanism. For the ram and table, on the
top of the column, necessary guide ways are provided for the linear
movement of the ram and the front vertical face is for cross rail.

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Cross rail:-

The cross rail is mounted on the front vertical guideways of the

column. It has two parallel guide ways on its top vertical plane that are
perpendicular to the ram axis. The table may be raised or lowered to
accommodate different sizes of job by rotating elevating screw.

Saddle:-

The saddle is mounted on the cross rail which holds the table . on its
top crosswise movement of the table is powered by rotating cross feed
screw.

Table:-

The work table of a shaper is fastened to the front of the column. The
table is provided T-slots for mounting the work pieces. The table can be
moved up and down and crosswise by cross rail and saddle. Jobs can be
held by vice.

Ram:-

The ram is a reciprocating member of the shaper. It is

semicylindrical in form and heavily ribbed inside to make more rigid. It
slides on the guideways of the column. A single point cutting tool is
fastened in the tool post.

Tool head:-

The single point cutting tool is held in the tool post. The tool head
holds the tool provides vertical and angular feed movement and allows the
tool to have an automatic relief during return stroke. The vertical side of the
tool head has a swivel base which is held on a circular seat on the room.

The swivel base is graduated in degrees so that the vertical slide may
be set perpendicular to the work surface at any desired angle. By rotating
the down feed screw handle, the vertical slide carrying the tool executes
down feed or angular feed movement while machining vertical or angular
surface.

The amount of feed or depth of cut may be adjusted by a micrometer

dial on the top of the down feed screw. Apron consisting of clapper box,

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clapper block and tool post is clamped upon the vertical slide by a screw.
By releasing the clamping screw , the apron may be swivelled upon the
apron swivel pin either towards left or towards right w.r.t the vertical slide.
This arrangements is necessary to provide relief to the tool while making
vertical or angular cuts.

The two vertical walls on the apron called clapper box houses the
clapper block which is connected to it by means of a hinge pin. The tool
post is mounted upon the clapper block.

On the forward cutting stroke the clapper block fits securely to the
clapper box to make a rigid tool support on the return stroke a slight
frictional drag of the tool on the work lifts the block out of the clapper box
a sufficient amount preventing the tool cutting edge from dragging and
consequent wear. The work surface is also prevented from any damage due
to dragging.

Shaper mechanism:-

The metal is removed in the forward cutting stroke, while the return
stroke no matal is removed during this period.

To reduce the total machining time it is necessary to reduce time taken

by the return stroke. The shaper mechanism should be so designed that it
can allow the ram holding the tool to move at comparatively slower speed
during the forward cutting stroke and during the return stroke the ram move
faster rate to reduce the idle return time. The mechanism is called quick
return mechanism.

1. Crank and slotted mechanism

2. Whitworth quick return mechanism
3. Hydraulic shaper mechanism

Crank and slotted link mechanism:-

The motion or power is transmitted to the bull gear through a pinion

which receives is motion from an individual motor or overhead line shaft
through speed control mechanism. Speed can be changed by shifting gears.

A radial slide is bolted to the centre of the bull gear , carries a sliding
block into which the crank pin is fitted . rotation of the bull gear causes the

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crank pin to rotate at a uniform speed. Sliding block which is invented on

the crank pin is fitted within the slotted link. The slotted link is pivoted at
its bottom end attached to the frame of the column. The upper end is forked
and connected to the ram block by a pin.

As bull gear rotates causes the crank pin to rotate, the sliding block
fastened to the crank pin will rotate on the crank pin circle, and at same
time will move up and down in the slot giving a rocking movement which
is communicated to the ram. The rotary motion of the bull gear converted to
reciprocating movement of the ram.

When the link is in the position PM.ram will be at the extreme

backward of its stroke.

When at PN – extreme forward position

PM &PN are tangent to the crank pin circle.

C1 C2⇨ forward cutting stroke

C2 c1 ⇨ return stroke

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It is clear that the angle made by the forward stroke> return stroke.
The angular velocity is constant ⇨ rotated by speed metre . crank rotates at
uniform speed.
∝ ∝
= = =
∝

Generally varies 2:1 and practical 3:1

Whitworth quick return mechanism:-

A bull gear is mounted on a large fixed pin a upon which it is free to

rotate. The crank plate is pivoted eccentrically upon the fixed pin at 5.fitted
on the face of the bull gear is the crank pin 2 on top of which sliding block
is mounted. Sliding block fits into the slot provided on the crank plate. ,a
connecting rod connects the crank plate by a pin and the ram by a pin.

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When the bull gear will rotate at constant speed the crank pin with
the sliding block will rotate on a crank pin with the sliding block will rotate
on a crank circle of radius A2 and the sliding block will cause the crank
plate to rotate about the point 5 with a variable angular velocity.

Pin fitted on the other end of the crank plate will rotate in a circle
and the rotary motion of the pin will be converted into reciprocating
movement in the ram. Similar to crank and connecting rod mechanism. The
axis of reciprocating of the ram passes through the pin and normal to the
line A3.

When the pin cutting stroke is at position C ⇨ extreme backward position

When the pin cutting stroke is at position B ⇨ forward position

C B = cutting stroke (backward to forward)

B C = return stroke(forward to backward)

As angular velocity of the crank pin is uniform for the time taken i.e,
∝ ∝
= = =
∝

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Hydraulic shaper mechanism:-

In a hydraulic shaper the ram is moved forward and backward by a

piston moving in a cylinder placed under the ram.

The machine consists of a constant discharge oil pump, a value

chamber, a cylinder and a piston. The piston rod is bolted to the ram body.
The oil under a high pressure is pumped from the reservoir and is made to
pass through the valve chamber to the right side of the oil cylinder exerting
pressure on the piston. This causes the ram connected to the piston to
perform forward stroke ward by a piston moving in a cylinder placed under
the ram.

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The machine consists of a constant discharge oil pump, a value

chamber , a cylinder and a piston. The piston rod is bolted to the ram body.
The oil under a high pressure is pumped from the reservoir and is made to
pass through the valve chamber to the right side of the oil cylinder exerting
pressure on the piston.

This causes the ram connected to the piston to perform forward

stroke, and any oil present on the left side of cylinder is discharged to the
reservoir through the throttle valve. At the extreme of forward stroke, the
shaper dog hits against the reversing lever causing the valves to alter their
positions within the valve chamber oil under high pressure is now opened to
the left side of the piston causing the ram to perform return stroke.

Oil present on the right side of the piston is now discharged to the
reservoir. At the end of the return stroke another shaper dog hits against the
reversing lever altering the direction of stroke of the piston and thus the
cycle is repeated.

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The quick return motion is effected due to the difference in stroke

volume of the cylinder at both ends, the left hand being smaller due to the
presence of piston rod. As the pump is a constant discharge one, within a
fixed period, the same amount of oil will be pumped into right or left hand
side of the cylinder.

This will mean that the some amount of oil will be packed within a
smaller stroke volume causing the oil pressure to rise automatically and
increasing the speed during the return stroke.

Automatic cross feed mechanism:-

In a shaper both down feed and cross feed can be obtained. Vertical
or bevel surfaces are produced by rotating the down feed screw of the tool
head by hand. Cross feed movement is used to machine a flat horizontal
surface. This is done by rotating the cross feed screw by hand or power.

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Rotation of the cross feed screw causes the table to move side ways
at the end of each return stroke to bring the uncut surface of the work. This
is done by automatic cross feed mechanism of shaper.

The rotation of the bull gear causes the driving disc to rotate in a
particular direction. The driving disc is T- slotted and position of the crank
attached to the connecting rod may be altered to give different throw of
eccentricity. The other end of the connecting rod is attached to the rocking
arm by a pin. The rocking arm is fulcrum at the centre of the ratchet wheel.
The ratchet wheel is keyed to the cross feed screw. The rocking arm houses
a spring loaded pawl which is straight on one side and bevel on the other
side..

As the driving disc rotates, the connecting rod starts reciprocating

and the rocking arm rocks on the fulcrum. When the driving disc rotates
through half of the revolution in the clockwise direction, top part of the
rocking arm moves in clockwise direction and the pawl being slant on one
side slips over the teeth of the ratchet wheel imparting it no movement.

As the driving disc rotates through the other half , the top of the
rocking arm now moves in the anticlockwise direction and the straight side
of the pawl engages with the teeth of the ratchet wheel causing the wheel to
move in anticlockwise direction only. As the driving disc is connected to
the bull gear the table feed movement is effected when the bull gear or
driving disc rotates through half of the revolution i.e, during return stroke
only.

Rotation through other half imparts no feed movements. To reverse

the direction of rotation of ratchet wheel and feed, a knob on the top of the
pawl after removing the pin is rotated through 180° .

The movement of feed may be altered by shifting the position of

crank pin w.r.t the centre. Greater the through the eccentricity more will be
the rocking movements of the arm and the pawl will pass through three or
four teeth on the ratchet wheel at a time imparting greater feed movement.

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Chapter-5

Planning Machine

Syllabus:

5.1 Application area of a planar and its difference with

respect to shaper
5.2 Major components and their functions
5.3 The table drive mechanism
5.4 Working of tool and tool support
5.5 Clamping of work through sketch.

The planner like a shaper is a machine tool to produce plane and flat
surfaces by a single point cutting tool

Difference between shaper & planner

The work is stationary; the tool along with ram reciprocates against the
work

The work which is supported on the table reciprocates and the tool is
stationary

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Principal parts of a planner:

BED:

 The bed of a planner is a box like casting cross ribs.

 It is a very large in size and heavy in weight and it supports the
column and all other moving parts of the machine.
 The guides ways are provided on the bed for the movement of the
table.
 The hollow space within the box like structure of the bed home the
driving mechanism for the table.

Table:

 The table supports the job and reciprocates along the ways of the
bed.
 The planner table is heavy rectangular casting and is made of cast
iron.
 The top face of the table is accurately finished in order to hold the
job correctly.
 The top face of the table is ‘T’ slotted for clamping the job and job
holding devices.
 At each end of the table or hollow space is left for collecti9ng chips.
 A groove is cut on the side of the table for clamping planner revising
dugs at different position.

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Column:

 It is a rigid vertical box like structure.

 The front face of each housing is accurately machines to provide
guide ways on which the crosier may be slipped up and down for
accommodating the different suitable heights job.
 The housing is enclosed with vertical elevating screw and cross feed
screws for tool heads and counter balanced the weight of the cross
rail.

CROSS RAIL:

 It is a rigid box like casting connecting the two housings.

 The cross rail can be raised or lowered on the face of the housing
and can be clamped at any desired position.
 The cross rail when clamped showed remain parallel to the top
surface of the table.

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 The two elevating screws in two the housing are rotated by an equal
horizontal any in position.
 The two tool heads are mounted upon the cross rail.
 The cross rail has screws for vertical and cross flew of the tool heads
and a screw for elevating the rail.

TOOL HEAD:

 The tool head of the planer is similar to that of a shaper in

construction and operation.

CLAMPING OF JOB:

 There are three important points to be hoted while clamping the job
on the planer table.
 The work should be connected rigidly to the table so that it may not
be shifted out of its position while cutting progresses.
 Proper clamping should be done all round the job.
 The job should be so held that the surface planed should remain in
proper position with other sur face.
 The job may be located on the planning machine table by the
following methods.
 By standard clamping devices.
 By special fixtares.
 The standard clamping devices are t-bolts, stops, planer jacks, heavy
duty vises, angle plates & planner centres etc.

PLANER TOOLS:

 The cutting tools which are uses in planer are single point cutting
tool which are used in lathe and shaper.
 Planer tools may be solid for get type or bit type.
 The bit may be brazed, welded or mechanically held on a m.s bar.
 As a planer tool has to take up heavy cuts, the tools are made fevaier
and larger in cross section.

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Chapter-6

Milling Machine

Syllabus:

6.1 Types of milling machine and operations performed

by them
6.2 Explain work holding attachment
6.3 Construction & working of simple dividing head,
universal dividing head
6.4 Procedure of simple and compound indexing
6.7 Illustration of different indexing methods

Milling m/c:
A milling m/c is a type of metal cutting device which remove metal
with a fast rotating multi-touch cutter.
As this m/c yield high production of different varities of jobs, in
choice for production m/c, comes after the lathe.
Generally smaller jobs are employed for machining in milling m/c. If larger
jobs are handled, then the m/c will perhaps be slower.

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Because of using multi tooth cutters & various forms of cutters, a

milling m/c can be economically employed for generating varties of
surfaces quite speedily.
Types of milling m/c:
Milling m/c are available in various besings covering a wide range of
work & capacities. The choice for a particular m/c depends on the nuture &
size of the work to be undertaken.
a) column & knee type. Milling m/c.
a. Hand milling m/c
b. Plain milling m/c
c. Universal milling m/c
d. Omniversal milling m/c
e. Vertical milling m/c
b) manufacturing/ fixed bed type. Milling m/c
c) planer type milling m/c
d) special type milling m/c.
a. Rotary table machine.
b. Drum milling m/c.

Milling attachment:
It is a rotary table types work holding device bolted on the table. It
provides a rotary motion to the w/p in addition to longitudinal, cross &
vertical motions.

Dividing head/indexing head:

Indexing is an operation of dividing a periphery of a cylindrical w/p
into equal no. Of divisions by the help of index crank & index plate.
Indexing is accomplished by using a special attachment known as
dividing head/indexing head.
Dividing heads are 3 types
1. Plain/simple deviding head:
2. Universal deviding head
3. Optical deviding head.

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Plain/ simple dividing head:

 It has a spindle which carries job holdering devices such as
three jaw chuck, face plate with centre carrier
 A worm wheel is rigidly fixed on spindle. While an indexing
crank is mounted on the worn shaft such that the rotation of
index crank finally results in the rotation of the spindle.
 In a plane dividing head, its spindle rotates only around
horizontal axis.
 The index plate remains fixed & does not rotates only around
horizontal axis.
 The index plate remains fixed & does not rotate while
performing simple indexing operation.

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The amount of the spindle relative to the worm depends on the ratio
between the relations of worm & the worm wheel.

The most common ratio is 40:1, which means 40 revolutions of

index crank or worm will move the worm wheel or spindle through one
complete revolution.

Universal dividing head:

 It is the most commonly used type of attachment on the

milling m/c.
 It is used for the following purposes.
 Setting the w/p in horizontal, vertical & inclined positions
relative to the milling m/c table.
 Turning the work periodically through a given angle per
forming indexing of the work.
 Imparting a continuous rotary motion to the w/p for milling
helical grooves.
 Dividing head spindle is connected with the table feed screw
through a gear train attachment to impart a continuous rotary
motion to the w/p for helical milling.
 Working mechanism of an universal dividing head is the
crank which is regidlr fixed at one end of the work shaft,
while the bevel gear runs free on the worm shaft.
 The index plate is bloted with gear & can be locked aginst the
rotation of lock pin.

Optical dividing head:

It is used for high precision angular indexing of the job with respect
to the cutter.
For reading the angle, on optical system is built into the deviding
head.
Splidle:
Splindle is located in the upper part of the column.
It gets driving power from motor to transmit it to the abrod.
The front end of the spindle just projects from the column face & is
provided with a tapered hole to accommodate various cutting tools &
arbors.

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Arbour:
The arbour is connected with a splindle through a bolt, which serves
as an extension of the m/c spindle on which milling cutters are safely
mounted & rotated

It is taper shank for proper alingnment with the splindle having

tapered hole at its nose.

Work holding devices:

Work holding device used on a milling m/c includes the following:

Vices which may be plain vice, swivel vice & tool maker’s universal vice.

 Angle plates.
 v-blocks
 special fixtures.

Work holding attachment:

Special attachment are used on miiling m/c for performing different
typical operations. Common attachments include:

a. vertical milling attachment: used for facilitating the horizontal

spindle milling m/c to do facing on horizontal surface or for making
grooves.
b. universal milling attachment: similar to vertical attachment with
added features for swivelling the spindle about two mutually
perpendicular axis.

slitting attachment :

used for converting rotational motion of the horizontal splindle m/c

into up & down vertical reciprocating motins. The slotting head is fitted to
the spindle & is used for cutting slats. The attachment can be swivelled to
any angular positions.

high speed milling attachment:

it is a gearing system used for increasing the splindle speed by four

to six times. The attachment is bolted to the face of the column.

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rack milling attachment:

It is bolted to the face of the column. Used for cutting rake teeth.

Differential Indexing :

Available no. Of index plates with different hole circles sometimes

limit the range of plate indexing. In such case differential indexing is found
useful. In this process, the indexing polate rotates itself in relation to the
cranck during the process of indexing. For making necessary calculation to
find the change gears to be placed between the spindle and the power shaft
use the following relation

Where N = no. Of divisions to be indexed

N is a no. Opf slightly or less than N. After simplification, the above

relation n will give the gear ratio between the gears to be placed on the
spindle (driver) amd the own shaft (driver).

Gears may be arrabged in a simple train or in a compound train as

the case may be.

When (n – N) is possotive, the index plate must rotate in the

direction in which the crank is rotated.

If (n – N) is negative the index plate rotates in the opposite direction

to that of the cranck.

Dividing head attachment:

A dividing head attachment is also a special work holding de3cvice

which is bolted on the machine plate. The work may be mounted on a chuck
fitted on the dividing head spindle or may be supported between alive or
dead centre.

The dead centre is mounted on a foot stock as in a klathe tail stock

that is bolted on the machine table after after correctly aligning its spindle
axis with the dividing heads. spindle

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universal dividing head:

The attachment nis similar to the vertical attachment but it has an

added arrangement for swivelling the spindle about two mutually
perpendicular axes . This feature of the attachment permits the cutting
spindle axis to swivel at practically any angle and machine any compound
angle surface of the work. The attachment is supported by the over-ram and
operates at either the same speed or at higher speed than the scope of
machine.

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Chapter-7

Slotter

Syllabus:
7.1 Major components and their function
7.2 Construction and working of slotter machine
7.3 Tools used in slotter

SLOTTER

It is used for cutting grooves, key ways and slots of various shapes
for making regular and irregular surfaces both internal and external.

Difference between slotter and shaper:

SLOTTER SHAPER
The ram holds the tool and The ram holds the tool and
reciprocates in a vertical axis reciprocates in a horizontal axis.

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SLOTTING MACHINE PARTS:

Base/bed:

The base of the machine is rigidly built to withstand all cutting

forces and entire load of the machine.

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COLUMN:

 The column is the vertical member which is cast integral with the
base.
 Driving mechanism and feeding mechanism are inside the column.
 The front vertical face of column is accurately finished for providing
ways onwhich the ram reciprocates.

SADDLE:

 The saddle is mounted upon the guideways and may be moved

towards or away from the column either by power/ manual control to
supply longitudinal feed to the work.
 The top surface of the saddle is accurately finished to provide
guideways for the cross slide.
 These guideways are perpendicular to the guideways on the base.

CROSS SLIDE:

 The cross slide is mounted upon the guideways of the saddle and
may be moved parallel to the face of the column. The movement of
the slide may be controlled either by head or power to supply cross
feed.

ROTATING TABLE:

 The rotating table is a circular table which is mounted on the top of

the cross slide. The table may be rotated by rotating a worn which
meshes with a worm glar connected to the under side of the table.
 In same machines the table is graduated in degrees that enables the
table to be rotated for indexing.
 T-slots are cut on the top face of the table for holding the work by
different clamping devices.
 The rotary table enables a circular or contoured surface to be
generated on the work piece.

RAM & TOOTHED ASSEMBLY:

 The ram is the reciprocating member of the machine mounted on the

guide ways of the column.
 It supports the tool at it’s bottomend on toolhead.

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RAM DRIVE MECHANISM:

 A slotter removes metal during downward cutting stroke only

wherlas during upward return stroke no metal is removed.
 To reduce the idler time quick return mechanism is incorporated in
the machine.

FEED MACHANISM:

 The teed is given by the table.

 A slotting machine table have 3 types of feed movements.

LONGITUDINAL:

 If the table is fed perpendicular to the column towards or away from

face the feed movement is termed as longitudinal.

CROSS: If the table is feed parallel to the face of the column the feed
movement is termed as cross.

CIRCULAR: If the table is rotated on a vertical axis the feed movement is

circular.

SLOTTER TOOLS:

= top rake angle

= from clearance angle

 In a slotter the pr. Acts along the length of the tool.

 In slotter tool the angles are provided for better cutting.
 The nose of the tool projects slightly beyond the shank to provide
clearance.
 The slotter tools are robust in cross section and usually of torged
type.
 Bit type tools are fitted in heavy duty tool holders.
 Key way cutting tools are thinner at the cutting edges.
 Round nose tools are used for machining circular/ contoured
surfaces.
 Square nosed tools are used for machining flat surfaces.

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Chapter-8

Grinding
Syllabus:

8.1 Significance of grinding operations

8.2 Manufacturing of grinding wheels
8.3 Criteria for selecting of grinding wheels
8.4 Specification of grinding wheels with example
Working of
Cylindrical Grinder
Surface Grinder
Centre less Grinder

Griding M/C:
 Grinding is the process of removing material from workpiece. The
removing of material from the W/P is either two brings its dia metre
within very closed tolerance (0.02mm) or to give a fine finish or the
work surface.
 The grinding machine supports and rotates the grinding wheel for
smooth operation. Grinding machine is used for roughing and
finishing flat, cylindrical and conical surface.

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 The grinding wheel is made of fine grains of abrasive materials. The

grains during the rotation of the wheels remove very small chip[s .
 As the selection of chips remove is very small and high cutting speed
are involved, the grinding operation results into a very good finish or
the work surface and high accuracy in work dimensions.

Types of Grinding:
Oftainly used to grind casting and weldments using portable grinders
or pedestal; grinder

Fine Grinding :
 It is applied for finishing of thoseer material which are too hard to be
machined by opther methopds of metal cutting.
 It is also used for producing surface on the job to attain higher
dimensional accuracy andc finish

BED/BASE
 It is a heavy cast iron construction and support s other parts of the
slotting machine such as column, ram and its driving mechanism,
table etc.
 The top of the base is accurately finished to provide guide ways for
mounting of the saddle. The cross-slide guide ways are
perpendicular to the column face.

Column
 It is a vertical structure cast integral with the base.
 It houses the mechanism for driving ram and feeding mechanism.
 The front vertical face of the column cdarries guide ways for ram
to reciprocating upon it

Saddle:
 It is mounted upon guide ways and can be moved towards or away
from the column
 The saddle caries guide ways for cross-slide
 The feed is given by manual or power.

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Cross-slide:
 It is mounted upon guide wayus made at the top of the saddle and
can be moved parallel top the front face of the column.
 Feed is given manual or by power.
 Table
 It is a circular rotary table mounted on the top of the cross-slide
 A circular feed handle for the table is provided
 Rotation of the table is effected by hand or by power
 The table carries T-slots to help mounting of jobs on the tabloe
 Ram and tool head
 They reciprocates up and down on the guide ways made on the front
face on the column.
 The ram carries a tool head at its bottom end.
 In some mechanism special tool head is provided to releave the tool
during its return stroke
 A quick return mechanism is given with the machine which enables
the return or ideal stroke to be completed faster than the cutting
stroke

Methods of grinding:

According to type surface to be grounded main kinds of grinding

methods are as follow:

External cylindrical grinding: produces a straight or tappered surface

on a w/p when it is rotated about its own axis between centres as it passes
lengthwise across the face of a revolvingrinding wheel.

Internal cylindrical griding: it produces internal cylindrical holes &

tapers. The work is chucked & rotated on its axis, while the grinding wheel
rotates agest the work.

Surface grinding:

It produces flat surfaces & the work may be grounded either by

periphery or by end face of the grinding wheel.

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Face grinding:

It is a method of grinding vertical flat surface & the wheel spindle

may be vertical or horizontal.

From grinding:

It is done by specially shaped grinding wheels to grind formed

surfaces as gearteeth, theards, shaft, dovetails etc.

Set wheel grinding:

It is a method of grinding short w/p without changing the grinding

wheel.

Centre less grinding:

It is a method of grinding external & internal cylindrical surfaces in

which the work is supported among a regulating wheel, a grinding wheel &
a work rest blade.

Off-hand grinding:

It is rough grinding method in which work is held in hand and

pressed

Against the rotating grinding wheel. For example grinding a chisel

on pedestal grinder

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Types of grinding machine:

Grinding machine may be broadly classified as follows
1. Surface grinder
2. Cylindeical grinder
3. Center-less grinder
4. Portable grinder
5. Pedestal grinder
6. Cutter and tool grinder
7. Internal grinder
8. Flexible shaft grinder
Surface grinder :
a. It is used for grinding flat surfaces
b. Surface grinding effective for removing hard spots and sets
from the work surface
c. Surface grinding machine differs according the shyape of
grinding wheel and motion givren to the work table during
working.
d. Some common type surface grinding machine are prescribed
in the following

Horizontal spindle surface grinding machine:

It is used for the circumferemce of a straight grinding wheel and are
able to handle a wide range of work with super finish and externally fine
limits of accuracy

Vertical spindle flat grinding machine:

These are strongly built machine. They yield more out put with cup
type wheel rather than using of straight wheels.

Disc grinding machine:

These are used for rough semi precision grinding rapid removal of
metal is done by this type of machine.

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Chapter-9

Internal Machining operations

Syllabus:

Classification of drilling machines

9.1 Working of
Bench drilling machine
Pillar drilling machine
Radial drilling machine
9.2 Boring
Basic Principle of Boring
Different between Boring and drilling
9.3 Broaching
Types of Broaching (pull type, push type)
Advantages of Broaching and applications

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Introduction

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Chapter-10

Surface finish, lapping

Syllabus:

10.1 Definition of Surface finish

Define super finishing
10.2 Description of lapping & explain their specific
cutting.

Introduction:

In a manufacturing plant, a product may be shaped, turned,

milled or drilled, and left in that condition as being satisfactory for
use. However, if a better finish is desired, for looks, for accuracy, for
wearing qualities, or for any other reasons, one of the micro finished
that include lapping, honing, super finishing, polishing, buffing, may
be employed. In some cases other operations are done only to get
durable finishes.

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LAPPING:

Lapping is an abrading process that is used to produce

geometrically true surfaces, correct minor surface imperfection,
improve dimensional accuracy, or provide a very close fit between
two contact surfaces. Very thin layers of metal(0.005 to 0.01mm)are
removed in lapping and it is therefore, evident that is unable to correct
substantial error in the form and size of surface, it is however low
efficiency process is used only when specified accuracy and surface
finish cannot be obtained by other method. Abrasive powders (floors
such as emery, corundum ion oxide, chromium oxide mixed with oil is
mixed with oil or special paste with some carrier are used in lapping.

Most lapping is done by means of lapping shoes or quills called

laps that are robbed against the work. The face of a lap becomes
‘charged’ with abrasive particle. Charging a lap means to embed the
abrasive grains into surface. Laps may be made of almost of any
material soft enough to receive and retain the abrasive grains. They
are made of soft iron, brass, copper, lead or soft steel.

The method of charging a lap depends upon the shape of lap.

When the lap is once charged it should be used without applying more
abrasive until it ceases to cut. Lap may be operated by hand or
machine, the motion being rotary or reciprocating.

Cylindrical work may be lapped by rotating the work in the

lathe or drill press and reciprocating the lap over the work in an ever-
changing path. Small flat surfaces may be lapped by holding the work
against a rotating disc, or the work may be moved by hand in an

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irregular path over a stationary face plate lap. In equalising lapping the
work and lap mutually improve each other surfaces as they slide on
each other.

There are three important types of lapping machines. The

vertical axis lapping machine laps flat or round surfaces between two
oppose laps on vertical spindle. The centre-less lapping machine is
designed for continuous production of round parts such as piston pins,
bearing races and cups, valve tappets and shafts.

The centre less lapping machine on the same principle as centre

less grinding. The abrasive belt lapping machine lapps bearings and
cam surfaces by means of abrasive coated clothes.

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