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5.4.22, Prove that
(LES) ator diary SH Anb HQ ee [lcd
5.4.23, Let T= Sha (“DY Ai — 0), T= him, ,.. T,. Show that
San-r
cot
ae
ora
5.4.24, Solve the recurrence relation d= 1, a) = 0, a
4, = 4a,_\— 5a, + 24,_y
5.4.25, Use the technique of generating functions to show that the nth
Fibonacci number F, is equal to
ses
& e
5.4.26. Sum the finite series ay +a, + --- +4,, where dy =2, a,= 17,
and for i> 1, @,=7a,_,— 124...
5.4.27. Show that the power series for the function e*cosbx, a > 0, b >0
im powers of x has either no zero coefficients or infinitely many zero
coefficients,
5.4.28, Sum the infinite series
S=1-2rcos8 + 3r?c0s20— 4rcose + + Wet
5.4.29, Show that S3_ sin n8}/n!= singsin de.
5.4.30. Use infinite series to evaluate fim, [Ye — 527+ 1 — a}
Additional Examples
1, 5.3.16, 68.1, 7.6.6). Also, see Section 5.2 (Geometric Series) and
Section 7.5 (Inequalities by Series). Chapter 6. Intermediate Real Analysis
In this chapter we will review, by way of problems, the hierarchy of
definitions and results concerning continuous, differentiable, and integrable
funetions, We will build en the reader's understanding of limits to review
the most important definitions (continuity in Section 6.1, differentiabiity in
Section 6.3, and integrability in Section 6.8). We will also call attention to
the most important properties of these classes of functions. It is useful to
know, for example, that if a problem involves a continuous-function, then
‘we might be able to apply the intermediate-value theorem or the extreme-
value theorem: or again, if the problem involves a differentiable function,
‘we might expect to apply the mean-value theorem. Examples of these
applications are included in this chapter, as well as applications of
(Hpita’’s rule and the fundamental theorem of calculus,
‘Throughout this chapter, R will denote the set of real numbers.
6.1. Continuous Functions
A real-valued function f is continuous at a if f(x) fla) as xa, oF more
precisely, if
() fla) is defines,
Gi) Tim, f(4) exists, and.
Gi) tim, 2 J) = fa).
(if'a isa boundary point in the domain of f, itis understood that the 2’s in
(i) are restricted (o the domain of f, We will assume the reader is familiar
with these contingencies.) 6.1. Continuous Functions 193
‘A function J is continuous in a domain D if it is continuous at cach
point of D.
It is not difficult to prove that fis continuous ata if and only if for every
sequence {x,} converging to a, the sequence ( f(x,)} converges to f(a)
“The sequential form for the definition of continuily of f ix used most
often when one wishes to show a function is discontinuous at a point. For
example, the function f defined by
sind if x0,
0 if x=0
is discontinuous at 0 because, for instance, the sequence x, =2/(4n + I)
converges to 0, whereas ( f(x,)} = {sin(2en + })} converges to I (rather
than to f(0}= 0).
fey=
GAL, Define f:{0,1}-10,1] in the following manner: f(1) =, and if
= 4,0,040,.... is the decimal representation of a (written as a terminat-
ing decimal if possible; e.g., 099999... is replaced by .1), define f(a) =
.04,0a,04, .... Discuss the continuity of f
‘Solution. Observe that f is a monotone increasing function. We will show it
is discontinuous at each terminating decimal number (ie., at each point of
the form N/10", N an integer, I< N < 10").
Consider, as’ an example, the point a=.413. By definition, f(a) =
040103. Now define a sequence x, by
‘The sequence {14} converges to ai however,
Als) =.040102 99.09... 09.
and we see that (f(x,)} does not converge to f(a). Thus fs not continuous
ata.
‘A similar construction can be made to show that fis discontinuous at
‘each terminating decimal number, The argument is based on the fact that
the terminating decimal numbers have two decimal representations, 194 6. Intermediate Real Analysis
namely,
B= ayydy 1, 0,40,
a0, aya — 19999.
Now suppose that a in (0,1) is not a terminating decimat number, We
will show that / is continuous at a. Write a in its unique decimal form.
a= 4105052,
Because the number a is not a terminating decimal number, there are
arbitrarily large integers » such that a, 0 and 4,.., #9. For each such m,
define X, and ¥, by
w)
io}
Xemas a, (= 3
Vy. )0g Oya, +1) = Xe
Then a &(X,, ¥,). Moreover, the first m digits of each of the mumbers in
(iq, Yq) are the same as those of X, and ¥,.. Consequently, all the numbers
within (X,, Y,) are mapped to the interval (/(X,), f%))-
Tis clear that the sequences (X,} and ( ¥,) converge to a; furthermore,
the sequences {,f(X,)} and (f(Y,)} converge to f(a). Since any sequence
(3) Which converges to a must eventually become interior to (X,, ¥,) for
any 1, it must be the case that { f(x,)} converges to fla), It follows that fis
‘continuous at a.
‘The preceding example is difficult 10 visualize geometrically, and a
thorough understanding of the proof requires a clear understanding of
continuity. The next example also demands a precise rendering of the
definition: funetion f is continuous at a if for every ¢ >0 there is a
number 8 >0 such that [x — al < 6 implies | (x) - {(@)| 9, f(1) <0. Prove that f(x)=0 for some x under the
assumption that there exists a continuous function g such that f+ g is
nondecreasing. (Hint: Use repeated bisection—choose the right haif of the
interval if there is a point x in it such that f(x) > 0, otherwise choose the
Ieft half. This yields a nested sequence of intervals (a,,6,) 2 [a,b] 2 +> ~
which converge to a point c, Note that for each m there is 2 point y,
[a,c] such that f(),) > 0. Prove that f(c) = 0)
6.1.7, Let f be defined in the interval [0,1] by
0 if x is irrational,
£0 Og eee get terms).
(a) Prove that f is discontinuous at each rational number in (0, 1}
(b) Prove that f is continuous at each irrational number in (0. 1]. 198 6, tcermediate Reel Analysis
6.1.8, If x is an element of the Cantor set K (see 3.4.6), it can be expressed
‘uniquely in the form
where 5, = 0 or 1. Define g: K-10, 1] by setting
“5
ae)- we
Now extend g t0 [0,1] in the following manner. I x € [0,1] is not in the
Cantor set, then, using the notation of 3.4.6, there is a unique integer n such
that x€/,, where ,=(X,.¥,), X, and Y, in K. Define g(x) = g(¥,)-
(Note that for all m. g(%) = 8(Y), and thus we have simply made” g
constant on the closed interval [X,, ¥,]) Prove that g is continuous. (Also,
see 62.13)
Additional Examples
63.1, 635, 636, 643, 672, 67.7, 689, 68.10, 695. Continuity is an
underlying assumption in most of the examples in Chapter 6; in particular,
see Section 6.2 (intermediate-value theorem),
6.2. The Intermediate-Value Theorem
‘The intermediate-value theorem states that if fis a continuous function on
the closed interval [a, 6] and if d is between f(a) and f(b), then there is a
number ¢ between a and 6 such that (c) =. The power of the theorem
lies in the fact that it provides a way of knowing about the existence of
something without requiring that it be explicitly found,
‘As an example, let us show that ~2x54 4x =] has a solution in the
interval (0,1). Consider flx}= —2x° + 4x, and take two “pot-shots": f(0)
is too small, and /(1) is too large. Therefore, by the intermediate-value
theorem, there is @ number in (0,1) that is just right.
6.2.1, A cross-country runner runs a six-mile course in 30 minutes. Prove
that somewhere along the course the runner ran a mile in exactly 5 minutes.
Solution, Let x denote the distance along the course, measured in miles
from the starting line. For each x in (0,5), let (x) denote the time that
lapsed for the mile from the point x to the point x + 1. The funetion fis, 62, The Intermediate Value Theorem 199
Figure 62.
continuous, We are given that f(O) + f(1) + f(2) + JO) + f(4) + (5) = 30.
Tt follows that not al of (0), ..-,f(S) are smaller than $, and similarly, not
all of f(O), ..., (8) are larger than 5. Therefore, there are points @ and & in
[6,5] such that fla) < 5 < f(b). Thus, by the intermediate-value theorem,
there is a number ¢ between @ and 6 such that fic) = 5; that is to say, the
mile from ¢ to ¢ +1 was run in exactly 5 minutes
6.2.2. Suppose that j: [4,6] & is 2 continuous function,
(@) Mean value theorem for integrals. Prove that there is a number ¢ in [4,5]
such that 8 fldjat = flcXb ~ a).
(b) Prove there is a number c in [a,b] such that fs finde = jt frat
(Note: For this, itis enough to know that fis integrable over [a,6])
Solution, (a) Let M and m be the maximum and minimum values of f om
[a,b] respectively (guaranteed to exist by the extreme-valuc theorem), and
let 4 = [% f(t. The intuition for the argument which follows is shown
or the ease of a positive function f) in Figure 6.2. As the line y = h moves
continuously from y = m to y= M, the area A(h) in the rectangle bounded
by y=, y= 0. x= a, x= b moves from being smaller than 4 (at A(™m))
to being greater than 4 (at A(M)), Algebraically (and true independently
fof the “area” interpretation), A(m) = m(b ~ a) < 2 fd! < M(b— a)
= A(M), Since A(h) = h(6 —a) is a continuous function of &, it follows
from the intermediate-value theorem (note: A(h) = f(b — a) is & continu
‘ous function) that there is a point d such that 4(d) = A: or equivalently,
d(b— a)= A, But d is between m and M, s0 again by the intermediate-
value theorem, since f is continuous, there is a point ¢ in [a,b] such that
flo) = d.Tefollows that
Loa Hoye ay,
(b) Again, the intuition is shown in Figure 6.3 (for the case of a positive
function), Let 4 = f% fli)de, and let A(A) = ft feds. In the figure, for 200 6. Inermesiae Real Analysis
Figure 63.
a , O 0, (2 + cosx)x > 3sinx.
(a) Prove this inequality by considering the function F(x) = x — Gsinx)/
2 +cos3).
(b) Prove this inequality by considering the function F(x) = @ + cosayx —
3sinx.
74.14, Prove that 74. Fonctonal Considerations 267
TAAS. Prove that
1 x
ie S5)* Gray OP?
TA.16. Prove that
etl Say eso
(FH) Gy. aero ave
7.4.17. Prove that
sing a ¢ una .
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