1.

Describe Statistics and Research Methodology:

a. Compare and Contrast

b. Give examples

Statistics is a branch of mathematics working with data collection, organization, analysis,

interpretation and presentation. In applying statistics to a scientific, industrial, or social
problem, it is conventional to begin with a statistical population or a statistical model to be
studied.

The process used to collect information and data for the purpose of making business decisions.
The methodology may include publication research, interviews, surveys and
other research techniques, and could include both present and historical information.

Example:

*A statistic is a characteristic of a sample. Generally, astatistic is used to estimate the value

of a population parameter. For instance, suppose we selected a randomsample of 100 students
from a school with 1000 students. The average height of the sampled students would be an
example of a statistic.

*There are different types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview,focus
groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used.
The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be drawn quite
easily from the data that is obtained.

2. Discuss the differences between:

a. Population and Sample

* Population- A population is the number of living people that live together in the same
place.[1] A city's population is the number of people living in that city. These people are
called inhabitants or residents. The population includes all individuals that live in that certain
area.The world population was estimated to have reached 7.5 billion in April 2017. Asia is the most
populous continent, with its 4.3 billion inhabitants being 60% of the world population.

Population density is the average number of people in a place. Urban areas such as big cities have
a high population density. People there live close to each other. In areas with a low population
density, people usually live far away from each other, such as in rural areas out in the countryside.

Usually population refers to the number of humans in a certain area. The maximum population that
can be supported in an area is called the carrying capacity.
** In statistics, a population is a set of similar items or events which is of interest for some
question or experiment. ... In statistical inference, a subset of
the population (a statistical sample) is chosen to represent the population in
a statistical analysis.

*Sample- In statistics and quantitative research methodology, a data sample is a set of

data collected and the world selected from astatistical population by a defined procedure.[1] The
elements of a sample are known as sample points, sampling units or observations[citation needed].

Typically, the population is very large, making a census or a complete enumeration of all the values
in the population either impractical or impossible. the sample usually represents a subset of
manageable size. Samples are collected and statisticsare calculated from the samples, so that one
can make inferences or extrapolations from the sample to the population.

The data sample may be drawn from a population without replacement (i.e. no element can be
selected more than once in the same sample), in which case it is a subset of a population; or with
replacement (i.e. an element may appear multiple times in the one sample), in which case it is a
multisubset.[2]

b. Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics

* Descriptive Statistics- Descriptive statistics deals with the presentation and collection of data. This is
usually the first part of a statistical analysis. It is usually not as simple as it sounds, and the statistician
needs to be aware of designing experiments, choosing the right focus group and avoid biases that are so
easy to creep into the experiment.

* Inferential Statistics- Inferential statistics, as the name suggests, involves drawing the right
conclusions from the statistical analysis that has been performed using descriptive statistics. In the end,
it is the inferences that make studies important and this aspect is dealt with in inferential statistics.

c. Data and Variable

* Data- Data (/ˈdeɪtə/ DAY-tə, /ˈdætə/ DAT-ə, /ˈdɑːtə/ DAH-tə)[1] is a set of values of subjects with
respect to qualitative or quantitative variables.

Data and information or knowledge are often used interchangeably; however data
becomes information when it is viewed in context or in post-analysis.[2] While the concept of data is
commonly associated with scientific research, data is collected by a huge range of organizations and
institutions, including businesses (e.g., sales data, revenue, profits, stock price), governments
(e.g., crime rates, unemployment rates,literacy rates) and non-governmental organizations (e.g.,
censuses of the number of homeless people by non-profit organizations).

Data is measured, collected and reported, and analyzed, whereupon it can be visualized using
graphs, images or other analysis tools. Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some
existing information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage
or processing. Raw data ("unprocessed data") is a collection of numbers or characters before it has
been "cleaned" and corrected by researchers. Raw data needs to be corrected to remove outliers or
obvious instrument or data entry errors (e.g., a thermometer reading from an outdoor Arctic location
recording a tropical temperature). Data processing commonly occurs by stages, and the "processed
data" from one stage may be considered the "raw data" of the next stage. Field data is raw data that
is collected in an uncontrolled "in situ" environment.Experimental data is data that is generated
within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording. Data has been described
as the new oil of the digital economy.[3][4]

* Variable- Variable may refer to: Variable (computer science), a symbolic name associated
with a value and whose associated value may be changed. Variable (mathematics), a symbol
that represents a quantity in a mathematical expression, as used in many
sciences. Variable (research), a logical set of attributes.

d. Quantitative and Qualitative

* Quantitative- Quantitative data are measures of values or counts and are expressed as
numbers. Quantitative dataare data about numeric variables (e.g. how many; how much; or
how often).

 Qualitative- Qualitative data are measures of 'types' and may be represented by a name,
symbol, or a number code.

Qualitative data are data about categorical variables (e.g. what type).

3. Why do you need to use a sample in making your research Study?

Sampling is done in research to be able to produce accurate results. It is impractical and

undesirable to study the whole population and that's why sampling is done. If the
sample is too small or excessively large, it may lead to incorrect findings. Sampling
techniques may be used to find representative samples to avoid bias.

A sample is a subset of the population one is studying that is selected for the actual
research study.

The purpose of sampling in research to find representative samples to avoid bias.

 It is often impractical and sometimes undesirable to try and study

the entirepopulation.
o A sample consists of only those units from our population of interest that we
actually study (e.g., 500 or 1000 of these Facebook users).
 In practice, the sample size that is selected for a study can have a significant
impact on the quality of your results/findings, with sample sizes that are either too
small or excessively large both potentially leading to incorrect findings. As a
result, sample size calculations are sometimes performed to determine how large
your sample size needs to be to avoid such problems.
 Sampling bias occurs when the units that are selected from the population for
inclusion in your sample are not characteristic of (i.e., do not reflect) the
population. This can lead to your sample being unrepresentative of the
population you are interested in.
 We typically study a sample of that population rather than attempt to study the
whole population . The purpose of sampling techniques is to help you select
units (e.g., Facebook users) to be included in your sample (e.g., of 500 Facebook
users).
One of the most important factors that determines if your research produces accurate
results is your sample. [Market Research and Strategic Consulting]

 The sample of a study is simply the participants in a study. Sampling is the

process whereby a researcher chooses her sample. [List of All Online College
Courses & Video Lessons - Study.com]
Sampling is an important component of any piece of research because of the significant
impact that it can have on the quality of your results/findings. [The Online Research Guide
for your Dissertation and Thesis]
4. Give and discuss:

a. Types of Variables

A “variable” in algebra really just means one thing—an unknown value. However, in statistics, you’ll come across
dozens of types of variables in statistics. In most cases, the word still means that you’re dealing with something
that’s unknown, but—unlike in algebra—that unknown isn’t always a number. Some variable types are used more
than others. For example, you’ll be much more likely to come across continuous variables than you would dummy
variables.

Common Types of Variables

 Categorical variable: variables than can be put into categories. For example, the category “Toothpaste
Brands” might contain the variables Colgate and Aquafresh.
 Confounding variable: extra variables that have a hidden effect on your experimental results.
 Continuous variable: a variable with infinite number of values, like “time” or “weight”.
 Control variable: a factor in an experiment which must be held constant. For example, in an experiment to
determine whether light makes plants grow faster, you would have to control for soil quality and water.
 Dependent variable: the outcome of an experiment. As you change the independent variable, you watch what
happens to the dependent variable.
 Discrete variable: a variable that can only take on a certain number of values. For example, “number of cars
in a parking lot” is discrete because a car park can only hold so many cars.
 Independent variable: a variable that is not affected by anything that you, the researcher, does. Usually
plotted on the x-axis.
 Lurking variable: a “hidden” variable the affects the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
 A measurement variable has a number associated with it. It’s an “amount” of something, or a”number” of
something.
 Nominal variable: another name for categorical variable.
 Ordinal variable: similar to a categorical variable, but there is a clear order. For example, income levels of
low, middle, and high could be considered ordinal.
 Qualitative variable: a broad category for any variable that can’t be counted (i.e. has no numerical value).
Nominal and ordinal variables fall under this umbrella term.
 Quantitative variable: A broad category that includes any variable that can be counted, or has a numerical
value associated with it. Examples of variables that fall into this category include discrete variables and ratio
variables.
 Random variables are associated with random processes and give numbers to outcomes of random events.
 A ranked variable is an ordinal variable; a variable where every data point can be put in order (1st, 2nd, 3rd,
etc.).
 b. Four Levels of Measurement

 Nominal–Latin for name only (Republican, Democrat, Green, Libertarian)

 Ordinal–Think ordered levels or ranks (small–8oz, medium–12oz, large–32oz)
 Interval–Equal intervals among levels (1 dollar to 2 dollars is the same interval as 88 dollars to 89
dollars)
 Ratio–Let the “o” in ratio remind you of a zero in the scale (Day 0, day 1, day 2, day 3, …)

The first level of measurement is nominal level of measurement. In this level of

measurement, the numbers in the variable are used only to classify the data. In this level of
measurement, words, letters, and alpha-numeric symbols can be used. Suppose there are
data about people belonging to three different gender categories. In this case, the person
belonging to the female gender could be classified as F, the person belonging to the male
gender could be classified as M, and transgendered classified as T. This type of
assigning classification is nominal level of measurement.
The second level of measurement is the ordinal level of measurement. This level of
measurement depicts some ordered relationship among the variable’s
observations. Suppose a student scores the highest grade of 100 in the class. In this case,
he would be assigned the first rank. Then, another classmate scores the second highest
grade of an 92; she would be assigned the second rank. A third student scores a 81 and he
would be assigned the third rank, and so on. The ordinal level of measurement indicates
an ordering of the measurements.
The third level of measurement is the interval level of measurement. The interval level of
measurement not only classifies and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the
distances between each interval on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low
interval to high interval. For example, an interval level of measurement could be the
measurement of anxiety in a student between the score of 10 and 11, this interval is the
same as that of a student who scores between 40 and 41. A popular example of this level
of measurement is temperature in centigrade, where, for example, the distance between
940C and 960C is the same as the distance between 1000C and 1020C.
The fourth level of measurement is the ratio level of measurement. In this level of
measurement, the observations, in addition to having equal intervals, can have a value of
zero as well. The zero in the scale makes this type of measurement unlike the other
types of measurement, although the properties are similar to that of the interval level of
measurement. In the ratio level of measurement, the divisions between the points on the
scale have an equivalent distance between them.
The researcher should note that among these levels of measurement, the nominal level is
simply used to classify data, whereas the levels of measurement described by the interval
level and the ratio level are much more exact.

c. Types of Hypotheses

 Simple Hypothesis
 Complex Hypothesis
 Empirical Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis (Denoted by "HO")
 Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by "H1")
 Logical Hypothesis
 Statistical Hypothesis

d. Statistical Tools

Abstract
Statistical methods involved in carrying out a study include planning, designing, collecting data, analysing, drawing meaningful
interpretation and reporting of the research findings. The statistical analysis gives meaning to the meaningless numbers, thereby
breathing life into a lifeless data. The results and inferences are precise only if proper statistical tests are used. This article will try
to acquaint the reader with the basic research tools that are utilised while conducting various studies. The article covers a brief
outline of the variables, an understanding of quantitative and qualitative variables and the measures of central tendency. An idea
of the sample size estimation, power analysis and the statistical errors is given. Finally, there is a summary of parametric and
non-parametric tests used for data analysis.

The type of statistical methods used for this purpose are called descriptive statistics. They
include both numerical (e.g. mean, mode, variance…) and graphical tools (e.g.
histogram, boxplot…) which allow to summarize a set of data and extract important information
such as central tendencies and dispersion.