Vector Operators: Grad, Div and Curl
We introduce three field operators which reveal interesting collective field properties.
the gradient of a scalar field,
the divergence of a vector field, and
the curl of a vector field.
There are two points to get over about each:
The mechanics of taking the grad, div or curl, for which you will need to brush up
your multivariate calculus.
The underlying physical meaning.
.
The gradient of a scalar field
If U ( x, y, z ) is a scalar field, ie a scalar function of position r x, y, z in 3 dimensions, then
U U U
its gradient at any point is defined in Cartesian co-ordinates by gradU i j k.
x y z
It is usual to define the vector operator which is called “del” or “nabla”.
i j k.
x y z
Then gradU U .
Note: U is a vector field.
We can see that the gradient of a scalar field tends to point in the direction of greatest change of
the field. .
The significance of grad
Here r in some scalar field U and we move an infinitesimal distance d r we know that the
U U U
change in U is dU dx dy dz
x y z
U U U
But we know that d r dx, dy, dz and U i j k so that the change in U is
x y z
also given by the scalar product dU U .d r . Now divide both sides by ds
dU dr
U .
ds ds
But remember that d r ds so d r ds is a unit vector in the direction of d r .
So gradU has the property that the rate of change of U wrt distance in a particular direction
( d̂ ) is the projection of gradU onto that direction (or the component of gradU in that
direction).
In other words grad U is orthogonal to the tangent to any curve lying in the surface {U c } .
Therefore it defines the normal vector to the level surface.
Proof:
The quantity dU is called a directional derivative, but note that in general it has a
ds
different value for each direction, and so has no meaning until you specify the direction.
Applications of gradient
1. Equation for the tangent plane to a surface
f is perpendicular to level surfaces of functions f (x, y, z). So therefore if we can write a surface as
f (x, y, z) = c, then the unit normal is
f
nˆ ,
| f |
So the equation for the tangent plane at a point P with position vector r = ro is
(r r 0 ).nˆ 0 (r r 0 ).f rr0 0
Example: Show that, the equation for the tangent plane to a sphere of radius a at a point
(x0, yo, zo) is xxo + yy o + zz o = a 2
2. Stationary points of a Surface
f = 0 defines the points at which the function f (x, y, z) has its stationary points = (x o,
y o, z o) such that
f f f f f f
f , , 0 0, 0, 0
x y z x xo y yo , z zo x y z
(Conditions for stationary points)
In 2D, we know there are three kinds of stationary points. Maxima, minima and saddles.
3 . Force an d p oten ti al en ergy
dv
We know for 1D that ` F = ' where V is potential energy and F applied force. How
dx
does this apply in more dimensions?
F = grad V
i.e. force is in the direction of maximum increase in potential.
.
E x a m p l e : A spaceship moves in the gravitational field of a planet with gravitational
k
potential k is a constant.
|r|
Calculate the magnitude of the force acting on the ship at a distance r from the centre
of the planet.
The divergence of a vector field
The divergence computes a scalar quantity from a vector field by differentiation.
Divergence: div(v) .v , , .v1 , v2 , v3
x y z
v v v
1 2 3
x y z
Notice that the divergence of a vector field is a scalar field
The significance of div
Consider a vector field, water flow, and denote it by v(r ) . This vector has magnitude equal to
the mass of water crossing a unit area perpendicular to the direction of v per unit time.
Now take an infinitesimal volume element dV and figure out the balance of the flow of v in
and out of dV .
To be specific, consider the volume element dV dxdydz in Cartesian co-ordinates.
So we see that,
The divergence of a vector field represents the flux generation per unit volume at each point of
the field.
The curl of a vector field
i j k
curl (v) v
x y z
v1 v2 v3
Some definitions involving div, curl and grad
A vector field with zero divergence is said to be solenoidal.
A vector field with zero curl is said to be irrotational
A scalar field with zero gradient is said to be constant.
Definition: A vector field is said to be (Solenoidal) In co mp ressi b l e if div v=0 at all
points. i.e. for all values of x,y,z is called solenoidal vector field. Conversely, if A is a solenoidal
vector field then there exist vector G so that A = culrG. G is vector potential of A
Example: This has a natural interpretation in fluid mechanics, where the equation of continuity
states that the fluid density (r ) (a scalar field) and the fluid velocity v(r ) are linked by the
continuity equation
div v 0
t
So that if the fluid has constant density (e.g. water, to good approximation, but not air) we have
o =const., and hence div o v 0 divv 0 divv 0
Incompressible vector fields are also called solenoidal
Definition:
A force field F that satisfies curlF 0 is said to be conservati ve.
More generally it can be shown that curlF 0 if and only if F grad , for some scalar field .
is called the scalar potential of a conservative vector field.
Proof:
First, we show that v = grad curl v 0
This is by direct calculation: v i j k
x y z
i j k
S o , c u r vl
x y z
x x x
2 2 2 2 2 2
i j k
zy yz xz zx yx xy
0i 0 j 0k 0
Next, we show that curl v 0 v
for some scalar field (r )
v3 v2
Now curl v = 0 0 (2.3)
y z
v1 v3
0 (2.4)
z x
v2 v1
0 (2.5)
x y
2 v3
Now, taking of (2.3) and of (2.4) we get two expressions for . Setting these equal
x y xy
2 v2 2 v1 3
gives : (2.6)
zx zy xyz
For some scalar function ( x, y, z ) . This can only be true if
v1 b1/ y c1/ z d1/ and v 2 b2/ y c2/ z d 2/
x y
/
For some functions b1 ( x), c1 ( x), d1/ ( x) and b2/ ( y ), c2/ ( y ), d 2/ ( y ) . Where
/ /
st ands for
“di fferent i at e” But, by redefining to be
b1 y c1 z d1 x b2 xy c2 yz d 2 y
We can without loss of generality choose b1, 2 c1, 2 d1, 2 0 and
2 v3 2 v2 3
:
xy xz xyz
S o t ha t , wi t ho ut l os s o f ge n er a l i t y v2 , v3
y z
(v1 , v2 , v3 ) , , .
x y z
E xa mp l e
Show that the following vector fields are conservative, and find their scalar fields so that
F
(i) F (2xy z 3 )i x 2 j 3xz 2 k
(ii) F 2 xi 4 y j 8 z k
