The Family Environment and Adolescent
Well-being: Exposure to Positive and
Negative Family Influences
Dena Aufseeser, Susan Jekielek, and Brett Brown June 2006
Highlights
Over three-quarters of all parents report very close relationships with their
adolescent children.
Many 15-year-olds report difficulty talking with their mothers and fathers about
things that really bother them.
Adolescents who live with two parents are more likely to have parents who
know their whereabouts after school.
Hispanic parents are less likely than white and black parents to know who most
of their adolescent’s friends are.
Foreign-born adolescents are more likely than their native-born peers to eat
meals with their family.
Adolescents with better-educated parents are less likely to be exposed to
smoking and heavy drinking by their parents.
Adolescents whose parents exercise are less likely to be sedentary themselves.
Introduction
By action and by example, parents shape the lives of their children from birth through
adulthood. In adolescence, the influence of friends and peers take on greater importance, but
research clearly demonstrates the continued significance of parents in shaping the behaviors
and choices of teens as they face the challenges of growing up.1
Close parent/adolescent relationships, good parenting skills, shared family activities and
positive parent role modeling all have well-documented effects on adolescent health and
development.2,3,4 These are also areas where parents can make choices to make positive
changes for their children, and where social policy can help support parents in taking such
steps.
In this brief, we report data on teens’ experiences in their families with a particular focus on
differences across social groups. Our purpose is to identify where disparities exist and where
needs for intervention are greatest.a We end with a brief discussion on the implications for
parenting and for policy.
a
One should not interpret the reported differences across the sociodemographic subgroups as implying a
causal relationship, as causality cannot be determined from such simple bivariate relationships.
The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being PAGE 2
PARENT-ADOLESCENT CLOSENESS AND COMMUNICATION
Close relationships, healthy open communication, and perceived parental support are
especially important during adolescence, as children experience many physical and emotional
changes. For example, research shows teens who have positive relationships with their
parents are less likely to engage in various risk behaviors, including smoking, fighting,5 and
drinking.6 They are also less likely to report symptoms of depression and more likely to report
high levels of perceived well-being.7 Adolescents who report difficulty talking with their
parents are more likely to drink alcohol frequently, have problems with binge drinking, smoke,
and feel unhappy (especially girls).8,9
Over three-quarters of all parents report very close relationships with their
adolescent children.
Figure 1: Percentage of Adolescents Ages 12 to 17 Who Are Very Close with
Their Parents, as Reported by the Parent, 200310
100
90
82 82
78
80 76
72
70
60
Percent
50
40
30
20
10
0
12 to 14 15 to 17 Two One Single mother
biological/adoptive biological/one
parents stepparent
Child's age Family Structure
Figure 1: Percentage of Adolescents Ages 12 to 17 Who Are Very Close with Their Parents, as
Most parents report having very close relationships with their adolescents, though there are
Reported by the Parent, 200310
some differences
100 by type of family and the age of the child. In 2003, over three-quarters of
parents (generally mothers) reported having very close relationships with their adolescents
90
ages 12 to 17 (79%).
82 Reported closeness was lowest in82families where there was a step-parent
present: 8072% among adolescents76 living with one biological parent and one stepparent,
78
followed by 78% for those living with single mothers, and 82% for those 72 living with two
biological70parents (See Figure 1). Reported closeness was slightly lower for parents with
older children (82% for children ages 12 to 14 compared with 76% for those ages 15 to 17).10
60
Percent
50
40
30
20
10
0
12 to 14 15 to 17 Two One Single mother
biological/adoptive biological/one
The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being PAGE 3
Many 15-year-olds report difficulty talking with their mothers and fathers
about things that really bother them.
Figure 2: Percent of 15-Year Olds Who Found it Very Difficult or Difficult to Talk
with their Parents about Things Really Bothering Them, 199812
100
90 Male Female
80
70
60
53
Percent
50
42
40
32 32
30
20
10
0
Difficult or very difficult to talk with mother Difficult or very difficult to talk with father
Data from 1998 indicate that 32% of 15-year-olds reported having difficulty talking with their
mothers about things that really bother them.11 Parent-child communication problems are
even more common with fathers, where 53% of females and 42% of males reporting that it is
difficult or very difficult for them to discuss issues that really bother them with their fathers
(See Figure 2).12
While general communication is very important, parents can also help prevent certain risk
behaviors by specifically taking steps to discuss these behaviors with their adolescents. For
example, 14- and 15-year-old girls whose mothers clearly expressed strong disapproval for
their adolescent daughters having sex were about half as likely as daughters whose mothers
expressed less disapproval to engage in early sexual intercourse or other risky sexual
behaviors. 13 Eighty-seven percent of female adolescents’ mothers and 84% of male
adolescents’ mothers reported strongly disapproving of their adolescents having sex (See
Table 1).12
Table 1
Maternal communication with their 14- and 15-year-old children
about sex, 199812
Mothers (%)
Males Females
Disapprove of adolescent having sex
Strongly agree 83.9 87.0
Agree 11.6 9.3
Neither agree nor disagree 4.0 3.4
Disagree 0.1 0.2
Strongly disagree 0.4 1.3
The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being PAGE 4
PARENTAL MONITORING
Parental monitoring includes knowing children’s whereabouts after school, as well as knowing
children’s friends and activities. These behaviors, when combined with parental support, have
been shown to be positively related to higher adolescent self-esteem, higher GPAs in school,
and greater academic success.14,15 In addition, parental monitoring has been associated with
fewer internalizing behaviors, such as withdrawal and depression, and externalizing behavior
problems, such as fighting and disturbing others,16,17,18 as well as a lower likelihood of drinking,
19, 20
smoking, and engaging in other risky behaviors.21
Adolescents who live with two parents are more likely to have parents who
know their whereabouts after school.
Figure 3: Percentage of Tenth Graders Who Report That Their Parents Know
Where They Are After School Most or All of the Time, 200422
100
90 90
90
83 83
80
70
60
Percent
50
40
30
20
10
0
White Black One parent Two parents
Race Family Structure
Most adolescents report that their parents know where they are after school. In 2004, 88% of
tenth graders reported that they believe their parents know where they are after school most
or all of the time. Percentages were similar among eighth graders. Reported levels of parental
awareness differed somewhat by race and family structure (See Figure 3). Among tenth
graders in 2004, white students were more likely than black students to report that their
parents knew where they were after school most or all of the time (90% versus 83%
respectively). Students who lived with two parents were more likely than those in single
parent families to report that their parents knew where they were after school most or all of
the time.22
The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being PAGE 5
Hispanic parents are less likely than white and black parents to know who
most of their adolescent’s friends are.
Figure 4: Percentage of Parents Who Know Most of Their Child's Friends, 200323
100
90 88 86
80
73 74
70 66
60 55
Percent
50
40
30
20
10
0
Hispanic Non-Hispanic Non-Hispanic Less than Completed More than
black white high school high school high school
Race/Ethnicity Parental Education
In 2003, 80% of parents of adolescents ages 12 to 17 reported knowing all or most of their
children’s friends. Differences by parental education levels, race/ethnicity, and family
structure are quite large. Eighty-six percent of children whose parents had more than a high
school education had parents who reported knowing most or all of their children’s friends,
compared with only 55% of children whose parents had not completed high school (See
Figure 4).23
Non-Hispanic white children were more likely than other children to have parents who knew
most of their friends. In 2003, 88% of non-Hispanic white adolescents ages 12 to 17 had
parents who knew most or all of their friends, compared with 73% of non-Hispanic black
adolescents and 66% of Hispanic adolescents (See Figure 4).23 Similarly, children living with
two biological parents were more likely than children living with single mothers to have a
parent who knew most or all of their friends (84% versus 76%, respectively).24
EATING MEALS TOGETHER
Family meals serve as an important time for adolescents to communicate with and spend time
with their parents, and have been associated with less substance use, delinquency, depressive
symptoms, and suicide attempts, and with better grades and academic performance.25,26
Adolescents who eat meals regularly with their parents are also more likely to eat fruits,
vegetables, and dairy foods and less likely to skip breakfast.27 More frequent family meals, a
more structured family meal environment, and a positive atmosphere at family meals are
associated with a lower likelihood of disordered eating.28
The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being PAGE 6
Foreign-born adolescents are more likely than their native-born peers to eat
meals with their family.
Figure 5: Percentage of Adolescents Eating Meals with Their Families Six to
Seven Days a Week, 200329
100
90
80
70
62
60
54
Percent
50 47
39 40 40
40
30
20
10
0
Non-Hispanic Non-Hispanic Hispanic Foreign-born Native born Native born
white black w/foreign born w/native born
parent parents
Race/ Ethnicity Immigrant Status
In 2003, 42% of adolescents ages 12 to 17 ate meals with their family six to seven days a
week. Certain subgroups are much more likely than others to eat meals together as a family.
Hispanic adolescents are much more likely than non-Hispanic white and black adolescents to
eat meals together with their family. In 2003, 54% of Hispanic children ages 12 to 17 ate
meals as a family six to seven days a week, compared with only about 39% of non-Hispanic
white and black adolescents of the same age. Similarly, foreign-born adolescents are much
more likely than native-born adolescents to eat meals together as a family (62% versus 40%,
respectively, in 2003) (See Figure 5).29
PARENTAL HEALTH BEHAVIORS
Parents’ health-related behaviors can affect adolescent well-being in several ways including
providing positive (or negative) role models and by contributing to healthy or unhealthy
physical and social environments. Parental habits can also shape adolescent health behaviors
by increasing easy access to cigarettes or alcohol in the home, or, on the positive side,
increasing access to healthy foods.
Smoking. Children who live with someone who smokes are likely to inhale secondhand smoke,
which increases their risk of developing health problems such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and
other lung diseases, as well as increased asthma attacks and ear infections.30 In addition,
living in a family with smokers places adolescents at a higher risk of developing the habit
themselves, further increasing their chances of developing serious health problems.31 In
2004, parent report data indicate that about one fifth (21%) of all parents of adolescents ages
12 to 17 smoked.32
The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being PAGE 7
Adolescents with better-educated parents are less likely to be exposed to
smoking and heavy drinking by their parents.
Figure 6: Percentage of Parents (of Adolescents Ages 12 to 17) Who Smoke, by
Parental Education Level, 200433
100
90
80
70
60
Percent
50
40
30 29
30
20
20
10 8
0
Less than high school High school Some college Bachelor's degree or more
The likelihood of adolescent exposure to parental smoking differs substantially by the
educational level of the parent. Among parents with at least a bachelor’s degree, eight percent
smoked, compared with 30% among parents with adolescents with less than a high school
degree (See Figure 6).33
Alcohol. Children who can easily access alcohol or who have alcoholic parents have a greater
risk of developing their own problems with alcohol abuse, although other factors such as one’s
peers also play a large role in determining whether an adolescent will abuse alcohol.34 For
example, access to alcohol in the home is linked to teen drinking and being drunk at school.35
In addition, parental alcohol abuse has consequences for other family experiences including
increased family violence36 and decreased levels of parent monitoring.37
In 2004, based on parent reports, six percent of fathers and one percent of mothers of
adolescents drank heavily, defined as having five or more drinks in a row at least once a week.
Hispanic fathers were more likely to report drinking heavily (nine percent compared with six
percent of non-Hispanic white fathers and three percent of non-Hispanic black fathers).
Parental drinking patterns also differed by parental education levels. In 2004, 11% of fathers
with less than a high school degree drank heavily at least once a week, compared with two
percent of fathers who had at least a bachelor’s degree (See Table 2).
The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being PAGE 8
Table 2
Percentage of Parents (of Adolescents) who Drank
Heavily at least Once per Week in the Past Year, 200438
Fathers Mothers
Total 5.9 1.4
Race/Ethnicity
Non-Hispanic white 5.9 2.1
Non-Hispanic black 3.3 0.6
Hispanic 9.4 0.3
Parental Education
Less than high school 11.3 1.0
High school 8.3 3.0
Some college 3.8 0.9
Bachelor's degree or more 2.3 0.5
Adolescents whose parents exercise are less likely to be sedentary themselves.
Figure 7: Percentage of Adolescents Ages 12 to 17 who Exercise Zero, One to
Five, and Six to Seven Times a Week, by Parental Exercise Patterns, 200337
100
90
0 times a week
1 to 5 times a week
80
6 to 7 times a week
70
59
60
55
Percent
50
40
30 28
24
21
20
12
10
0
Parent did not exercise heavily in last month Parent did exercise heavily in last month
Parental Exercise
Exercise. Adolescents whose parents exercise are themselves more likely to do so. In 2003,
according to parent-report data, adolescents with a parent who reported exercising heavily (so
that they sweated) in the last month were more likely than adolescents without a parent who
reported exercising heavily to themselves exercise six to seven times a week (28% versus
21%, respectively) (See Figure 7).39
The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being PAGE 9
Nearly three-quarters (72%) of adolescents have a parent who reported exercising heavily in
the last month. Parents with higher levels of education are more likely to report exercising
heavily. In 2003, 77% of adolescents with a parent who had more than a high school degree
reported exercising heavily in the last month, compared with 54% of adolescents whose
parents had less than a high school degree. Adolescents living with two parents are also more
likely than adolescents living with single mothers to have a parent who exercises heavily (79%
compared with 54%, respectively) (See Table 3).40
Table 3
Percentage of Adolescents with at least One
Parent who Exercises, 200341
Total 72.1
Race/Ethnicity
Non-Hispanic white 76.9
Non-Hispanic black 63.7
Hispanic 62.2
Parental Education
Less than high school 53.7
High school 65.7
More than high school 76.6
Family Structure
Two biological/adoptive parents 79.5
Two stepparent family 78.8
Single mother 54.0
Poverty Level
Less than 100% of poverty level 54.7
100% to 200% of the poverty level 65.3
200%+ of the poverty level 79.2
Conclusion
The family environment can be a strong source of support for developing adolescents,
providing close relationships, strong parenting skills, good communication, and modeling
positive behaviors. It can also be a problematic environment when those supports are lacking,
or when negative adult behaviors like smoking and heavy drinking are present. Where
adolescent health is concerned, clearly the family matters, and parents matter.
Fortunately, the evidence indicates that most adolescents enjoy healthy family environments,
with large majorities reporting the capacity to talk with mothers about things that really bother
them (68%), parents who know who their child’s friends are (80%), know where their child is
after school (88%), and who do not smoke (79%) or drink heavily (well over 90%), and who
report very close relationships with their adolescents (79%).
The Family Environment and Adolescent Well-Being PAGE 10
It is also clear, however, that not everyone is so fortunate, and that there are sometimes large
disparities across groups. For those parents who need help in developing a more positive
family environment, there are proven programs that can help. For example, certain programs
aimed at helping parents set appropriate limits, increase communication, and improve the
quality of their relationships have been shown to be effective and consequently positively
influence adolescent social development.42 As part of a program that showed promising results
(the Iowa Strengthening Families Program), parents were taught behaviors such as
appropriate limit-setting, encouraging good behavior, communication skills, and how to access
community resources. Adolescents attended workshops on goal-setting, appreciating parents,
and how to deal with peer pressure and stress. Together, parents and adolescents met to
discuss conflict resolution and family values.43 Following the completion of the program,
parents reported closer, stronger relationships with their adolescents that continued to improve
over time. Other successful programs specifically target conflict and problem solving skills.
Research has also shown that parents who tailor their relationship to accommodate changes in
adolescents’ development over time can improve the quality of that relationship.44
In addition to improving communication, monitoring levels, and the quality of parent-child
adolescent relationships, programs that promote healthy behaviors for all family members
show promising potential for reducing negative adolescent health behaviors. While only limited
research has been done, one program that taught both parents and children the importance of
regular exercise and healthy diets, as well as behavior management, led to lower levels of
obesity and weight gain than programs which just targeted children.45 By promoting clear
messages of the importance of healthy behaviors, parents can reduce the likelihood of their
adolescents engaging in risky behaviors.
By targeting those families with adolescents most at-risk for negative health behaviors, and
focusing on improving the specific parenting skills and behaviors that seem to be beneficial,
policy makers and educators can take preventative actions and teach and build positive
behaviors before serious health consequences are experienced.
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Suggested Citation: Aufseeser D, Jekielek S, & Brown B. (2006). The Family
Environment and Adolescent Well-Being: Exposure to Positive and Negative Family
Influences. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends; and San Francisco, CA: National
Adolescent Health Information Center, University of California, San Francisco.
The National Adolescent Health Information Center at the University of California,
San Francisco and Child Trends are pleased to announce a new partnership. With
support from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources
and Services Administration, Maternal and Child Health Bureau, our two institutions
are collaborating to create resources and provide assistance to improve the health
of young people and their families. This brief is a product of our collaboration.
This document was developed with support from the Health Resources and Services
Administration, Maternal and Child Health Bureau, Office of Adolescent Health
(MCHB-OAH) (U45 MC00002).
