Electronic Engineering

UEC 001
 UEC 001: Electronic Engineering
Course Learning Objectives
Course Objectives: To enhance comprehension capabilities of students,
following course objectives are laid down:-

 CLO-1: Demonstrate the use of semiconductor diodes in various

applications.
 CLO-2: Discuss and explain the working of transistors and operational
Amplifiers, their configurations and applications.
 CLO-3: Recognize and apply the number systems and Boolean algebra.
 CLO-4: Reduce Boolean expressions and implement them with Logic
Gates.
 CLO-5: Analyze, design and implement combinational and sequential
circuits.
 CLO-6: Analyze and differentiate logic families, TTL and CMOS.
UEC 001: Electronic Engineering

Evaluation Scheme:
 MST : 25
 EST : 35
 Sessional: 40

Lab – 16 (Lab Daily Perf + Final Test Perf = 8 + 8)

Tutorial – 8 (daily Perf + Test)

Quiz-1 (before MST) – 8 (16 Qs of ½ mark each)

Quiz-2 (before EST) – 8 (16 Qs of ½ mark each)
Quiz will be online test.
 UEC 001: Electronic Engineering

Text Books:
1. Milliman, J. and Halkias, C.C., Electronic
Devices and Circuits, Tata McGraw Hill.
2. M. M. Mano and M.D. Ciletti, Digital
Design, Pearson, Prentice Hall.
3. Boylestad, R.L. and Nashelsky, L.,
Electronic Devices & Circuit Theory,
Pearson (11th Edition).

Reference Books:
1. Donald D Givone, Digital Principles and
Design, McGraw-Hill.
2. John F Wakerly, Digital Design:
Principles and Practices, Pearson.
3. N Storey, Electronics: A Systems
Approach, Pearson, Prentice Hall.
UEC 001: Electronic Engineering
Syllabus
• Semiconductor Devices
• Electronic Devices and Circuits
• Operational Amplifier Circuits
• Digital Systems and Binary Numbers
• Combinational and Sequential Logic
• Logic Families
• Familiarity with Standards
 UEC 001: Electronic Engineering
Semiconductor Devices: S
y
 p- n junction diode, Ideal diode, l
l
 V-I characteristics of diode, a
b
 Diode small signal model, u
s
 Diode switching characteristics, Zener
diode f
o
 PN Diode as a rectifier, Clipper and r
clamper
M
S
T
 UEC 001: Electronic Engineering

Electronics Devices and Circuits:

 Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor and
Transistor Biasing, CB, CE, CC (Relationship
between α, β, γ) circuit configuration Input-output
characteristics.

 Equivalent circuit of ideal and real amplifiers, Low

frequency response of amplifiers,
 Introduction to Field Effect Transistor and its
characteristics, N and P channel MOS transistors,
CMOS inverter
 UEC 001: Electronic Engineering

Operational Amplifier Circuits:

 The ideal operational amplifier,
 The inverting, non-inverting amplifiers,
 Op-Amp Characteristics, Op-amp as
Summer.
 UEC 001: Electronic Engineering
S
Digital Systems and Binary Numbers: y
 Introduction to Digital signals and systems, l
l
 Number systems, Positive and negative
a
representation of numbers, Binary arithmetic, b
 Definitions and basic theorems of Boolean u
Algebra, Algebraic simplification, s
 Sum of products and product of sums

formulations (SOP and POS), f

 Gate primitives, AND, OR, NOT and Universal o
Gate, Minimization of logic functions, r
Karnaugh maps.
M
S
T
 UEC 001: Electronic Engineering

Combinational and Sequential Logic:

Code converters, multiplexers, decoders,
Adders ,
 Master-slave and edge-triggered flip-flops,

Synchronous and Asynchronous counters,

Registers
Logic families:
 TTL and CMOS logic families and their
interfacing
Electronic Engineering
UEC 001
Semiconductor Devices
 Semiconductors
What are semiconductor devices?
• Semiconductors are substances with specific electrical properties.
• Substances that conduct electricity are called conductors. Gold, silver and
copper have low resistance and conduct electricity easily.
• Substances that do not conduct electricity are called insulators. Rubber, glass
and ceramics have high resistance and do not conduct electricity.
• Semiconductors are substances with electrical properties that lie somewhere
between conductors and insulators.
• Electrical property referred to here is called Resistivity.
• Resistivity of semiconductors may change with temperature. At a low
temperature, almost no electricity passes through them. But when the
temperature rises, electricity passes through them easily.
• Semiconductors containing almost no impurities conduct almost no
electricity. Only when certain types of impurities are added to the
semiconductors, electricity passes through them easily.
Resistivity of Materials (at Room Temperature)
 Semiconductors
 Materials that have electrical conductivity in between conductors and
insulators are categorized as Semiconductors.
• Semiconductors are neither good conductors nor good insulators
• At room temperature, their electrical conductivity is lower than good
conductors but better than insulators.
• At higher temperature, semiconductors have better conductivity
contrary to conductors whose conductivity decreases.
• Resistivity of semiconductors decreases at higher temperature,
because they have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
• Conductivity of semiconductors can be altered by a large extent by
adding impurities of certain materials.
• Semiconductors comprising a single element are called elemental
semiconductors. Example: Silicon and Germanium
• Semiconductors made up of two or more compounds are called compound
semiconductors. Example: GaAs, GaP, CdS
 History of Semiconductors
• First semiconductor device, a rectifier was developed in 1874.
• First point-contact transistor device invented at Bell Laboratories, USA in
1947. In 1948, junction transistor invented.
• Until now, vacuum tubes were used as electronic devices to build equipment.
First computer developed in 1946 using vacuum tubes consumed more
electricity and generated lot of heat.
• First integrated circuit (IC) with very few components developed in 1958 by
Texas Instruments.
• Since then semiconductor industry has grown rapidly. Today, the Intel ® Core
TM i7 Processor of has 731 million transistors in a single package.
• Moore's Law: In 1965 by Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, observed that
number of transistors per square inch on integrated circuits had doubled
every year since invention of an IC. He predicted that this trend would
continue for the foreseeable future.
• This observation continues to be accurate and miniaturization is expected to
continue for the next few decades.
Further miniaturization is limited by: Quality of semiconductor material,
network design technique, limits of manufacturing and processing equipment.
 Covalent Bonding & Intrinsic Materials
• Si, Ge, and GaAs are the semiconductors of choice. To understand the
reason, one has to know how the atoms are bound together to form a
crystalline structure.
• Fundamental particles of an atom i.e. proton, and neutron form the
nucleus and electrons appear in fixed orbits around the nucleus. The
Bohr model of Si and Ge are shown below:-

• Silicon has 14 orbiting electrons, Germanium has 32 electrons.

• Both type of atoms have four electrons in the outermost shell and are
referred to as Valence electrons . Such atoms are called tetravalent..
Covalent Bonding & Intrinsic Materials

Bohr Model of Ga and As are shown on

right.
Gallium has 31 electrons in its atom, of
these three electrons are valence electrons.
Gallium atom is called trivalent atom
Arsenic has 33 electrons in its atom, of
these five electrons are valence electrons.
Arsenic atom is called pentavalent atom.
Term Valence indicates that the ionization
potential required to remove valence
electrons from the atomic structure is much
lower than that required for any other
electron in the structure.
 Covalent Bonding & Intrinsic Materials
 In a pure silicon or germanium crystal the four valence electrons of one
atom form a bonding arrangement with four adjoining atoms, as shown.
 Bonding of atoms, by the sharing of electrons, is called Covalent
Bonding.
 Covalent Bonding & Intrinsic Materials
 GaAs is a Compound Semiconductor. There is sharing of electrons
between the two different atoms similar to Ge and Si.
 Each atom of gallium or arsenic, is surrounded by atoms of other type.
 Five electrons are provided by the As atom and three by the Ga atom.
 Covalent Bonding & Intrinsic Materials
 Covalent bonds provide stronger bond between the valence electrons and
their parent atom.
 But Valence electrons can absorb sufficient kinetic energy from external
sources (heat or light) to break the covalent bond to assume the “free state”.
Once free, electrons in free State are sensitive to applied electric fields.
 At room temperature, there are approximately 1.5 X 1010 free carriers/cm3 of
intrinsic silicon material. These free carriers in an intrinsic material called
intrinsic carriers.
 Number of intrinsic carriers for Ge, Si, and GaAs are shown below. Ge has
the highest number and GaAs the lowest. Ge has twice the number as GaAs .
 Intrinsic Semiconductor Materials
 Purity of semiconductors is highly essential to obtain desired
level of conductivity.

 Earlier due to technological reasons, only Germanium could be

purified to desired levels, thus silicon could not be used for
semiconductor applications.

 With technological advances, it is possible to produce

semiconductor materials of very high purity. Impurity levels of 1 part
in 10 billion (1010) are common today.

 A semiconductor is “Intrinsic” in nature if it has been refined to

reduce the number of impurities to an extremely low level.
 Intrinsic Semiconductor Materials

Why is it essential to obtain extremely high level of purity?

 High level of purity is necessary as addition of impurity atoms can
change the intrinsic material from a relatively poor conductor to
a good conductor of electricity.
 One part of impurity per million in a wafer of silicon material can
change the material from a relatively poor conductor to a good
conductor of electricity.
 Ability to change the characteristics of a material through a
process of adding impurity of proper type is called Doping.
 Germanium, silicon, and gallium arsenide readily accept doping
process.
 Intrinsic Semiconductor Materials
Effect of heat on Semiconductors and Conductors:
 Conductors: Resistance increases with an increase in heat because the
numbers of carriers in a conductor do not increase significantly with
temperature, but the vibration pattern about a relatively fixed location
makes it increasingly difficult for a sustained flow of carriers through the
material.
 Such materials have a positive temperature coefficient.
 Semiconductor materials show increased level of conductivity with the
application of heat. As the temperature rises, an increasing number of
valence electrons absorb sufficient thermal energy to break the covalent
bond and to contribute to the number of free carriers.
 Such materials have a negative temperature coefficient.
 Electron Energy Levels
 Each isolated atom has a certain number of orbits for its electrons. These
orbits represent energy levels for the electrons.
 Only discrete values of electron energy levels are possible, such as
n=1,2,3... in increasing order of energy.
 Electrons orbiting closer to nucleus are tightly bound and possess less
energy.
 Electrons in higher orbits have greater energy.
 Valence electrons (in outermost shell) have max energy and take active
part in chemical reactions and in bonding of atoms.
 Energy of electrons can be increased by heat, light or radiation.
 Electron Energy Levels
 Figure on right shows specific energy
levels for electrons of an isolated atom.
 It has series of gaps between allowed
energy levels where carriers are not
permitted.
 As the atoms are brought closer to form
the crystal lattice structure, interaction
between atoms results in electrons of a
particular shell of an atom to have slightly
different energy levels from electrons in the
same orbit of an adjoining atom.
 This results in expansion of the fixed,
discrete energy levels of the valence
electrons to bands as shown on right.
 Thus, there is a minimum energy level
associated with electrons in the conduction
band and a maximum energy level of
electrons bound to the valence shell of the
atom.
 Electron Energy Levels
 Between the conduction and valence
bands, there is an forbidden energy
gap that the electron in the valence
band must overcome to become a
free carrier.
 This energy gap is different for Ge, Si,
and GaAs; Ge has the smallest gap
and GaAs the largest gap.

 An electron in the valence band of silicon must absorb more energy than
one in the valence band of germanium to become a free carrier. Similarly,
an electron in the valence band of gallium arsenide must gain more energy
than one in silicon or germanium to enter the conduction band.
 Difference in forbidden energy gap of different materials reveals their
sensitivity to changes in temperature.
 Germanium electrons can easily enter the conduction band with small
thermal energy, as the energy gap is quite small. However, the number of
electrons of Si or GaAs entering the conduction band would be far less due
to wider energy gap.
 Energy Band Structure
Insulator, Semiconductor & Metal
 A material can conduct electricity, if it has movable charge carriers. Free
electrons in conduction band, under an electric field, act as charge
carriers from one point to another.
 An Insulating Materials have large forbidden gap (> 5 eV). Due to this
valence band electrons cannot jump to conduction band except at very
high temperature or voltage. This is why insulators are bad conductors.
 Energy Band Structure
Insulator, Semiconductor & Metal
 A metal (Cu or Ag) has large number of free electrons at room temp.
 There is no forbidden energy gap due to overlapping of valence and
conduction bands.
 Valence band electrons can easily become free electrons without supply of
extra energy for flow of electric current. This is why metals are good
conductors.
 Energy Band Structure
Insulator, Semiconductor & Metal
 For Semiconductors, forbidden energy gap is not too wide (0.72 eV for Ge
and 1.12 eV for Si).
 Additional energy at room temp is sufficient to lift electrons from valence
band to conduction band.
 Therefore at room temp, semiconductors are capable of conducting some
electric current.
 Energy Band Structure
Insulator, Semiconductor & Metal
 An electron in the valence band of silicon must absorb more energy than
one in the valence band of germanium to become a free carrier.
 Similarly an electron in the valence band of gallium arsenide must gain
more energy than one in silicon or germanium to enter the conduction band.
 The difference in energy gap requirements reveals the sensitivity of each
type of semiconductor to changes in temperature.
 Energy Band Structure
Insulator, Semiconductor & Metal
 Energy gap between the valence and conduction band is expressed in eV
(electron-Volt). This Unit of measure is derived from an expression for
W(energy) = Q.V
It expresses the amount of work done to move an electron through a potential
of 1 volt. W = Q.V
= (1.6 X10-19 C) . (1 V)
= 1.6 X 10-19 Joules = 1 eV
 Mobility of Free Carriers in Intrinsic Materials
 Besides the number of carriers in the intrinsic material, relative mobility
of the carrier is a very important performance factor.
 Relative mobility (μn ) refers to the ability of the free carriers to move
throughout the material.
 Mobility of free carriers in different materials is shown below. Mobility
affects the response time of an electronic device.

 Free carriers in GaAs have more than five times the mobility of free
carriers in Si. Relative mobility affects the response times of electronic
devices. Higher the mobility better is the response time of a semiconductor
device.
 Electron-Hole Current in in Intrinsic
Semiconductors
In Conductors: Electrons cause currents (unipolar charge movement).
In Semiconductors: Current is caused by electrons and holes (bipolar
charge carriers). Electrons cause electron current and holes cause
hole current

Conduction Band
Electron flow

Valence Band

Electron Hole Flow

hole
 Extrinsic Semiconductors

 A semiconductor with impurity less than 1 part in 100 million parts of

qualifies as intrinsic semiconductor. However, a perfect (intrinsic)
semiconductor material with no impurities is not of much use.
 Since, electrical Characteristics of a semiconductor material can be altered
significantly by the addition (doping process) of specific impurity atoms to
the relatively pure semiconductor material, useful material can be obtained
for fabricating semiconductor devices.
 A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process
is called an Extrinsic Semiconductor. Impurity atoms are called Dopants.
 There are two extrinsic materials used for fabrication of semiconductor
devices:
 n -type obtained by using Donor Type Dopant
 p –type obtained by using Acceptor Type Dopant
 Extrinsic Semiconductor – n Type
 Donor Type Dopants are pentavalent
elements from Group-V (Sb, As or P) of
periodic table.
 Impurity atom with 5 valence electrons
replaces Si atom in its crystalline structure.
Four electrons of impurity atom form
covalent bonds with 4 Si atoms. 5th electron
cannot form covalent bond and requires
little energy (0.01eV for Ge and 0.05eV for
Si) to free itself.
 At room temperature, each impurity atom
donates one free electron to the conduction
band. Donated electrons are excess
electrons in addition to thermally generated
electrons.
 Since electrons are the majority carriers, this is called N-Type
Semiconductor.
 5th electron, when free, leaves behind +vely charged immobile ion of
impurity atom.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors – n Type
Addition of donor impurity creates a
discrete energy level just below the
conduction band.
Free electrons due to the added impurity
sit at this energy level and require less
energy as compared to electrons of
parent material to move into the
conduction band at room temperature
resulting in large number of free carriers
in the conduction band. This increases the
conductivity significantly.
At room temperature,
intrinsic Si has about one free electron
for every 1012 atoms.
If impurity level is 1 in 107 atoms,
Ratio 1012 /107 =105 indicates that carrier
concentration increases by 100,000:1.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors - p Type
p- Type Extrinsic semiconductor is
obtained by adding Trivalent Acceptor
Type dopants, which have 3 electrons
in valence shell. Group-III elements
Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga)
and Indium(In) fall in this category.
Impurity atom with 3 valence electrons
replaces Si atom in its crystalline
structure to form covalent bonds with 3
silicon atoms, 4th Si electron cannot
form covalent bond. Hence there is a
vacancy for an electron which is called
a Hole. This attracts electrons from
neighboring bonds.
An electron from an atom in the vicinity
can acquire additional energy of 0.01eV
to jump & occupy the vacant position. At
room temp, this energy can be easily
attained.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors - p Type
Addition of Acceptor Type atoms creates
an allowable discrete energy level just
above VB.
A very small energy is required by an
electron to leave VB and occupy acceptor
energy level leaving a hole behind in VB.
Addition of impurity due to doping, results
in increase of concentration of holes,
consequently concentration of free
electrons decreases.
Thus due to doping concentration, holes
are the majority carriers. Hence, such
material with acceptor type impurities is
called P-Type Semiconductor.
 Charge Carriers in P-Type Semiconductor
 When an electron jumps from adjacent covalent bond to fill the
vacancy in the incomplete bond around the impurity atom, following
happens:-
 A vacancy is created in the adjacent bond from where the electron
jumps, which has a +ve charge associated with it (hole).
 Due to filling of vacancy in the impurity atoms, it becomes a -ve ion
which is immobile due to its tightly held position in the crystal.
 There is, therefore, a transfer of holes to the left and electrons to the
right, as shown below. The direction of hole flow is treated as the
conventional flow.
 Majority and Minority Charge Carriers
 Number of free electrons in intrinsic Ge or Si is only due to electrons in
the valence band that have acquired sufficient energy from external
sources to break the covalent bond. Vacancies left behind in the covalent
bonds represent very limited supply of holes.
 In an n -type material, the number of holes does not change significantly
from its intrinsic level. However, the number of free electrons far outweighs
the number of holes due added impurities. Thus in an n-type material,
electrons are the majority carriers and the holes the minority carrier.
 Similarly, in a p-type material, holes are the majority carriers and the
electrons the minority carrier.
 Majority and Minority Charge Carriers
 When the fifth electron of a donor atom leaves the parent atom, the atom
remaining acquires a net positive charge: hence the plus sign in the figure
below represents a Donor-Ion.
 Similarly, when an acceptor-atom acquires an electron due breaking of an
adjacent covalent bond, the acceptor atom acquires a net negative
charge: hence the minus sign in the figure below represents a Acceptor-
Ion.
 The n - and p -type materials represent the basic building blocks of
semiconductor devices.
Is an Extrinsic Semiconductor Electrically Neutral?
 n-type semiconductor has -ve charges as major charge carriers.
However, intrinsic or doped semiconductor with minority is
electrically neutral.
 Types of charges in N-type semiconductor:

Negative charge carriers (electrons) donated by donor

atoms. Negative charge of these electrons is balanced by
immobile ions.
Free electrons and holes generated in pair due thermal
energy balance each other electrically
Consequently, the semiconductor is electrically neutral .
 p -type material is electrically neutral, for the same reasons
described for the n -type material.
 Effect of Temperature on Extrinsic
Semiconductors
 Addition of small amount of donor or acceptor type impurity produces
large number of charge carriers in an extrinsic semiconductor.
Hence, conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is many times higher
than an intrinsic semiconductor.
 If temperature of N-type semiconductor is raised beyond the room
temperature, concentration of thermally generated minority charge
carriers (electron-hole pairs) increases due to breaking of covalent
bonds.
 Eventually at a particular temperature, number of holes becomes
approximately equal to number of electrons. At this temperature,
extrinsic semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor.
 This is critical temperature of operation is 85o C for Ge and 200o C for
Si.
 Effect of Temperature on Extrinsic
Semiconductors
 Addition of small amount of donor or acceptor type impurity produces
large number of charge carriers in an extrinsic semiconductor.
Hence, conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is many times higher
than an intrinsic semiconductor.
 If temperature of N-type semiconductor is raised beyond the room
temperature, concentration of thermally generated minority charge
carriers (electron-hole pairs) increases due to breaking of covalent
bonds.
 Eventually at a particular temperature, number of holes becomes
approximately equal to number of electrons. At this temperature,
extrinsic semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor.
 This is critical temperature of operation is 85o C for Ge and 200o C for
Si.
End