Engineering Physics-I PH 6151

UNIT-II

Properties of Matter

Prepared by
Dr.N.R.SHEELA (Asst.Prof)
Dept. Of Applied Physics
SVCE
 Content of the UNIT-II (Properties of Matter)

Elasticity-Hooke’s Law- Relationship between three

modulii of elasticity (ualitative)-Stress- Strain diagram-
Poisson’s ratio-Factors affecting elasticity-Bending
moment-Depression of a cantilever-Young’s modulus by
uniform bending- I-shaped Girders
 Elastic Properties of Matter

An elastic body is one that returns to its original shape after

a deformation.

Golf Ball Rubber Band Soccer Ball

 Elastic Properties of Matter

An inelastic body is one that does not return to its original shape
after a deformation.

Dough or Bread Clay Inelastic Ball

 Elastic or Inelastic?

An elastic collision loses no In an inelastic collision, energy

energy. The deform-ation on is lost and the deformation
collision is fully restored. may be permanent.
 An Elastic Spring
A spring is an example of an elastic body that can be
deformed by stretching.

A restoring force, F, acts in

the direction opposite the
F displacement of the oscillating
x body.

F = -kx
 Stress and Strain
Stress refers to the cause of a deformation, and
strain refers to the effect of the deformation.

The downward force F

causes the displacement x.

F Thus, the stress is the force;

x
the strain is the elongation.
 Types of Stress
F
A tensile stress occurs when equal
and opposite forces are directed
away from each other. W
Tension

A compressive stress occurs when W

equal and opposite forces are
F
directed toward each other.
Compression
 Types of Strain
Strain

Longitudinal Volumetric Shear

Strain Strain Strain
Longitudinal strain
Longitudinal strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of
the change in length of the body due to the deformation to its original
length in the direction of the force.
Change in Length l
Longitudinal Strain  
original length l
L A
F
A


L
 Types of Strain

Volumetric Strain
Volumetric strain of a deformed body is defined as the
ratio of the change in volume of the body to the
deformation to its original volume.

Change in volume V
Volume Strain  
original volume V
 Types of Strain

Shear strain

Shear strain is defined as the strain accompanying a shearing

action.

Shear strain () of cube = CC’ / CD = CC’ / BC

= Deformation / Original length.

 Longitudinal Stress and Strain
For wires, rods, and bars, there is a
longitudinal stress F/A that produces
a change in length per unit length. In
L A such cases:
F
A

L

F L
Stress  Strain 
A L
 Example 1. A steel wire 10 m long and 2
mm in diameter is attached to the ceiling
and a 200-N weight is attached to the end.
What is the applied stress?
First find area of wire:

D 2
 (0.002 m) 2
L A
F
A 
A 4 4

L A = 3.14 x 10-6 m2

Stress
F 200 N
Stress   6.37 x 107 Pa
A 3.14 x 10-6 m2
 Example 1 (Cont.) A 10 m steel wire
stretches 3.08 mm due to the 200 N load.
What is the longitudinal strain?
Given: L = 10 m; L = 3.08 mm
L 0.00308 m
L
Srain  
L 10 m
L Longitudinal Strain

3.08 x 10-4
 The Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the maximum stress a body can
experience without becoming permanently deformed.

2m F 2m

W Beyond limit
F W
Stress 
A W
If the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the final length will be
longer than the original 2 m.
 The Ultimate Strength
The ultimate strength is the greatest stress a body can experience
without breaking or rupturing.

2m F

W
F W W
Stress 
A W W
If the stress exceeds the ultimate strength, the string
breaks!
 Hooke’s Law
When a spring is stretched, there is a restoring force that is
proportional to the displacement.

F = -kx
x K is the spring constant and is a
property of the spring .
F
m
Hooke’s law states that stress is
proportional to strain upto elastic limit
Stress α Strain
Stress = E x Strain
Modulus of elasticity (E) = Stress/ Strain
 Poisson's ratio

l
Longitudinal elongation strain 
L
d
and Lateral contraction strain 
D
Lateral contraction strain

Longitudinal elongation strain
It is the ratio of two similar quantities, therefore it has
no unit and dimensions. It is a pure number. It's
d l L d
maximum value is 0.5 and minimum value is -1. In   / 
most of the metals, its value is about 0.3. D L lD
 The Modulus of Elasticity
Provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded, an
elastic deformation (strain) is directly proportional
to the magnitude of the applied force per unit
area (stress).

stress
Modulus of Elasticity 
strain
 Young’s Modulus
For materials whose length is much greater than the
width or thickness, we are concerned with the
longitudinal modulus of elasticity, or Young’s Modulus
(Y).

longitudinal stress
Young ' s modulus 
longitudinal strain

F/A FL
Y 
L / L A L
 Shear Modulus
A shearing stress alters only the shape of the body, leaving the volume
unchanged. For example, consider equal and opposite shearing forces F acting
on the cube below:

A d A

F
F l 

The shearing force F produces a shearing angle . The angle  is the

strain and the stress is given by F/A as before.

Rigidity Modulus (n) = Tangential Stress/ Shearing Strain N/m2

 Calculating Shear Modulus
d A
Stress is force
F per unit area: F
F l 
Stress 
A
The strain is the angle expressed d
in radians: Strain  
l
The shear modulus (n) is defined as the ratio of the shearing stress F/A to the
shearing strain 
F
The shear modulus: Units are n A
in Pascals or N/m2 
Example 5. A steel stud (S = 8.27 x 1010Pa) 1 cm in
diameter projects 4 cm from the wall. A 36,000 N
shearing force is applied to the end. What is the
defection d of the stud?
 D  (0.01 m)
2 2
l A 
d 4 4
Area: A = 7.85 x 10-5 m2
F

F A F A Fl Fl
S   ; d
 d l Ad AS
(36, 000 N)(0.04 m) d = 0.222 mm
d
(7.85 x 10-5 m2 )(8.27 x 1010 Pa)
 Volume Elasticity
Not all deformations are linear. Sometimes an applied
stress F/A results in a decrease of volume. In such cases,
there is a bulk modulus K of elasticity.

Volumestress  F / A
K 
Volumestrain v /V

The bulk modulus is negative because of

decrease in V.
 The Bulk Modulus
Volumestress  F / A
K 
Volumestrain v /V

Since F/A is generally pressure P, we may write:

Volumestress FP/ A  PV
K B  
Volumestrain V
v /V
/V V
Units remain in Pascals (Pa) since the strain is
unitless.
 Relationship between three modulii of Elasticity
Relations connecting the lateral strain(),longitudinal strain(),Poisson’s
ratio() and the three elastic modulii.

(i) Relation between  and Y is  = 1

Y
1
(ii) Relation between  and  with the Bulk modulus is -2 =
3K

(iii) Relation between  and  with the Rigidity modulus is     1

9 Kn 2n
y
(iv) Relation between Y, n and K is
3K  n
(v) Relation between n, K and  is 3K  2n

6 K  2n

(vi) Relation between Y, n and  is Y

 1
2n
ultimate Stress-Strain Diagram
tensile
strength
 UTS
3 necking

Strain
yield Hardening Fracture
strengt
h y 5
2 Elastic region
slope =Young’s (elastic)
Plastic
Region modulus
yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic
Region strain hardening
σ Eε 4
fracture
σ 1
E
ε E
σy
 ) (L/Lo)
Strain (
ε 2  ε1
 Stress-Strain Diagram
• Elastic Region (Point 1 –2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.
σ
E
σ Eε or ε
σ : Stress
ε : Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus)
E : Strain

Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent

deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
 Stress-Strain Diagram
• Tensile Strength (Point 3)
The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS).
• It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
• Fracture (Point 5)
• If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
• Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
 Stress-Strain Diagram
Strain Hardening
 If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the curve will
follow back to Point 3 with the same Elastic Modulus
(slope).
 The material now has a higher yield strength of Point 4.
 Raising the yield strength by permanently straining the
material is called Strain Hardening.
 Factors Affecting Elasticity

Body loses its elastic

Effect of cyclic
property even within
elastic limit, due to
stress
elastic fatigue. Apart
from elastic fatigue,
Effect of
some materials will
have change in their
temperature
property due to these Effect of
factors
impurities
Factors Effect of
annealing
Effect of nature
of crystals
 Bending of Beams
Beam:
 A beam is defined as a rod or bar.

 Circular or rectangular of uniform cross section whose length is

very much greater than its other dimensions, such as breadth and
thickness.

 It is commonly used in the construction of bridges to support

roofs of the buildings etc.

 Since the length of the beam is much greater than its other
dimensions the shearing stresses are very small.
 Bending of a Beam and Neutral axis
• A beam may be assumed to consist of a number of parallel longitudinal metallic
fibers placed one over the other and are called as filaments.

• Let the beam be subjected to deforming forces at its ends, due to which it bends.

• Let us consider a filament AB at the centre of the beam.

• It is found that the filaments (layers) lying above AB gets elongated, while the
filaments lying below AB gets compressed.
• Therefore the filament i.e. layer AB which remains unaltered taken as the
reference axis called as Neutral axis and the plane is called as neutral plane.
• Further, the deformation of
any filament can be measured
with reference to the neutral axis.
Bending moment of beam
• The moment of couple due to elastic reactions (restoring couple)
which balances the bending couple due to applied load is called the
bending moment.
• Let us consider a beam under the action of deforming forces. The
beam bends into a circular arc.
 Let PQ be the neutral axis of the beam and P’ Q’ be another filament at
distance y from PQ.

If R is the radius of curvature of the neutral axis of the and  is the angle
subtended by it at its centre of curvature ‘C’.

Then we can write original length PQ = Radius x Angle

= R .................(1)

If R+y is the radius of curvature of the filament P’Q’.

P’Q’ = (R+y) ...........(2)

Extension Produced in the filament P’Q’

Due to bending = P’Q’- PQ
= (R+y)-R
= y ............(3)
Extension produced
The strain on the filament
Original length
 = y  y ............(4)
R R
The Young’s modulus of the filament P’Q’
Stress
Y=
Strain
Stress  Y Strain
Yy ............(5)
z
R
If A is the area of cross-section of the filament, then the force on the Filament.
F Stress Area
Yy
=
a
R
Y
F  ay
R
We know, moment of longitudinal force about the neutral axis
 = Force x distance

=Fxy
Y
= ay 2
R
The moment of all the forces about the
Y
. Neutral axis  ay..............(7)
2

R
Here, Ig = ay2 = AK2 is called as the geometrical moment of inertia.

Where, A – Total area of the beam

K – Radius of Gyration

Total moment of all the forces(or)

YI g
Internal bending moment 
R
Case (i) Case (ii)

Rectangular section Circular section

bd 3  r2
Ig  Ig 
12 4

Hence, bending moment for a rectangular Hence bending moment for a circular
section section
= Y bd 3
Y  r4
...............(9) = ..............(10)
R 12 R 4
 Uniform Bending – Elevation at the centre of the beam
loaded at both ends.

• Let us consider a beam AB of negligible mass, supported symmetrically on two

knife edges C and D .
• It is loaded with equal weight W at each end.
• Let ‘l’ be the length between the two knife edges and ‘a’ be the length between
the knife edge and the load.
 CD = l and CA =DB = a
• Due to the applied load the beam
bends into an arc of circle
and produces an elevation ‘y’.
• Let P be any section of the beam.
• At the equilibrium position of the section PA of the beam two equal
forces, the applied load W at A (download) and the normal reaction W
at C (upward) are acting in the opposite direction constitute a couple.
The External bending moment = Wa ...................(1)
YI g
Internal bending moment  .................(2)
R
Where, R is the radius of curvature.

At Equilibrium,
External bending moment = Internal bending moment

YI g ................(3)
W a
R
Since, Wa is a constant, R is also constant. Therefore the beam bends into an arc of a
circle of radius R. Hence the bending in this case is said to be uniform.
From the figure,

2R  y y  
l l
2 2

If, R>>>y then 2R-y = 2R

l2
2 Ry 
4

l2
R  ...............(4)
8y
Substituting (4) in (3)

Y I g 8 y 
Wa 
l2
Wal 2
 The Elevation y
8YI g
When, the Elevation y is measured, Young’s modulus of the material of the beam can
be calculated as,
Wal 2
Y
8 yI g
Case (i): Case (ii):
Rectangular Section Circular Section

bd 3 r 4
Ig  Ig 
12 4
Wal 12 2 Wal 2 4
y  3 y  4
8Y bd 8Y r
2
3W al Wal 2
y y
2Ybd 3 2Y r 4
 Experiment

Construction:

A rectangular beam AB of uniform – section is supported horizontally on

two knife – edges A and B as shown in Figure.

Two weight hangers of equal masses are suspended from the ends of
the beam.
A pin is arranged vertically at the mid-point of the beam.
A microscope is focused on the tip of the pin.
 Procedure

• A dead loads are attached to the hangers.

• The microscope is adjusted such that the horizontal cross-wire

coincides with the tip of the image of the pin and the readings on
the vertical scale are taken.

• Equal weights in steps of 50g are added to both hangers simultaneously

and the reading of the microscope in the vertical scale is noted.

• The experiment is repeated for decreasing order of magnitude

of the equal masses.

• The observations are then tabulated and the mean elevation (y) at the
mid point of the bar is determined.
 Procedure
s.no Load Microscope reading mean (M/y)
Kg

Loading Unloading Elevation(y)

MSR VSC div TR div MSR VSC div TR div X10-2m metre Kg/m
Cm cm

1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

5 W+200
 Procedure

• The mean elevation ‘y ‘produced by an addition of M say 50 gm is found

by the formula.

Wal 2
y ....................... (1)
8YI g
If the given beam is rectangular in shape

bd 3
Ig  ..................... (2)
12
Where’ b’ is the breadth and ‘d’ is the thickness of the beam.
Also, the weight W = Mg
Substitute (2) and (3) in (1) we have,
Mg al 2 12
y ....................... (3)
8Y bd 3
 3Mg al 2
y
2Ybd 3
• The length of the bar between the knife edges ‘l’ is measured.
• The distance of one of the weight hangers from the nearest knife edge
‘a’ is measured.
• The breadth (b) and thickness (d) of the bar are measured by
using vernier calipers and screw gauge.
• The young’s modulus of the material of the beam is determined
by the relation.
3Mg al 2 N
Y 2
2 ybd 3 m

3g al 2  M  N
Y 3 
  2
2bd  y  m
Graphical method (or) Dynamical method

 A graph is drawn between load (M) along x axis and elevation (y)
along y axis.
 It is found to be a straight line as shown in fig.
 The slope of the straight line gives the value of y/M.

1/slope = AC/BC = M/y

Hence Young’s modulus can be calculated as

2
3gal 1 N
Y 2 orPa
2bd Slope m
3
DEPRESSION OF A CANTILEVER
Cantilever:
It is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded at the other end.

Theory
Let us consider a beam fixed at one end and loaded at its other free end as
shown in fig.

• Let AB is the neutral axis of a cantilever (a beam or rod)of length ‘l’ is fixed
at the end A and loaded at the free end B by a weight W.

• The end B is depressed to B’.

BB’ represents the vertical depression at the free end.
• BB’ represents the vertical depression at the free end.
• Due to the load applied at the free end, a couple is created between the
two forces. (i.e)

(i) Force (load ‘W’) applied at the free end towards downward direction and
(ii) Reaction (R) acting in the upward direction at the supporting end.

• This external bending couple tends to bend the beam in the clockwise
direction.

• But, since one end of the beam is fixed, the beam cannot rotate.
• Therefore the external bending couple must be balanced by another equal
and opposite couple, created due to the elastic nature of the body called as
internal bending moment .

• Consider the section of the cantilever P at a distance ‘x’ from the fixed end
A.

• Q is an other point at a distance dx from P i.e., PQ = dx.

• It is at a distance (l-x) from the loaded end B’.

• Considering the equilibrium of the portion PB’, there is a force of reaction

W of P.

• The external bending moment=W x PB’= W (l-x)………(1)

YI
• Internal bending moment of the cantilever =
R
 Where Y–Young’s modulus of the cantilever.

I - Geometrical moment of inertia of its cross-section.

R - Radius of the curvature of the neutral axis at P.

In the equilibrium position,

External bending moment = Internal bending moment

YI g
w(l  x)
R
YI g
R
wl  x 
• Since P and Q are very near, we can assume that the radius of curvature R is
practically the same.

• The tangents are drawn at P and Q meeting the vertical line BB’ at C and D.

• Let d be the angle between the tangents at P and Q.

• Since P and Q are very near, we can assume that the radius of curvature R is
practically the same.

• The tangents are drawn at P and Q meeting the vertical line BB’ at C and D.

• Let d be the angle between the tangents at P and Q.

Length dx = radius x angle = Rd

dx
Then the angle POQ = d 
R

Substituting the value of R from (2) in (3), we have

dxW (l  x)
d  …………….(4)
YI g
• If dy is the depression due to the curvature at PQ

dy l  x d ……………(5)

Substituting value of d,

 dxW l  x 
 dy l  x  
 YI g 
W l  x  dx
2

 ……(6)
Yi g
Total depression at the free end of the cantilever

l
W (l  x) dx
l 2

y  dy  
0 0 YI g
 W l
  
0 l  x dx
2

YI g


W l 2
0 l  x 2
 2 xl dx
YI g
l
W  2 x 2 xl 
2 2

 l x 
YI g  3 2  0

W  3 l3 3 
 l  l  ……(7)
YI g  3 
Depression of the cantilever at free end
3
W l
y
YI g 3
 Wl 3 Mgl 3
Y 
3 yI g 3 yI g
If the depression y is measured, Young’s modulus of the material of the beam can
be calculated as

Case (i) Rectangular Section Case (ii) Circular section

In the case of rectangular section, In the case of circular section,
bd 3 r 4
Ig  Ig 
12 4
where b is the breadth and d is the thickness where r is the radius
of the beam.Hence, the depression of a cantilever of Hence, the depression of a
cantilever of circular section,
rectangular section 3
W l
y y
Wl 3 4
 4
YI g 3 3Y r
4Wl 3 4Wl 3
y y
Ybd 3 3Yr 4
Graphical method (or) Dynamical method

 A graph is drawn between load (M) along x axis and elevation (y)
along y axis.
 It is found to be a straight line as shown in fig.
 The slope of the straight line gives the value of y/M.

1/slope = AC/BC = M/y

Hence Young’s modulus can be calculated as

2
3gal 1 N
Y 2 orPa
2bd Slope m
3
Experimental determination of Young’s modulus by Cantilever Depression
Construction:

• One end of the beam is rigidly clamped at one end to the edge
of the table using G- clamp.

• A tall pin P is fixed vertically to the free end of the bar.

• A loop of cotton string or a hook is attached to this end of the bar

and a weight hanger is suspended from it.

• A travelling microscope is focused on the tip of the pin as shown in fig.

Procedure:

• A dead load without any slotted weights is attached to the hook.

• The microscope is adjusted such that the horizontal cross wire coincides
with the tip of the image of the pin and the reading on the vertical scale is
taken.

• Loads are added to the hanger in steps of 50g and every time, the
readings are noted on the vertical scale.

• A travelling microscope is focused on the tip of the pin as shown in fig.

• These observations are also repeated while unloading in the same

Steps and the readings are tabulated.
• The mean depression ‘y’ for a load ‘M’ kg is found from the
tabulated readings.

The observations are tabulated as follows

• A girder is a support beam used in construction.
• Girder is the term used to denote the main horizontal
support of a structure, which supports smaller beams.
• A girder is commonly used more in the building of bridges
and planes.
I-Shape Girders
• The girders with upper and lower section broadened and
the middle section tapered, so that it can withstand heavy
loads over it is called as I-shape girders.
• The cross section of the girder takes the shape of the capital letter I
as shown in fig.
• The vertical plate in the middle is known as the web and the top
and bottom plates are referred to as flanges, steel is one of the
most common material used to make I- beams, since it can
withstand very heavy loads, although other materials, such as
aluminium are sometimes used.
• When a beam is used as a girder for a given load, depression must be
minimum.

• We know that the depression at the mid point of a beam loaded at that
point is given by 3
4Mgl
y for a given load.
Ybd 3
Here, the depression can be minimised by,
• Decreasing the load (Mg)
• Decreasing the length (l)
• Increasing the Young’s modulus (Y)
• Increasing the breadth (b)
• Increasing the thickness of the girder (d)
• Since the length (l) and Young’s modulus (Y) of the beam are the fixed
quantity, it can not be altered.
• Therefore the breadth and thickness are adjusted to minimise the
depression.
• Thus the girders are made of I shape and are called I shape girders.
Applications of I- shape girders

•Support beam for commercial and residential construction.

•Support frames and columns for trolley ways, lifts and hoists.

•Construction of platforms.

•Trailer and truck bed framing.

•Construction of bridges.
•Machine bases.

•Iron rails exclude in railway tracks.